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THE FALL OF BABYLON. 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES, 



AND THE 



AMERICAN CITIZEN'S 

Treasury of Facts. 



A COMPREHENSIVE 



HAND-BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES, 

A COMPENDIUM OF AMERICAN HISTORT, AND OF THE FEDERAL 
GOVERNMENT, STRICTLY NON-PARTISAN; 



RECORD OF THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE STATES 
AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNION, 

TOGETHER WITH THE 

LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS, 

AND BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE REPRESENTATIVE MEN OF 

THE WORLD, AND OTHER INTERESTING MATTER; COMPILED 

FROM STATE PAPERS, PUBLIC DOCUMENTS, AND OTHER 

SOURCES OF STATISTICAL, FINANCIAL, AND 

OTHER USEFUL INFORMATION AT 

THE SEAT OF GOVERNMENT. 



i/ BY 

J. W. GOODSPEED. 



Mustratetr* 




CHICAGO: Q 

EMPIRE PUBLISHING HOUSE. 

..... ^/ 



A. L. BANCROFT & COMPANY, 

SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. 

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Entered for Copyright iSSi, by George Alderson. 
All Rights Reserved. 

Issued by Subscription only, and not for Sale in Bookstores. Residents of 

any State desirtng a Copy should address the Publishers, 

and an Agent will call on them. 



TO 

MY FELLOW CITIZENS 

OF 
OF EVERY NATIONALITY, 

iiiXS BOOK, WHICH IS PUT FORTH FOR THEIR G09£ c 

AND THAT OF THEIR CHILDREN, IS 

RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY 

THE AUTHOR. 



PREFACE. 



Six thousand years of history ! What man in this busy age 
can find the time to wade through exhaustive histories of two hund- 
red generations of men ? The first object of this book is to 
present a brief resume of Universal history, so that the reader 
may follow the march of time, and readily locate the great events 
of every century, and obtain a comprehensive view of all nations 
and all ages. 

The second great aim is to put into the possession of Ameri- 
cans a world of information regarding their own country. The 
early history of the colonies is followed by a condensed but com- 
prehensive record of the Revolution. The great events of the 
first hundred years of our national life are graphically sketched, 
including the lives of the presidents, political changes, our foreign 
wars, the Great Rebellion, and the Reconstruction that closes the 
century. Everything relating to our institutions which a citizen 
needs to know is presented with such an array of facts and sta- 
tistics as bring in full review the marvelous progress and devel- 
opment of the country in population, wealth and enlightenment, 
and make this pre-eminently the American citizen's Centennial 
volume. 

A third object of this work is to gather up the leading features 
and characteristics of the mighty men in various departments of 
human activity and present these for the study and guidance of 
the men of our times. 

The world's history is really the history of its great men. 
Pounders and reformers in religion, princes in finance, war, poli- 
tics and philosophy, including our own men of mark, and histor- 
ical names of other ages and countries are sketched, and their 
careers held up for approbation or warning. Naturally and neces- 
sarily much of our country's glorious history is condensed into 
the biographies of those who have made her prosperous, or are 
now controlling her destiny. The Chief Magistrates, exponents 
and representatives of opinions and parties, have their portraiture 
here. The rise of States is traced, and their position in the polit- 
ical heavens mapped out. Such a collection of facts renders this 



PREFACE. 

volume as interesting as a story and as helpful as a Cyclopaedia. 
The substance of many volumes is concentrated in this, and in 
such space and form that one can gather into his mind, in brief 
hours of leisure, the results of years of research and composition. 

In these days of the Press, books are multiplied until the 
attention is confused by their number and scope. It becomes a 
desideratum to find much matter compressed into a few pages, 
because time is money, and few can hunt through bushels of chaff 
for a few grains of wheat, or spend months over prolix histories 
and memoirs to glean what is needed for the actual necessities 
of information concerning questions of interest to the American, 
citizen and the man of affairs. 

Every reasonable exertion has been made to procure the best 
sources of knowledge concerning each person and topic treated 
in this work, and to arrange the matter in a succinct and readable 
form. From the immense scope of subjects here surveyed and 
illustrated, every person who reads the work will be sure to find 
something of deep interest and peculiar value to himself, and its. 
treatment and range is such as to constitute it, not an ephemeral 
thing, to be glanced at and cast aside, but a volume for frequent 
reference and recurring perusal. It is with this idea in view that 
the publisher has striven to impart to the work that thoroughness 
and attractiveness which shall give it welcome in the family and 
library of the masres of our intelligent countrymen. 

In the bulk of curious information concerning our political 
fabric, and the summaries of laws and enactments affecting indi- 
viduals, classes, and communities, it is intended to make the work 
essential — a sine-qua-non — to the people. 

In recognition of the universal love ot pictorial representation,, 
this volume is embellished with numerous illustrations, conveying,, 
through the eye, to the mind, just and vivid conceptions of many 
of the characters and objects described, and of monuments of 
human skill and power, which minister to the gratification or the 
necessities of mankind. 

Our International Centennial Exhibition was a grand success- 
It delighted its friends and silenced its enemies by the beauty and 
grandeur of its proportions, and by its positive and overwhelming 
success. It was a success of which the American people have 
especial cause to be proud, for it was entirely their work. The 
great International Exhibitions of Europe were carefully fostered 
by Government aid. The Centennial Exhibition, on the contrary,, 
was viewed with disfavor at first by the American Government, 
which withheld its aid until the indignant remonstrances of the 
people forced it to come forward and do its share in the work. 
It was admitted to be superior in completeness and splendor to any 
of the European Exhibitions. The deep interest manifested by 
all classes of our people in the Great Exhibition, has constrained 
the publisher to add its history to Footprints of the Ages. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Universal History is commonly divided into three portions : — 

I. Ancient History, which, beginning with the creation of the 
world, 4004 b. c, terminates a. d. 476, in the destruction of the 
Roman empire. 

II. The Middle Ages, which extend from the fall of Rome, a. d. 
476, to the discovery of America, a. d. 1492. 

III. Modern History, which commences at the latter epoch, 
and if we do not distinguish it from Contemporaneous History, 
is continued to the present time. 

The events which mark the separation between the First and 
Second periods, are the Irruption of the Barbarians, the conse- 
quent fall of the Western Empire, and the foundation of the 
modern European states ; between the Second and the Third are 
the extension of learning by the invention of printing, the taking 
of Constantinople, the maritime discoveries of Spain and Portu- 
gal, with the more extensive use of fire-arms. 

I. Ancient History may be subdivided into four periods : — 

1. The Antediluvian, comprising the creation, the fall of man 
with its immediate train of consequences, and ending with the 
general deluge, 2348 b. c. 

2. The Heroic, commencing with the establishment of the ear- 
liest empires and most ancient cities, and including the fabulous 
ages of Greece. 

3. The Historic, which begins with the first Olympiad, 776 b. c, 
nearly synchronous with the foundation of Rome, 753 b. c, and 
comprises the legislative eras of Lycurgus and Solon, the rise 
and fall of the Persian monarchy, and the earlier part of Roman 
history to the end of Punic wars. 

4. The Roman, from the fall of Carthage, 146 b. c, to that of 
Rome, a. d. 476. 

II. The Middle Ages maybe conveniently arranged in the fol- 
lowing six periods . — 

1. The foundation of the modern states of Western Europe, a. d. 
476-622, when the Saxons invaded Britain, 449 ; the Visigoths 
settled in Spain, 507 ; the Ostrogoths in Italy, 489, and the Franks 
began the formation of the French monarchy, a. d. 481. 



INTRODUCTION. 

2. The Second comprehends the age of Mohammed, with the 
propagation of his creed and the establishment of the states which 
embraced his religion, A. D. 622-800. 

3. The Third embraces the period when the empire of the West 
was partially restored in the Franco-Germanic dominions of 
Charlemagne, 800-936. 

4. The Fourth is the interesting period of the dark ages, 936- 
1100, during which the monarchy of Charlemagne fell to ruin, the 
Capetian dynasty began to reign in France, Italy was parcelled 
out among a number of petty princes; while in Germany Otho 
commenced the long-continued struggle against feudalism. 

5. The Fifth is the romantic or heroic period of the Crusades, 
1096-1273, in which the Roman legal code, the foundation of 
great part of modern jurisprudence, began to be studied. 

6. The Sixth beheld the revival of the Fine Arts in Italy, the 
taking of Constantinople and consequent diffusion of its learned 
men, the revival of letters, the discovery of America, 1492, and 
the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, 1497. 

III. Modern History may be conveniently divided into six 
portions : — 

1. The period of the Reformation, from its commencement by 
Luther, in 1517, till the termination of the long series of Italian 
wars, in 1559. 

2. The period of the religious wars, particularly in France, 
from 1559 to the peace of Westphalia, in 1648, which produced 
many important changes in Europe. 

3. The period from 1648 to the death of Louis XIV., in 1715, 
during which Russia entered into the European commonwealth, 
and Great Britain began to assume preponderating influence on 
the Continent. 

4. The Fourth period terminates with the peace of Versailles; 
1783, which established the independence of the United States, 
and during which Prussia became a first-rate power. 

5. The French Revolution, from the meeting of the States- 
general, in 1789, to the restoration of the Bourbons, in 18 15. 

6. The period from the battle of Waterloo, 18 15, to the present 
day. 



CONTENTS. 



HISTORY. 



Definition— The Caucasian Eace. This race, divided into three main branches, 
the Ayran or Indo-European— The Semitic— The Hamitic 1 

The Ayran branch, the most important— History divided into three divisions- 
Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern.. .. 8 

ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Egypt— Assyria— Babylonia— Jndea— Phoenicia— India and Persia— Cradle of the 
Human Race and of Civilization,— Southwestern Asia— Two Civilizations— One in 
the Nile valley, and one in the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris— Egypt the 
most encient civilization 3 

Date of Egyptian Civilization — History of Egypt, from first dynasty to its de- 
struction, divided into three periods— Egypt conquered — Government— People di- 
vided into Castes— Egyptian Art 4 

Pyramids— Their design— The Sacred Books of the Egyptians— Their Religion— 
Their Learning 5 

THE ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 

Their earliest history— The Tigro-Euphrates' Basin the seat of three Kingdoms, 
the Chaldean the oldest— Nimrod— Religion— Art and Letters— The Assyrian King- 
dom—Its rise and fall— Babylon captured 6 

Babylonia and Assyria conquered 7 

THE HEBREWS. 

Their History divided into four periods— The two kingdoms of the Hebrews- 
Israel and Judah— The Destruction of Israel and Judah— The Restoration of the 
Jews to their Homes by Cyrus.. 7 

PHOENICIA. 

The interesting character of its inhabitants— Inventors of the Alphabet ft 

HINDOOS. 

India Invaded by Alexander— Pour divisions of society, the Brahmins— the Ksha- 
tiyas— the Vaisyas— the Sudras- Language— Literature— Theology— Buddhism, Com- 
merce & 

PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

Persians and Medes of the same race— Sargon— Cyaxares— Cyrus— Darius— Re- 
ligion— Architecture— Commerce .... 11 

COMMERCE OP THE ANCIENTS. 

Babylonias— Phoenicians— Carthaginians— The commerce of Babylonia with Persia 
and Northern India, and with Ceylon— The Phoenicians the leading commercial 
people of Asia— Carthaginians— Manufactories and Commerce. 1£ 



Xiv CONTENTS. 

GREECE. 

Its History— Difference between Asiatic Monarchies and the Grecian Powers— 
^Eolians— Ionians — Dorians — Achians— Authentic History — Sparta— Lycurgus— 
Athens— Draco— Solon 13 

Marathon— Thermopylae— Plataea— Pure Democracy— Miltiades— Leonidas— Xerxes 
—Aristides— Pericles— Peloponnesian War— Its causes 14 

" Peace of Nicias "—Renewal of Peloponnesian War— Defeat of Athenians— Leuc- 
t ra— Thebes— Macedonia— Philip Alexander, his conquests, his death 16 

Lamian, Achaean, JStolian Leagues— Roman Province 17 

GRECIAN CIVILIZATION. 

Its Contribution to the World— Religion— Festivals— Literature— Iliad and Odyssey— 

Hesiod— Lyric Poetry— Drama— Herodotus— Thucydides. .Xenophon— Plutarch— 18 

Philosophy— Pythagoras— Socrates— Plato— Aristotle 21 

Grecian Art— Phidias and Praxiteles— Manner and Customs of the Greeks 22 

ROMAN EMPIRE 

Early History Traditional— Patricians and Plebeians— Servius Tullius— Tarquinius 
Superbus— Rome as a Republic— Early Wars— Gallic Invasions 23 

New Constitution— Golden Age of Roman Politics— Latins and Samnites Wars- 
Punic and Macedonian Wars— Carthage * 24 

Hamilcar— Hannibal Publius Scipio 25 

Carthage Destroyed— Macedonia and Greece Conquered—The Influence of Greece 
upon Rome— Roman Slavery— Decay of Roman Virtue 26 

The Gracchi— Sulla and Marius— The Jugurthine, Cimbri and Social Wars— 
Pompey and Crassus 27 

The Four Factions in Rome — Oligarchical— Marian— Aristocratic— Military— First 
Triumvirate— Gaul Conquered— Julius Caesar 28 

Cato— Fall of Republic— Julius Caesar, Dictator— His Assassination— The Second 
Triumvirate— Octavius Caesar, Emperor— Rome an Empire— Extent of Empire 31 

City of Rome— Birth of Christ— Roman History until Constantine, 32 

Theodosius— Empire divided— Christianity— Persecutions— Martyrdom 33 

Constantine— His Edict of Milan— Julian, the Apostate— Inroads oi the Northern 
Hordes, Alaric— Rome Captured and Pillaged 34 

Roman Life— Manners— Customs— The Toga— The Pallium— Dress of Ladies- 
Meals— Food— Baths— Theatres— Books— Marriage , 35 

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

Odoaces a Visigoth— Zeno, Emperor of the East— Theodoric Captures Rome— 
Theodoric Rules Rome— Justinian, Emperor of the East— The Lombards Overrun 
Italy— Franks— Clovis 36 

Charles Martel— Anglo-Saxons , . 37 

RISE OF THE SARACENS. 

Mohammed— Progress of Islamism— Constantinople Besieged— Northern Africa 
and Spain Overrun 38 



EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 

ary Enterprises— Extent of Empire 
Louis, his son— Empire of Charlemagne Divided 41 



Charlemagne, his Military Enterprises— Extent of Empire— Coronation— Death— 

■* Cha " 



THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 
Its Causes— Its Destruction 42 

GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 

The Beginning of its Temporal Power— Hildebrand.... : 42 

Henry IV.— Innocent III 43 



CONTENTS. XT 

THE CRUSADES. 

Their Object— Peter the Hermit— Nice, Antioch, and Jerusalem Captured— The 
Christian Kingdom— Its Duration— Saint Bernard— Damascus Besieged— Second 
Crusade 44 

Third Crusade— Richard of England— Philip of France— Frederic Barbaroasa of 
Germany— Saladin— Siege of Acre— Eminent Men— Bede— Alcuin- John Scotus— 
Pope Sylvester— Rise of Monarchism— Growth of Civilization— Hanseatic League. .. 45 

Roger Bacon— Albertus Magnus — Rise of Germany, France and Italy— Duke Con- 
rad—Henry the Saxon— Otho the Great — Rudolf I.— Frederick III.— Duke of France, 46 

Norseman — Normandy — William the Conqueror — Louis IX. — One Hundred Years 
War— King Egbert— Danes— Henry II.— Plantagenet 47 

King John — Magna Charta— Establishment of Parliament — War of the Roses — 
Gnelphs— Ghibellines— League of Lombardy— Peace of Constance— Venice and 
Florence \ « 48 

Lorenzo de Medici— Spain— Moors 49 

MODERN HISTORY. 

Byzantine Empire— Ottoman Turks— The rapid rise of this Power— Constanti- 
nople Besieged and Taken. 
Maritime Discoveries— Columbus— Cabots , 60 

GREAT EVENTS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENT [TRY. 

Charles the V.— Emperor Maximillian — Two Great Events— Protestantism— Pope 
Leo X.— Martin Luther— War between Charles V. and Francis I 

" Council of Trent "—Philip II.— Henry VII. . . Henry VIII 51 

Netherlands.. Inquisition.. William the Silent.. Dutch Republic. Peace of West- 
pha'ia.. John Calvin.. Huguenots 52 

Treaty of Germain.. Henry of Navarre. Catharine de Medici. .Massacre of St. 
Bartholomew.. Queen Elizabeth.. Puritans.. Mary Queen of Scots 53 

The Invincible Armada.. Death of the Virgin Queen 54 

GREAT EVENTS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

James I. of England— Characteristics of this Period— Charles I.— Long Par- 
liament-Royalists—Roundheads—Cromwell 55 

Battle of Naseby— Rump Parliament— King Charles Executed— The Common- 
wealth— Barebone's Parliament— The Restoration 56 

Charles II.— James II.— William and Mary— Bill of Rights—" Thirty Years War" 
— Gustavus Adolphus — Richelieu.. The War Ruinous to Germany 57 

AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 

The Greatest Period of French History.. Alliance of England, Holland and Swe- 
den.. Treaty of Aix La Chapelle 58 

Dutch Fleet. .Peace of Nimeguen.. Re vocation of the Edict of Nantes.. Emigra- 
tion of Huguenots.. Revolution of 1688.. Grand Alliance.. Treaty of Ryswick..War of 
t he >panish Succession 59 

Intellectual Activity.. Bacon .. Descartes .. Spinoza .. Galileo.. Kepler Newton.. 
Napier.. English Royal Society and the French Academy of Science Instituted.. 
The French Drama.. English Drama. .Literature.. Art.. Rubens.. Van Dykc.Mu- 
rillo..Salvator Rosa.. Sir Christopher Wren 60 

GREAT EVENTS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

Union of England and Scotland.. Whigs and Tories.. Queen Anne's Reign and 
Death .. George I... George II... George III... American Colonies.. Clive.. Warren 
Hastings.. India 81 

PRUSSIA. 

Frederick I. .. Frederick the Great.. First Silesian War.. Second Silesian War.. 
beven Years 1 War 69 



X71 CONTENTS. 

RUSSU 

A Blank until the 18th Century.. Held in Bondage two Centuries by Tartars.. 
Russia Delivered.. Peter the Great.. St. Petersburg Pounded.. Catherine II., sur- 
named the Great. .Poland Dismembered. .Alexander I. ..Alexander IT . , 63 

FRENCH REVOLUTION. 

Its Cause.. Louis XIV... Voltaire.. Rousseau.. Montesquieu D'Alembert.. States 
General Convoked.. Necker ~ 64 

National Assembly Constituted . . Mob in Paris . . Flight of the Nobles 65 

Entry of King and Queen into Paris.. Flight of the King.. His Return.. Legis- 
lative Assembly.. Three Factions.. Robespierre, Dan ton, Marat 86 

Tuilleries Attacked.. King and Family Imprisoned.. National Convention.. Trial 
of the King.. His Execution..'* Reign of Terror "..Suppression of the Sabbath.. 
Churches Closed - 67 

Guillotine.. Robespierre's Arrest and Execution.. New Constitution.. Directory.. 
Napoleon Bonaparte 68 

Progress of Civilization.. Democratic Ideas.. Metaphysical speculations.. Music 59 

Painting.. Sciences.. Inventions.. Steam Ed gine.. Spinning Jenny 70 

NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 

Consul and Emperor.. Russian Campaign.. First and Second.. Banishment.. 
Waterloo.. His Death.. Louis XVIII... George IV,.. William IV.. .Reform Bill. ..Re- 
form Parliament.. Victoria Crowned. .Corn Laws Repealed.. Crimean War 71 

Disestablishment of Irish Church.. Charles X., a Despot.. Second French Revo- 
lution.. Its Cause.. Louis Philippe Elected King.. Troubles of his Reign.. Louis 
Napoleon.. France a Republic. National Assembly.. Anarchy.. New Constitution... 72 

First President.. Assembly Dissolved.. Napoleon III. Proclaimed Emperor. .War 
between Austria and Sardinia. .Peace of Villat'ranca. .War between France and Prus- 
sia.. Napoleon a Prisoner.. France again a Republic. Italy.. Pius IX... Revolution 

in Lombardy, 73 

Garibaldi. .Victor Emanuel . .German Confederation 74 

William I.. Bismarck .Schleswi?-Holstein..War between Prussia and Austria.. 

Union of North German States.. William of Prussia, Emperor of Germany 75 

War between Russia and Turkey.. Its Cause 76 

Turkey Couquered.. Preliminary Terms of Peace Signed 79 

Spain. .France. .Asia. .Africa. .United States 79 

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 8o 

Settlement of Greenland — Colonies lost in the Fifteenth Century — The Scandi, 
nayian Discoverers — Theories of Columbus — Distrust of Portugal and Great 
Britain — Assisted by Ferdinand and Isabella — Voyages — Discovery of the 
New World — Amerigo Vespucci, the Pretender — Oldest Town in America—* 
Oldest Town Settled by English— Taxation of the Provinces— Refusal of 
the Colonies to submit — Stamp Act Repealed — The Struggle begun. 

FORMATION OF THE ORIGINAL UNION , 84 

OUR CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

THE DISRUPTION WITH ENGLAND 86 

First Colonial Congress— The causes which created it— England's oppression 
—Restriction of home production— English Parliament declares the right 
to tax America— The Colonists protest— The stamp Act passed— Strong 
opposition from the Colonies— Franklin called before The House of Com- 
mons—The stamp Act repealed— A second attempt to tax America— Tea 
thrown overboard in Boston Harbor— Second Colonial Congress meets at 
Philadelphia— The Colonists prepare for War. 



CONTENTS. Xvii 

THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR . ^j 

Lexington and Concord — Ticonderoga and Crown Point — Bunker Hill — The 
Continental Congress — George Washington appointed Commander in Chief — 
Raising an Army — Evacuation of Boston by Lord Howe — Independence De- 
clared. 

Capture of New York by the British— The Dark Hour of the War— Washing- 
ton recrosses the Delaware — Trenton — Battle of Brandywine — Surrender of 
Burgoyne — Coalition with France — Battle Of Monmouth — Savannah cap- 
tured — Disasters of 1779 — Tne enemy capture Charleston — Benedict Arnold 
— -Discouragement — General Greene in the South — Lafayette's Successes in 
Virginia — Cornwallis Surrenders at Yorktown— England wearies of the 
War — Peace and Independence — Articles of Confederation — Congress of 
1787 — Constitution adopted. 

After the Revolution 94 

the declaration of independence - 96 

the federal constitution - tot 

Amendments to the Constitution — Fifteen Proposed and Adopted. 113 

FATHERS OF THE REPUBLIC . 120 

PRESIDENTIAL ADMINISTRATIONS. 

WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION, TWO TERMS 122 

Organizing the Government — Judiciary Established — Departments Constituted 

— United States Bank — Loan Negotiated — Taxes — Whisky Insurrection — 

Conflict with the Indians in Ohio Valley — Final Overthrow by Gen. Wayne 

— North Carolina — Vermont — Tennessee — Kentucky admitted to the Union, 

JOHN ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION, ONE TERM 122 

Federalists and Democrats — War with France Imminent — Washington made 
Commander in Chief — The Directory make Overtures of Peace — Death of 
Washington — Seat of Government removed from Philadelphia to Washington 
— Alien and Sedition Laws — Defeat of Federalists. 

JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION, TWO TERMS 123 

Internal Revenue System — Ohio admitted — Louisiana Purchased — The Pirates 
ofBarbary — Aaron Burr — English Encroachments on our Commerce — Indians 
Incited — Country Aroused — War in Prospect. 

MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION, TWO TERMS 23 

Harrison Destroys the Power of the Western Indians — Policy of Jefferson con- 
tinued — Efforts to obtain Justice from England — War Declared. 

THE WAR OF l8l2-l8l4 I24 

Reverses on Land at Mackinaw, Detroit, Queenstown — Glorious successes on the 
Sea by Hull, Decatur and Bainbridge — Campaign of 18 13 — Division of the 
Forces — Perry's Victory on Lake Erie — Battle of the Thames, Harrison Vic- 
torious — Tecumseh Slain — Jackson humbles Southern Indians — Lawrence 
destroys the Peacock — His Ship Captured by the Shannon — Winfield Scott at 
Fort Erie and Lundy's Lane- — Battle of Plattsburg — Depredations on the 
Atlantic Coast — The Capitol Burned — Gen. Jackson in Florida — Battle of 
New Orleans — Peace — War Debt — Second National Bank — Tripoli reduced 
by Decatur. 

MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION, TWO TERMS 125 

Purchase of Florida — Slavery — Missouri Compromise — The"Monroe Doctrine.' 

J. Q. ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION, ONE TERM 126 

Remarkable Prosperity — Internal Improvements — First Railroad — Erie Canal 
— Commerce and Manufactures — President's Policy — Death of John Adams 
and Thos. Jefferson. 

2 



XV111 CONTENTS. 

JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION, TWO TERMS 126 

Opposition Office Holders removed — Calhoun and Nullification — Secession 
threatened in S. Carolina — Prompt Action of Jackson — Clay's Compromise — 
End of United States Bank— Black Hawk War — Florida War— Gen. Taylor. 

VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION, ONE TERM 120, 

Panic of 1837 — Suspension of Banks-Repudiation — United States Treasury 
— Treasury Notes — Continued Hard Times — Revolution in Politics. 

HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATIONS, ONE TERM 120. 

Death of Harrison — General Bankrupt Act — Tyler's Disappointment of the 
Whigs — Resignation of the Cabinet — Northwest Boundary — Annexation of 
Texas. 

POLK'S ADMINISTRATION, ONE TERM..,- 120, 

MEXICAN WAR I2Q. 

First Skirmish — Gen. Taylor — Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma — Volunteers 
called out — Popular Enthusiasm — Santa Fe — Monterey — Chihuahua — Fre- 
mont takes Possession of California — Buena Vista — Gen. Scott invests Vera 
Cruz — Cerro Gordo — Capture of Jalapa and Puebla — Contreras— Cherubusco— 
Chapultapec — Capture of Mexico — Peace — Results of the War. 

TAYLOR'S AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION, ONE TERM. I3O 

Political Issue — Slavery — Compromise — Fugitive Slave Law — Universal Dis- 
satisfaction — Secession — Conventions — Death of Pres. Taylor — Discovery of 
Gold in California — Emigration. 

PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION, ONE TERM.. _ I3I 

Missouri Compromise Repealed — Collisions in Kansas — Commercial Treaty 
with Japan — Dred Scot Decision — The Irrepressible Conflict between 
Slavery and Freedom — Political Campaign of 1856. 

BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION, ONE TERM __„ „ 131 

Slavery Agitations — Panic of 1857 — Utah Expedition — John Brown — Presi- 
dential Canvass of i860 — Candidates — Election of Lincoln — Palmetto Flag 
hoisted in Charleston — Major Anderson sent to Fort Moultrie — Infamy of 
Buchanan — South Carolina Secedes — Forts siezed by Southern States — Mis- 
sissippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, etc., Secede 
— Southern Confederacy. 

LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, TWO TERMS I33 

THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES, 

THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 133 

Secession of States— Beauregard Commands Southern Troops— Bombardment 
of Fort Sumter— Lincoln's Proclamation,— Call for 75,000 Volunteers— Mas- 
sachusetts Troops Attacked in Baltimore— More Troops called out— Gen. Mc- 
Clellan— Virginia Invaded— West Virginia— Big Bethel— Boonville— First 
War Loan— Battle of Carthage— Southern Senators expelled— Rich Mountain 
— Garncks Ford— Call for 500,000 Men authorized— Bull Run— Wilson 
d 6 «r2, ea £ ° f L y° n — Forts Hatteras and Clark captured— Cornifax Ferry 
~"T o I s , , uff ~ Cam P Wild Cat— Romney— Winfield Scott Resigns— Mason 
and blidell— Davis elected President of Confederacy. 

CAMPAIGN OF l862 ! 34 

MMsprings— Fort Henry— Forts on Roanoke Island— Fort Donelson— Pea 
Kidge— Mernmac and Monitor— Newburn— Winchester— Pittsburg Landing 



CONTENTS. XIX 

—Island No. 10— Fair Oaks— Cross Keys— Six Days Battle— Call for 300,= 
000 Volunteers— Draft Ordered— Cedar Mountain— Second Bull Run- 
South Mountain — Antietam — Emancipation Proclamation — Fredericksburg 
— Vicksburg — Murfreesborough. 

CAMPAIGN OF 1863 I36 

Emancipation — Attack on Charleston— Red River Expedition — Second Defeat 
at Fredericksburg — Death of Stonewall Jackson — Grant's famous Series of 
Victories near Vicksburg — Gettysburg— Vicksburg Surrenders — Port Hudson 
— Chicamauga — Chattanooga — Siege of Knoxville. 

CAMPAIGN OF 1864 - I36 

Draft for 500,000 Men — Grant made Lieutenant General — Capture of Fort 
Pillow — Grant crosses the Rapidan — Battle of the Wilderness — Spottsylvania 
— Coal Harbor — Richmond Invested — Atlanta Captured — Sheridan in the 
Shenandoah Valley — Politics — Election of Lincoln and Johnson — Sherman's 
March to the Sea — Nashville — Savannah captured. 

CAMPAIGN OF 1865 139 

Capture of Fort Fisher — Columbia taken — Charleston occupied — Sheridan cap- 
tures Early's army — Inauguration of Lincoln and Johnson— Confederate 
Congress adjourned Sine Die— Richmond Captured — Surrender of Lee — 
Lincoln Assassinated — Sherman captures Johnston — Capture of Jeff. Davis 
— War ended. 
Johnson's administration - 139 

Change of Policy — Dissatisfaction of Republican Party — Articles of Impeach- 
ment — Wheels of Legislation blocked by Antagonism between President and 
Senate — Election of Gen. Grant. 
grant's first administration 139 

Reconstruction — Peace Policy— Finances — New Indian Policy — Alabama 
Claims — N. W. Boundary — Internal Improvements — Commercial Activity- 
General Prosperity — Grant re-elected President. 

grant's second administration „ 140 

West Indies — Trans-continental Railroads — Complications with Spain — Specu- 
lation — Panic of 1S73 — Restoration of Credit — Specie Payments. 

HISTORY OF THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES I4I 

ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF GOVERNMENT I46 

Parental — Patriarchal — Monarchal — Absolute and Limited Monarchy — Law 
— Republicanism. 

BIRDS-EYE VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES I5I 

Latitude and Longitude — Boundaries — Area — Political Divisions — Rivers- 
Lakes — Mountain Ranges — Soil — Climate — Mineral Wealth — The People — 
Agricultural Products — Commerce — Internal Improvements — Educational 
System — Religious Liberty — Army and Navy. 

OUR COUNTRY ........ IOO 

Poem, — "Our Country." 

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATE& 

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES „ l6l 

THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT l62 

Congress — Senate — House of Representatives — Signal Service. 

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT „ I64 



XX CONTENTS. 

THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT l6§ 

Supreme Court — Circuit Courts — District Courts — Court of Admiralty — Court 
of Claims — Local Governments. 

THE STATE DEPARTMENT 171 

THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT _ I72 

Secretary of the Treasury — Bureaus — Our Financial System — Internal Revenue 
— Duties — Coinage — United States Mint. 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR I79 

Secretary of the Interior — Various Bureaus — Patents — Pensions — Indian Affairs 
— Bureau of Agriculture. 

THEWAR DEPARTMENT I79 

Secretary of War — Bureaus — The Army — Articles of War. 

THE NAVY DEPARTMENT l8l 

Secretary of the Navy — Bureaus — The Navy. 

THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT l82 

Post Master General — Postage — The Attorney General. 

FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES 183 

Ambassadors — Ministers Plenipotentiary—Resident Ministers — Commissioners — 
Charge d' Affaires — Consuls. 

THE MILITARY ACADEMY 185 

DEPOTS OF WAR MATERIAL 185 

MILITARY HOSPITALS 186 

NAVY AND MARINE HOSPITALS _ 189 

NAVY YARDS I9O 

THE NAVAL ACADEMY I90 

THE NAVAL OBSERVATORY I9I 

THE COAST SURVEY 191 

LIGHT HOUSES I92 

LETTERS OF MARQUE AND REPRISAL - I92 

PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORS I93 

SUFFRAGE AND CITIZENSHIP I94 

CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICTS I94 

COPY-RIGHTS I95 

REPORTS 1 99 

PASSPORTS _ I99 

THE CENSUS _ 200 

THE CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY 2CO 

THE PUBLIC PRINTING 2CO 

IMPEACHMENT _ 201 

DISTRICT ATTORNEYS 201 

UNITED STATES MARSHALS 202 

GRAND JURY 203 

ELECTIONS _ 204 

RATIO OF REPRESENTATION- 2O4 

GOVERNMENT PRISONS 205 

PROCLAMATIONS 206 



CONTENTS. XXI 

COMMISSIONERS 209 

OFFICIAL REGISTER __ 2O9 

THE STARS AND STRIPES _ 2IO 

THE GOVERNMENT AND RELIGION. 1 211 

CHAPLAINS _ 211 

COMPROMISES 212 

TREASON 213 

NATIONAL BANKING 1 213 

THE NATIONAL DEBT 215 

UNITED STATES BONDS 2l6 

STATISTICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

POPULATION 220 

United States — Chinese Empire — British Empire — Russian Empire — German 
Empire — Increase in our Population — Comparison with other Nations — 
Causes of Rapid Growth — Annexation — Immigration — Natural Increase — 
Foreign Population — Value of each Immigrant — Increase in Different States 
—Four Races Represented here — Indians — Mongolian Race — Hebrews — 
Anglo Saxons — Germans — Swedes — Irish — Romanic Nationalities-Sclavonic- 
Table of their Comparative Numbers. 

CITIES 22 5 

Their Growth. 

OCCUPATIONS AND BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY 227 

Number of Persons employed — Males — Females — Agriculture — Professions — 
Trade and Transportation — Manufactures and Mechanical and Mining Indus- 
tries 

AGRICULTURE 228 

Department of Agriculture — Methods of Farming — Aggregate Area of Farms — 
Total Area of Woodland — Cash Value of Farms — Value of Animals Sold-Live 
Stock — Domestic Animals — Horses — Sheep — Comparative Table — Average 
Size of Farms — Irrigation — Great Staples — Corn, "Wheat, Rye, Oats, Barley, 
Potatoes, Rice, Tobacco, Cotton, Wool and Dairy Products — Comparative 
Tables. 

MANUFACTURES 239 

Ready made Clothing — Boots and Shoes — Cast Iron — Machinery — Sawed Lum- 
ber Leather Brick Building — Furniture — Glass — Agricultural Imple- 
ments — Tobacco — Carriages and Wagons — Sugar — Distilleries, &c — Paper- 
Flour and Meal — Iron. 

MINING 242 

Gold and Silver — Comparative Tables — Quicksilver — Copper — Coal — Petro- 
leum. 

COMMERCE 245 

Exports — Imports — Table — Tonnage of Merchant Fleet — Number of Vessels 
entering our Port — Vessels on the Great Lakes — Coast Line. 

DOMESTIC COMMERCE 249 

RAIL ROADS, TELEGRAPHS AND CANALS. 250 

Rail Road System — The Telegraph Service — Canals. 



XX 11 CONTENTS. 

EDUCATION 251 

General System — Common Schools — High Schools — Colleges and Universities — 
List of Colleges — Agricultural and Scientific Schools — Government Schools — 
Illiterates. 

LIBRARIES ..... 256 

Number — Private — Public. 

THE PRESS 259 

TABLE OF EMIGRATION FOR IO YEARS 

HISTORY OF THE POSTAL SYSTEM 260 

OUR POSTAL SYSTEM 261 

THE HISTORY OF POSTAGE STAMPS 270 

MAILABLE MATTER 271 

RATES OF POSTAGE _ 273 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUBLIC 274 

FOREIGN MAILS 283 

POSTAL CARDS _ _ 285 

FOREIGN MONEY ORDERS _ 286 

FOREIGN POSTAGE x 2QT 

POETRY — WHAT CONSTITUTES A STATE? 294 

MOTTOES OF THE UNITED STATES... 295 

DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF VOTERS.. 299 

PENSION LAWS - 303 

NATURALIZATION LAWS _. 316 

PRE-EMPTION LAWS ". 321 

SOLDIER'S HOMESTEAD LAW 325 

HOW TO ACQUIRE TITLE TO GOVERNMENT LANDS _ 33O 

THE LAW OF NATIONS 333 

SALARIES OF FEDERAL OFFICERS 337 

THE FUTURE OF OUR COUNTRY 338 

HOW OUR GOVERNMENT IS SUPPORTED 342 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTE - 345 

REVENUE CUTTERS.. - - 346 

MINTS COINS AND ASSAYS 346 

HISTORY OF UNITED STATES MINT 347 

THE BALANCE OF TRADE 35O 

THE WORLD'S PROGRESS IN THIS CENTURY. 351 

UNITED STATES CURRENCY VALUE OF GOLD 352 

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES AND TERRITORIES. 

Maine 353 West Virginia , 3S0 

New Hampshire 354 North Carolina 382 

Vermont 355 South Carolina 383 

Massachusetts 356 Georgia 384 

Rhode Island 360 Florida -__ 3S6 

Connecticut. 361 Alabama.., - - 390 

New York 363 Mississippi 391 

New Jersey _ 365 Louisiana 393 

•Pennsylvania 366 Texas 394 

Delaware 370 Tennessee 399 

Maryland... 372 Kentucky 4 01 

District of Columbia 373 Ohio , . - 402 

Virginia 375 Indiana 4°4 



CONTENTS. 



XX111 



Illinois. 



405 New Mexico 434 



Utah 



435 



Washington 430, 

Colorado _ 430, 



Dakota. 



440 



Arizona 441 

Idaho 442 

Montana _. 443 

Indian _ 444 

Wyoming _ 445 

Alaska 446 



Michigan 409 

Wisconsin 411 

Minnesota 412 

Iowa 413 

Missouri _ 415 

Arkansas 416 

Kansas 420 

Nebraska ._ 422 

Nevada _ 423 

California _ _ 425 

Oregon 431 

POPE PIUS IX. 447 

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, FINANCIALLY 449 

STATE LAWS ON INTEREST AND USURY 451 

STATE LAWS ON LIMITATION OF ACTIONS _-_ 452 

OUR POPULATION AND GROWTH 453 

POPULATION OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES - 454 

NATIVE AND FOREIGN POPULATION - ___ 456 

POPULATION OF OUR PRINCIPAL CITIES. 459 

FACTS RELATING TO THE UNITED STATES 461 

PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES 461 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 



George Washington 463 

John Adams — 469 

Thomas Jefferson. _ 470 

James Madison 471 

James Monroe. 473 

John Quincy Adams 476 

Andrew Jackson 478 

Martin Van Buren 480 

William Henry Harrison 482 



John Tyler 488 

James K.Polk 480 

Zachary Taylor 482 

Millard Fillmore .__ 496 

Franklin Pierce 494 

James Buchanan- 494 

Abraham Lincoln 496 

Andrew Johnson .__ 500 

Ulysses S. Grant 501 

Rutherford B. Hayes 503 



REPRESENTATIVE MEN. 



STATESMEN. 



Louis Napoleon 505 

Bismarck 513 

Carl Schurz. _ 516 

Lyman Trumbull 519 

Schuyler Colfax 520 

Charles Sumner 533 

John W. Chandler _ 525 

John A. Logan 526 

Reverdy Johnson.. _ 528 

Simon Cameron. _ 531 

James A. Garfield _ 532 

Benjamin F. Wade 536 

Frederick Sawyer 539 

Whitman T. Willey 540 

Justin S. Morrill 542 

Oliver P. Morton 544 



Willard Saulsbury 545 

Edwin D. Morgan 546 

Charles D. Drake 549 

William Pitt Fessenden.. 552 

James Harlan 554 

John C. Breckenridge . 557 

Frederick T. Frelinghuysen 558 

William H. Seward 560 

John J. Crittenden. 561 

Alexander H. Stephens 563 

Henry Clay 569 

Robert Toombs 577 

Thomas A. Hendricks 581 

President Thiers. _ 582 

George S. Boutwell... 584 

Zachariah Chandler 587 



XXIV CONTENTS. 

GREAT ORATORS. 

John C. Calhoun 589 Demosthenes 591 

William Pitt 592 Edward Everett 599 

Daniel Webster SQd Henry Wilson 602 

Brigham Young, (Statesman) 604 

GREAT PREACHERS. 

Henry Ward Beecher... 607 C. H. Spurgeon _ 611 

Whitfield ._„ 609 John Wesley 616 

Personality of Jesus Christ 619 

GREAT SOLDIERS. 

Robert E. Lee 625 Stonewall Jackson 640 

William T. Sherman 623 Caesar 638 

Philip Sheridan 629 Guiseppe Garibaldi 646 

Alexander the Great 629 Victor Emanuel, King of Italy. . 6*8 

Napoleon 1 634 Emperor William, of Germany. . 649 

Gen, Von Moltke, of Prussia. . . 650 

GREAT AUTHORS. 

Disraeli - 651 Cooper.. 66i 

Dickens 656 Whittier - - 663 

Homer ". 657 Washington Irving * — 667 

Shakespeare 660 Cuvier — — 670 

GREAT FINANCIERS. 

Wm. B. Astor ..- 672 Daniel Drew 687 

Commodore Vanderbilt 679 Rothschild 689 

A. T.Stewart 682 

GREAT PHILOSOPHERS. 

Benjamin Franklin 691 Plato 698 

Isaac Newton 694 Copernicus 701 

Socrates 696 

GREAT ARTISTS. 

Raphael 703 Powers 705 

Michael Angelo 704 Thomas Nast 709 

NOTED ECCENTRICS. 

Masaniello 711 Daniel Boone 717 

Zerah Colburn 714 Grotius - 720 

GREAT INDIAN CHIEFS. 

Brant _ 723 Tecumseh.. 729 

Philip. 727 Black Hawk 732 

GREAT PHILANTHROPISTS. 

Stephen Girard 734 John Howard 744 

Joseph Mazzini 737 William Wilberforce . 746 

George Peabody 740 Gen. La Fayette 748 

GREAT EXPLORERS. 

Christopher Columbus 750 Dr. Livingstone- 754 

Captain Cook 753 

GREAT INVENTORS. 

Samuel F. B. Morse 757 Richard M. Hoe 770 

Elias Howe, Jr 762 George Stephenson 773 

Robert Fulton 767 Eli Whitney 778 



CONTENTS. XXV 

•Charles Goodyear — 787 French & Shreve 8r2 

Cyrus W. Field 796 Richard Trevithick 815 

James Watt 807 Alfred Vail 817 
ohnFitch J.. 809 Sir Richard Arkwright 820 

HUMORISTS. 

Tosh Billings 823 Mark Twain 827 

Dean Swift 824 . 

GREAT MUSICIANS. 
Beethoven 829 Mozart 831 

HORACE GREELEY, THE GREAT NEWSPAPER MAN 833 

HUGH MILLER, THE GREAT GEOLOGIST 836 

GREAT EVANGELISTS. 

Dwight L. Moody 841 Ira D. Sankey 845 

COMMERCE, LABOR, BANKS AND BANKING 846 

Moneyed Institutions of the Old World, Past and Present — Solution of our 
Money Problem. 

LEGAL AND COMMERCIAL FORMS. 

NOTES, BILLS, ORDERS, CHECKS, DRAFTS, RECEIPTS, &C 857 

PROMISSORY NOTES 858 

DUE BILLS — ORDERS - 86l 

RECEIPTS 862 

BILLS OF EXCHANGE......... 863 

DRAFTS 864 

ACCEPTANCE — DAYS OF GRACE — LANDLORD AND TENANT 865 

PARTNERSHIP _ 866 

FORM OF AGREEMENT, AGREEMENT FOR SALE OF PERSONAL PROPERTY 87O 

AGREEMENT FOR SALE OF REAL ESTATE, FORM OF LEASE 87I 

FORM OF DEED— MORTGAGE DEED 872 

FORM OF WILL 873 

ARTICLES OF CO-PARTNERSHIP 874 

POWER OF ATTORNEY— FORM OF SUBMISSION TO ARBITRATION 875 

AWARD OF ARBITRATORS 876 

THE SILVER BILL OF 1878 877 

IMPORTANT TO WORKINGMEN 879 

ARE RICH MEN DANGEROUS TO THE REPUBLIC? 88l 

THE STEAM ENGINE. 

WHO DEVELOPED STEAM POWER? 883 

INTERESTING FACTS 884 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF STEAM POWER] 886 

COAL CONSUMPTION — ITS HISTORY 887 

" COAL AS A RESERVOIR OF POWER/' 889 

SUN-SHINE AND COAL-BEDS 89O 

HOW WOOD AND COAL ARE DEVELOPED 892 



XXVI 



CONTENTS. 



THE FORMATION OF COAL 

THE POWER OF COAL 

THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE FOR I876L 

THE GRANGE MOVEMENT. 



893 
894. 

896 

897 



THE GRANGERS - 

THE PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY - - 898 

THE NATIONAL GRANGE — THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 90O 

INFORMATION FOR EVERYBODY. 



Statistics of the Globe 903 

Estimated population of the Old 
and New World 904 

Our imports and their cost 905 

Difference of time — Statistics of 
religion in the United States.. 909 

Table showing the number of 
newspapers and periodicals 910 

Table showing average circulation 
of newspapers and periodicals. 91 1 

United States and foreign gold 
coins — . 912 

United States and foreign silver 
coins 913 

Population of principal cities of 
the world 914 

Population, area, religion, and 
government of Principal coun- 
tries --.. 915 

Important events, difference of 
time, number of volumes in the 
largest public libraries of Europe 916 

Remarkable discoveries, inven- 
tions, etc. — Our public lands. _ 917 

The longest rivers in the world — 
Height of mountains, towers,etc. 
— Origin of plants 918 

Oceans, seas, bays, and lakes. — 
Highest mountains 919 

The largest rooms in the world. 
Time required for the digestion 
of food 920 

Table of legal weights and meas- 
ures — Exports of various coun- 
tries 92 1 

Tables of woods, weights, meas- 
ures, etc 922 

Tables of heat and cold, paper, etc 923 

Tables of me isures, weights, etc. 924 

Rates of Interest — Example 925 

Interest tables 926 

Table of wages — Riches of the 
United States 928 



Practical rules for farmers, me- 
chanics, and business men 929 

How to keep accounts 931 

Great fires of the world 932 

Cables — Dead letters — Railroads 
of India — Suez canal — Gold 
and silver coinage — Children 
in public schools — Conversa- 
tion oi men of genius 933 

Wonderful mines — History of let- 
ter-press printing — Whisky traf- 
fic — Whisky's work in New 

York 934 

Modes of salutation — Pension 

Bureau — Bible curiosities 935 

The women of Europe and Amer- 
ica 936 

Rules of Conduct — Measures 937 

Table for ascertaining any person's 

name or age 93k 

Great battles and sieges of the 

world 939. 

Facts about the earth, men and 

animals 940 

What the nations owe — Rates at 

which countries borrow money 943 
The greatness of London — Eng- 
land's rulers 944 

Important land decisions 946V 

Consumption of cotton — Ocean 

Cables _ 947 

The salt trade — Drugging liquor 949, 
A beer-drinking country — The 
metals — Strength of substances 

— Bridges 95a 

Nicknames 952 

Rules of common law — Oldest 

newspapers 953 

Diamonds — Water levels — The 

Calendar 954 

Weights and measures — Religious 

denominations 955 

Tables — Ballooning 957 

Money 959. 



FREE TRADE VS. PROTECTION — RIGHTS OF RAILROAD PASSENGERS. 960 



CONTENTS . XXTH 

SUPPLEMENT. 

THE MOUND BUILDERS 961 

Their Antiquity— Interesting Discoveries— Indications of their Civilization— The Aztecs. 

THE RED MEN 963 

Their modes of living and fighting— Location and history of the different tribes— Traits 
of character, etc—Treatment of women — Keligions belief— Their rapid extinction be- 
fore advancing civilization. 

THE NORSEMEN IN AMERICA 966 

Pacts relating to their discovery of America — Norse remains found at Newport — Settle- 
ments planted in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia— The power of the Sea Kings. 

THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA 967 

Honor due Spain for the discovery of America — Columbus, his life and voyages— The 
Spanish settlements in the New World— Their mad search for gold— Fernando Cortez 
— The conquest of Mexico— The discovery of the Mississippi Eiver — Death of De Soto — 
End of Spanish influence in America. 

THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 971 

Their discoveries and settlements— They plan an empire from the St. Lawrence to the 
Gulf of Mexico — The Jesuit missionaries among the Indians — They make important 
discoveries— The French establish 60 military posts— Wars— Devastation of Acadia. 

THE DUTCH IN AMERICA 975 

Hudson's voyages and discoveries— He discovers Manhattan Island and founds New 
York— Friendly relations with the Plymouth settlement— Prosperity of the colony- 
Wars— Brought under English rule. 

THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. . 977 

Important discoveries, and the men who made them— The first permanent settlements— 
The founders of New England— The Puritans land at Plymouth Eock — The Germs of 
the American Kepublic— The English possess the continent. 

INDIAN WARS 980 

Their causes and results— The French and English wars in America— Washington be- 
comes a soldier and fights the Indians — Later Indian Wars — Prominent chiefs and 
their tribes— The massacre of Custer and his men. 

AMERICAN LIFE BEFOEE THE EE VOLUTION. 984 

Colonwl statistics in 1774— Manufactures— Society for promoting industry— Imports and 
exports —Money— The first Mint— The first printing press— The first book — Newspa- 
pers — The first library— Modes of travel — Postoffice system— Education in New En- 
gland—Harvard University— Yale College— Life in the middle colonies — Eestrictions 
upon the press— Colleges established— Morals in New England— How swearers and 
scolds were punished— Bachelors— Manner of attending church— Use of Tobacco— Pol- 
itics— Fast days and holidays— Amusements— Manner of building houses— Living- 
Training day— Dress— Wages — Life in the Southern colonies— Introduction of slave- 
ry—Purchase of wives — Education— Amusements— Pioneer life — A family outfit. 

THE HISTORY OP OUR NATIONAL TREATIES 991 

THE ELECTORAL COMMISSION OP 1877 993 

PRESIDENTIAL VOTE IN 1876 ., 995 

THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORAL VOTE PROM 1778 TO 1876 995 

THE 22d JOINT RULE 998 

TABLE OP ELECTORAL VOTES 998 

THEORY Of MONET .....998 

HISTOEY AND DESCEIPTION OF THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITON.... 1000— 1115 
The World's Fairs— Inception of the Centennial Exhibition— The Centennial City— Fair- 
mount Park, the location of the Exhibition— Statistics of the Parks of the vVorld — De- 
scription of the Principal Buildings of the Exhibition — The Opening— The Wonderful 
Exhibits in the Main Building— Machinery Hall— Agricultural Hall— Horticultural 
Hall— Memorial Hall— The U. S. Government Building — The Woman's Pavilion— Other 
buildings— The Children of the World— Bureau of Lost Articles— Fourth of July Cele- 
bration-.- Winding up of the Exhibition— Statistics of attendance and ot>er features- 
Closing ceremonies. 
THE NATIONS OF THE WOELD 1116—1137 

RAILWAYS OP THE WORLD — TELEGRAPHS OP THE WORLD 1138 

ARMIES AND NAVIES OP THE WORLD— MERCANTILE NAVIES OP THE WORLD 1139 

ESTIMATED NUMBER OP ALL CREEDS 1140 

RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS AMONGST ENGLISH-SPEAKING COMMUNITIES 1140 

AREA AND POPULATION OP THE UNITED STATES — LAND UNDER 'CULTIVATION— COT- 
TON CROP, &C 1140 

REVENUES AND EXPENDITURES OP U. S. GOVERNMENT 1876 1140 

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OP THE UNITED STATES 1141 

PRINCIPAL WARS OP THE UNITED STATES 1141 

CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION — NEWSPAPER STATISTICS H41 

STATISTICS OP THE LIQUOR TRAPPIO 1142 — 1144 



XXV111 CONTENTS. 

Whither we Export our Breadstuff's 1 145 

Internal Commerce of the United States 1 147 

Wars of this Century 1 148 

Books and Book Making 1148 

Memorable Floods and Earthquakes of History 1 150 

Aztec Society 1 150 

Books of the Bible 1151 

Habits of a Man of Business 1152 

History of Reconstruction 1 153 

History of Political Parties 1 1 59 

Parliamentary Rules 1 166 

The Turko-Russian War 1 172-1200 







WOMEN WAITING THE RETURN OF THE CARRIER PIGEON 

During the Siege of Paris. 




BIKDS-EYE VIEW OF EGYPT. 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



HISTORY. 



History is a record of the rise and progress of those famous 
people whose doings constitute the history of civilization. His- 
tory presupposes the races advanced beyond the natural or 
primitive state, and gathered in political communities, or nations; 
and it confines itself to those nations whose achievements have 
influenced the general current of the world's aifairs, and made 
the condition of the world what we now see it. Viewing history 
as confined to the series of leading civilized nations, we observe 
that it has to do with one grand division of the human family, the 
Caucasian race. To this division belonged the people of all the 
elder nations, the Egyptians, Assyrians and Babylonians, Hebrews 
and Phoenicians, the Hindoos. Persians, Greeks and Romans. Of 
course, the modern European nations, and the states governed by 
European colonists, all belong to this division. 

Modern scholars divide this historical stock into three main 
branches: The Ayra.n, or Indo-European branch; the Semitic 
branch; the Hamitic branch. This classification is a linguistic 
one, but at the same time it represents ttiree distinct civilizations. 
The Aryan, branch is that division to which we belong; it includes 
nearly all the present and past nations of Europe, — the Greeks, 
Latins, - Germans, Celts and Slavonians, — together with two anci- 
ent Asiatic peoples, namely, the Hindoos and Persians. 

The Semitic includes the ancient inhabitants of Syria Arabia, 
and the Tigris a.nd Euphrates countries. The lea.ding historical 
representatives of this branch are the Hebrews, Phoenicians, As- 
syrians, and Arabs. 

The Hamitic branch has but one prominent representative— 
1 



4 FOOTPEINTS OF THE AGES. 

the Egyptians. The ancient Chaldaeans, however, probably be- 
longing to this race. 

The history of the civilized world is the history of the Aryan,, 
Semitic, and Hamitic races. The Aryan, however, has always 
played the leading part in the great drama of the world's 
progress. 

If we trace back the present civilization of the advanced na- 
tions of the world, we shall find that much of it is connected by 
direct and unbroken line with the Roman. The Romans in turn 
were heirs of the Greeks. All this is Aryan, and we are fully 
authorized to say that the Aryans are peculiarly the race of pro- 
gress; and that a very large part of the history of the world must 
be taken up with an account of the contributions which the 
Aryan nations have made to the common stock of civilization. 

The entire historical period, commencing with the early empires 
of the East, is divided into distinct divisions. Sometines into two 
divisions, ancient and modern history; and sometimes into three, 
ancient, mediaeval, and modern history. 

We shall adopt the latter division, for while we think the ages 
form a continuous stream, the Roman Dominion may still be re- 
garded as a reservoir into which all the currents of history from the 
anterior ages were gathered, and from which, in turn, the ample 
currents of modern history have flowed. It was out of the break- 
ing up of the great Roman Dominion in the fifth century, A. D., 
that the modern states of Europe gradually took their rise. 

ANCIENT HISTORY. 

The ancient Oriental civilizations referred to in this sketch com- 
prise the monarchies of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Judaea, 
Phoenicia, India, and Persia. With the exception of Egypt, trie 
seat of all the ancient Oriental nations was in Asia; but only a 
small part of Asia has any connection with history, and that part 
is Southwestern Asia. 

This may be divided into three regions : That west of the 
Euphrates ; the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris ; the region 
between the Zagros mountains and the Indus basin inclusive. 
West of the Euphrates we have: The peninsula of Asia Minor, the 
seat of several nationalities and of various Grecian colonies; 
Syria, bordering on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea ; 
Palestine, and the peninsula of Arabia. In the basin of the 
Euphrates and Tigris were: Armenia, Assyria proper, Babylonia, 
Chaldaea, Mesopotamia and Susiana. 

The earliest nations recorded in history arose in the three plains 
of the Nile, Euphrates and Tigris, and Indus. 

This fact was due to physical causes. In a primitive state of 
society, population can gather into nations only when a fertile 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 3 

soil produces abundant food. These basins are distinguished for 
their extraordinary fertility, and a large population became possi- 
ble. Accordingly we find that in these countries men had adopted 
fixed habitations and formed themselves into political associations- 
long antedating recorded history. As the physical conditions that 
favor the formation of human society in the Old World are only 
in the alluvial plains of Southwest Asia (taking in Egypt), and as 
philology proves that all the European races came from Western 
Asia, — we may safely consider this was the cradle of civilization, 
if not the cradle of the human race. With the origin of the human 
race history proper does not deal. Hence, we must leave to reve- 
lation (the Bible), and science the consideration of primitive 
humanity, and first study those ancient Oriental nations that 
appear on the stage of human affairs when historic records begin. 
At the begining of credited history, we find the figures of two 
civilizations: that in the Nile valley and that in Chaldsea. And 
beyond this the world is to us shrouded in impenetrable darkness. 
Egypt is the country in which we first find a government and 
political institutions established. Egypt itself has been called 
from the earliest antiquity the "Gift of the Nile.' 

This mighty river forms in Egypt a strip of fertility in the midst 
of the desert waste. In its annual overflow, the Nile renews 
every year the soil of this strip, so that all the people had to do 
was to plant and nature produced. The fertility of the soil also 
yielded, with slight labor, the date, palm and large crops of cereals, 
and the "granaries of Egypt" were the storehouse whence all the 
people of the Mediterranean were wont to draw supplies in sea- 
son of scarcity. 

The cheapness of living here led to a great multiplication of the 
population. Information in regard to ancient Egypt was, until 
the present century, derived chiefly from the narratives of the 
Greek historians, but in modern times, our knowledge of the 
country has been greatly extended by the discovery of the art of 
reading the hieroglyphics, a Greek term, meaning sacred carvings, 
or priestly writing. An interesting accident Jed to this discovery. 
During the expedition of the French to Egypt under Napoleon,, 
at the close of the last century, an engineer in digging the founda- 
tion of a fort near the Rosetta, mouth of the Nile, found a stone 
tablet, about three feet long, on which was an inscription in three 
different characters. One of the texts was Greek, and of course 
was readily translated. It was natural to conclude that the others 
were the same in substance, and after long and ingenious efforts 
the alphabet was made out. The Egyptians were not Africans, 
as we understand that term. They belonged to the Caucasian 
race. Still they were neither Aryans nor Semites, and scholars 
call them by a special name, namely Hamites. 

The origin of Egyptian civilization is hidden in the darkness of 



4 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

antiquity, but by the aid of certain ascertained facts we have es- 
tablished at least an approximate starting point, and that is about 
3000 years before the Christian era. 

The history of Egypt from the first dynasty (2700 B. C), 
down to the destruction of Egypt by the Persians (525 B. C), 
may be divided into three periods. The First Period begins with 
the first dynasty, arid lasts for 620 years ; but it cannot be said 
that authentic Egyptian history commences until the fourth 
dynasty, about the middle of the twenty-fifth century B. C. The 
center of power was then at Memphis, in Lower Egypt. Before 
the close of this period Egypt was broken up into separate king- 
doms, the monarchy which ruled at Thebes being the most power- 
ful. The Second Period is the era covered by the rule of Hyksos 
or Shepherd Kings, who invaded the country 2080 B. C, and, 
remained about five centuries, and their expulsion in 1527 B. C. 
introduces us to the Third Period which continued about a thous- 
and years. In this period Egypt became one great centralized 
power, with Thebes for its capital. The most splendid period of 
Egyptian history was from the eighteenth to the twentieth dynas- 
ties, — about three centuries (1525-1200 B. C). From the 
twentieth dynasty onward the country declined, and was finally 
conquered by the Persians under Cauleyses, 525 B. C. In 332 
Egypt fell under the dominion of Alexander the Great, who 
founded on its shore the city of Alexandria. One of his generals, 
named Ptolemy, received the country as his fragment of the 
divided empire of Alexander, 323 B. C. Then for three centuries 
the Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies ruled on the banks of the 
Nile, till Queen Cleopatra, the last of the line, being overcome by 
the Romans, died by her own hand ; and the venerable land be- 
came a Roman province in B. C. 30. 

In government Egypt was a hereditary monarchy. The station 
in life of every man was fixed by an institution named caste. The 
priests were the richest, most powerful, and most influential 
order. Its members were not limited to religious offices ; they 
formed an order comprising many occupations and professions. 
Next in importance was the military caste, numbering about 
400,000. Widely separated from the priests and warriors were 
the unprivileged castes. These were the husbandmen, the artificers, 
and the herdsmen, each caste including many crafts and occupa- 
tions. The effect of this system was evil. It was one of the 
main causes of the decline of the nation. 

The population of ancient Egypt is known to have been at least 
five millions, and may have been much more. Herodotus says, that 
the country contained 20,000 inhabited towns. The two most 
famous cities were Memphis and Thebes. In some branches of 
art, especially in architecture, the Egyptians made great advances. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY". 5 

The distinguishing feature of their architecture is its vastness and 
sublimity. 

The pyramids were designed as the sepulchers of kings. Those 
atGizeh are the most celebrated. The art of writing was practiced 
more extensively by the Egyptians than by any contemporary 
nation. 

The pyramids and monuments of even the earliest periods bear 
inscriptions. The translation of the sacred books of the Egyp- 
tians shows that their religion embodied some grand conceptions, 
among them the immortality of the soul, and that of the existence 
of an invisible God. Animal worship was a striking peculiarity 
of their religion, and this finally was a main cause of the mental 
debasement of the people. The practice of embalming dead 
bodies was also connected with their peculiar religious ideas. 

They had some acquaintance with certain sciences, especially 
geometry, arithmetic, astromony, and medicine. The great char- 
acteristic of Egyptian institutions was their unchangeableness. 

This stationary character is seen in their government, society, 
religion, art, and learning. Egypt herself was a mummy. 

THE ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 

To Egypt has been accorded the precedence of possessing the 
earliest secular historic records, but there is a positive date in 
Chaldaean history, going back to the twenty-third century B. C, 
while authentic Egyptian history antedates this by only two cen- 
turies. If we take the guidance of the Hebrew scriptures, this 
region claims a greater antiquity, for the Bible places the com- 
mencement of the history of mankind in the Tigro-Euphrates 
basin. 

This basin comprises a number of territorial and political 
divisions which are not marked by definite lines. It has been the 
seat of three successive kingdoms. The early Babylonian or 
Chaldsean kingdom ; the Assyrian empire ; the later Babylo- 
nian kingdom 

The earliest of the three was the Chaldsean, which arose in the 
rich alluvial plain lying about the Persian Gulf. By its natural 
fertility it was calculated to be one of the first seats of human 
society. It is the only country where wheat is indigenous. 
Other cereals, the date-palm, the vine and other fruits abounded. 
Authentic history in the Tigro-Euphrates basin, commences with 
the formation in Chaldaea and Babylonia of one united kingdom 
ruled over by Nimrod. The primitive Chaldasans practiced the 
worship of the heavenly bodies. Their religion led them to the 
study of astronomy, in which they made considerable progress. 

Architecture and other arts also flourished. Letters in the 
cuneiform, or wedge-shaped, characters were in use ; and the 



6 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

baked bricks employed by the royal builders had commonly a 
legend stamped in their center. 

Delicate fabrics were manufactured by their looms. 

The Chaldsean monarchy continued for several centuries ; but 
about the thirteenth century B. C, it took a secondary position, 
and the Assyrian nation became the dominant power of Messopo- 
tamia. 

The Assyrians are believed to have been a Semitic people who 
originally lived in Chaldsea, but who at an early period removed 
to the upper course of the Tigris. Assyria advanced rapidly, and 
completely over-shadowed Babylonia ; and for six centuries was 
the imperial power of Western Asia. 

Among the famons monarchs of the country were Tiglath- 
pileser I., (1130 B. C), a conquering prince. Ashur-idanni-pal, 
Tiglath-pileser II., a great conqueror, as was his successor, Sargon. 
The most splendid reign was that of Sennacherib (705 681 
B. C), who made extensive conquests, and was the builder of 
magnificent structures at Nineveh. The countries included 
within the limits of Assyria were Babylonia, Messopotamia, 
Media, Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, part of Arabia, and most of 
Egypt. The empire was never more than a loosely tied bundle 
of petty states. So Assyria had no inherent strength, and after 
culminating in the seventh century, it began rapidly to fall in 
pieces. At this time Babylon made a successful rebellion ; and 
when the Median conquerer, Cyaxares, l»d a force from beyond 
the Zagros to attack Assyria, he was joined by the Babylonians 
under Nabopolassar, the Assyrians were overthrown, Nineveh was 
captured, and Assyria fell never to rise again, 625 B. C. Sum- 
ming up what the Assyrians contributed to civilizations, we find 
that their genius took mainly the form of arts and manufactures. 
During the six centuries of Assyrian dominion, Babylon had been 
partically eclipsed; but the ancient Babylonian nation never en- 
tirely lost its spirit of independence, and after the war, and Na- 
bopolassar had received the undisputed possession of Babylon, 
the empire again reached a height of glory, culminating during 
the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, his son. Babylon was a square 
city, at least five times as large as London, and traversed diagon- 
ally by the Euphrates. Its walls — 338 feet high and 85 thick — 
were studded with towers and pierced with brazen gates. 
Its palaces and hanging gardens, were among the wonders of 
the world. Nebuchadnezzar was followed by four kings, the 
last being Nabonadius, who associated with him on the throne his 
son Belshazzar, and it is the name of Belshazzar that appears in 
the scriptures, in connection with the capture of Babylon. But 
from over the Zagros mountains, the Persians who had gained 
asendency over the Medes under Cyrus, came on a career of 
conquest. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 7 

They laid siege to Babylon and captured it. In the fall of 
Babylonia, the last of the three Messopotamia kingdoms disap- 
pears from the stage of history. In the sixth century, both 
Babylonia and Assyria became the possession of Alexander the 
Great. 

The Babylonians were a mixed race, partly Hamites, and 
partly Semites, and in some of their traits they differed from the 
Assyrians. Their "wisdom and learning" are celebrated, both by 
the Jewish writers and the Greek historians. 

They were eminently a commercial people; "their land was a 
*'land of traffic" and their city a "city of merchants." 

THE HEBREWS. 

Jewish history is the subject of particular study in connection 
with the scriptures. The Hebrews were a pure Semitic race, 
and hence were kinsmen of the Phoenicians, Arabs and Assyri- 
ans. Their history is divided into four periods: 

I. From the exodus to the establishment of the monarchy under 
Saul. 

II. From the establishment of the monarchy to the separation 
•of the two kingdoms. 

III. From the separation of the kingdoms to the Babylonian 
captivity. 

IV. From the Babylonian captivity to the absorption of Judaea 
by Rome. 

Under Solomon, the Israelites became the paramount race in 
•Syria, and the Jewish state was a real imperial power, and had re- 
lations both with Egypt and Phoenicia. 

After this a period of decline set in. The subject states threw 
•off the Jewish yoke; disunion took place among the Jews them- 
selves, and the imperial power crumbled into two petty kingdoms, 
that of Israel, and that of Judah. The former lasted for about 
250 years, and was finally overwhelmed by Shalmaneser, king of 
Assyria. The kingdom of Judah continued till 586 B. C, when 
Jerusalem was captured by Nebuchadnezzar, and the Jews were 
torn from their homes. The triumph of Cyrus over Babylon 536 
B. C, was followed by an edict restoring the Jews to their homes. 
The interval between their return from captivity to the con- 
quest of the Romans forms the Fourth Period of Jewish history. 
In summing up the whole of Hebrew history we notice: That the 
Jewish state was but a limited domain, in geographical extent; 
that, compared with Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt and Persia, its 
political importance was slight ; that the Jews contributed little 
to ancient civilization, so far as regards art, science, or politics. 
It was the mission of the Hebrew race to influence the world 
through spiritual truths and moral ideas, embodied in sublime 



8 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

power by bards and sages. These words, reverenced by us as- 
the Old Testament, remain the permanent possession of the whole- 
human family. 

THE PHOENICIANS. 

Phoenicia was one of the most important countries of the an- 
cient world, and to us the Phoenicians are one of the most inter- 
esting people of early history. They were the earliest commer- 
cial and colonizing people on the shore of the Mediterranean 
Sea. As early probably as the ninth century B. C, the enter- 
prising Phoenicians founded Carthage on the northern coast of 
Africa. Then, they even went farther; they made their way be- 
yond the "Pillars of Hercules," that is, the Strait of Gibraltar, 
and sailed from the Mediterranean into the Atlantic Ocean. As- 
planters of colonies they had an important influence on the pro- 
gress of civilization, and of political freedom. The ancient 
Phoenicians were the inventors of the first perfect alphabet. The 
Greeks were directly indebted to the Phoenicians for the alphabet;, 
the Romans adopted the Greek alphabet with some changes, and 
the Roman alphabet is the basis of our modern alphabets. 
Phoenicia consisted of several independent states, each city, in 
fact, being a separate state, under its own king; and only in 
times of danger did they occasionally unite under the leadership 
of the most powerful. The chief cities of Phoenicia proper wero 
Sidon and Tyre. The commerce of Tyre is described as very ex- 
tensive. Phcenica was successively subject to Assyria in the 
ninth century; to the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar, at the 
close of the seventh century ; to the Persians, under Cambyses, 
toward the close of the sixth century; and to the Greeks, under 
Alexander the Great, in the fourth century B. C. Still later it 
was absorbed in the universal dominion of Rome, 63 B. C. Th& 
Phoenicians deserve to be commemorated in history by the side of 
the Greek and Latin nations, as the only one of the Asiatic peo- 
ples that became a diffuser of civilizations. The Phoenicians were 
a race essentially materialistic and commercial. 

THE HINDOOS. 

"We will now inquire into the history of the two Asiatic repre- 
sentatives of the great Aryan race, — the Hindoos and the- 
Persians. The first historical notice that we have of India, in re- 
lation with Europe, is at that great epoch in its history, its invasion 
by Alexander the Great (326 B. C). At this time Indian society 
was firmly fixed in castes, similar to the state of things in Egypt. 
The Hindoos made four divisions of society : The Brahmins,, 
whose proper business was religion and philosophy; the Kshati- 
yas, who attended to war and government; the Vaisyas, whc 




SCENE IN THE ALPS. 



OUK GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 11 

-were the merchants and farmers; the Sudras, or artisans and 
laborers. Below these were Pariahs or outcasts, who performed 
the meanest of all labors. The language of the ancient Hindoos 
was the Sanscrit; it is not now spoken, and is understood only by- 
Brahmins and scholars, who have studied it. 

In this highly developed language the learned men of Hindo- 
stan recorded a vast body of literature, among which are the Ve- 
das, which are believed to be as old as 2000 B. C. 

The central point of the Hindoo theology was the doctrine of 
-transmigration of souls. In the third century B. C, there arose 
a new system of religion, called Buddhism. Its founder was an 
Indian prince named Gautauma. India had an important effect 
upon ancient commerce, although she remained shut out from 
^what was then the civilized world. The abundance of the pro- 
ductions of nature and art — pearls, precious stones, ivory, spice, 
frankincense, and silks — made that region from an early period 
■the center of a great maritime and caravan trade. 

THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

It will be convenient to connect the history of the Medes with that 
•of the Persians, because the people of both countries belonged to 
the same race, and for the most part of their history they were 
'united into one country. On the plateaus east of the chain, 
•east of the Zagros, dwelt the Medes and Persians. They were 
both pure Aryans. The Medes first came to notice in connection 
with the Assyrians. About B. C. 710, Sargon conquered some 
Median territory, in which he placed the Israelites from the cities 
of Samaria, who had been led into captivity by the Assyrians. 
But the Medes grew in power and established a great monarchy 
under Cyaxares, 633 B. C. He was succeeded by his son Asty- 
■ages, under whom Media gave place to Persia. During this early 
period of the Median monarchy, the Persians also had established 
n kingdom, but it was in a measure subject to Media. The 
•daughter of Astyages was married to the Persian prince Cam- 
foyses, and to them a son was born named Cyrus. Commencing 
his reign in 558 B. C, Cyrus first subdued all the northern and 
western provinces of the old Median kingdom. 

On the western frontier he overthrew Croesus, captured Sardes 
and added all Asia Minor west of Halys to the dominion of 
Persia, 554 B. C. The remote east now claimed his attention, 
and between the years 553-540 B. C, he was employed in the 
subjugation of Parthia, Bactriana, Logdiana, etc. The greater 
glory of conquering Babylonia remained, and was accomplished 
by the capture of Babylon 538 B. C. Of the whole line of 
Persian monarchs Cyrus was the greatest, and his character is far 



12 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

more worthy of respect than that of any of his successors. He 
was succeeded by his son Cambyses, a cruel ruler. 

Darius I., who ascended the throne 521 B. C, was, next to> 
Cyrus, the greatest of the Persian monarchs. Cyrus by his con- 
quests founded the empire ; Darius organized it. To him be- 
longed the credit of having giving to the Persian empire that 
peculiar political system and arrangement that maintained it in a 
fairly nourishing condition for nearly two centuries. The most 
interesting event in the reign of Darius is the commencement of 
the Persian invasions of Cyrus. The Persians belonged to the 
same stock as the Medes, but were even more purely Aryan. 

As builders and artists, the Persians were first pupils of the- 
Assyrians and Babylonians. The most famous remains of Per- 
sian architecture are the mines of the royal palaces at Persepolis. 

They had a much purer and nobler religion than the Egyp- 
tians, Assyrians, Babylonians or Phoenicians. They were not 
idolaters. The main feature of their religion was the acknowledg- 
ment and worship of a single supreme God. There is no doubt 
that the Persians had a considerable literature, but very few 
fragments of it have survived. 

COMMERCE OF THE ANCIENTS. 

The three great commercial nations of antiquity were the Baby- 
lonians, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians. Babylonia was one of 
the leading emporiums of ancient commerce. This trade consisted 
in the exchange of Babylonian manufactures and the purchase of 
products of the farther East. They had an extensive commerce- 
.with Persia and Northern India, whence they obtained gold, pre- 
cious stones, and rich dye-stuffs. 

The trade by sea was between the mouths of the Tigris and the- 
Euphrates, and the Western coasts of India and the island of Cey- 
lon. From here they imported timber of various kinds, sugar- 
cane, spices, and pearls. The Phoenicians were the leading com- 
mercial people, of Asia. Though the textile fabrics of the Si- 
donians and the purple cloth of the Tyrians have always been* 
celebrated, the commerce of Phoenicia consisted principally in 
the interchange of foreign commodities. The land trade of the- 
country may be divided into three branches: The Arabian, in- 
cluding the Egyptian and Indian seas; the Babylonian, to which* 
is referred the commerce with Central Asia and North India; and 
the Armenian, taking in the overland trade with Scythia and the- 
Caucasian countries. From Yemen (Arabia Felix), caravans- 
brought through the desert frankincense, myrrh, cassia, gold, and 
precious stones, — the gold obtained from Africa. The Mediter- 
ranean Sea was the great highroad of Phoenician commerce. Spain? 
was, in respect to precious metals, the richest country of the an- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



13 



oient world. From here the Phoenicians entered the Atlantic and 
proceeded south of the British Isles, where they obtain tin and 
amber. In the eastern seas they had establishments on the Per- 
sian and Arabian Gulfs, from which places they traded with the 
Indian and African shores, and the Island of Ceylon. During 
the reign of Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, they discovered the 
passage around the Cape of Good Hope. 

The commerce of the Carthaginians was carried on both by 
land and sea. The manufactures of the country consisted of fine 
cloths, hardware, pottery, and leather harness. The land trade of 
Carthage was by caravans with the savage tribes of Central 
Africa, negro slaves and golddust being the chief imports. In 
the western part of the Mediterranean Sea their principal trade 
was with the Greek colonies in Sicily and Southern Italy, where 
they obtained wine and oil. The Carthaginians possessed the 
carrying trade between the nations of Africa and Western Europe 
almost exclusively. They succeeded the Phoenicians in the tin 
and amber trade with the British Isles and the shores of the Baltic. 
On the west coast of Africa, Carthaginian colonies abounded. 
Their great mart here was the Island of Arne, whence goods 
were transported in light boats to the opposite coast. The chief ex- 
ports were trinkets, saddlery, cotton goods, pottery, and arms, 
for which they received hides and ivory. With Guinea and 
Senegambia they had some intercourse also. 

HISTORY OF GREECE. 

The history of Greece and Rome fills the whole period between 
about the year. 1000 B. C, and the downfall of the Western Ro- 
man Empire, 476 A. D. Between the history of these nations 
and that of the ancient Oriental empires we shall find a marked 
contrast. 

The Orient presents to view a series of despotisms under which 
the spirit of individual freedom was completely crushed. The 
history of Greece and Rome is the history of the people, and ac- 
cordingly the latter is far more interesting, more Instructive, and 
more valuable. Grecian history may be divided into three 
periods : 

I. From the Dorian migration to the beginning of the Persian 
wars (1100-500 B. C). 

II. From the beginning of the Persian wars, to the subjuga- 
tion of Greece by Philip of Macedon (500-338 B. C). 

III. From the subjugation of Greece by Philip to the Roman 
conquest, (338-146 B. C). About the year il00 B. C, the Dorians, 



14 FOOTPRINTS OP THE AGES. 

an unimportant tribe on the southern slope of Mount Octa, moved? 
southward, conquering the Achaean kingdoms in the Peloponnesus,. 
Sacoma, and gradually subduing most of the neighboring states. 
Out of the Dorian conquest other great changes took place. 

The x^chaeans fell back upon the northern coast, driving out the 
Ionians. The planting of Greek colonies in Asia Minor was an- 
other important event of this early period, connected with the 
general unsettlement, resulting from the Dorian conquest. These 
colonics were made by the three races, ^Eolians, Ionians, and 1 
Dorians. 

Other settlements were made by the Greeks, especially on the 
coasts of Thrace and Macedonia, on the islands west of Greece, 
in Sicily, in Lower Italy, and in the territory of Cyrene. At this 
time the two leading races of Greece were the Ionians and Dori- 
ans. The Ionians were remarkable for their democratic spirit. 
The Dorian race was noted for its severe simplicity of manners;. 
it preferred an aristocratic form of. government, and maintained 
slavery in its- worst forms. 

The authentic history of Greece begins with the epoch known 
as the First Olympiad B. C. 776. We shall first glance at the 
history of the two most important Grecian states, Sparta and 
Athens. At first we find the Spartans the dominant power in the 
Pelonnessus. 

This was owing to her peculiar institutions which tradition as- 
cribes to a legislator named Lycurgus. 

The education which was given to the Spartan youth, produced 
warriors, but naught else; that people contributed nothing to 
literature and the arts for which the world is indebted to Greece. 
Sparta under the Lycurgan system became an aggressive mili- 
tary state; she conquered the Messenians in two wars, the Arca- 
dians, and the Argives, and then raised herself to the leadership 
of the Dorian commonwealths. 

Having become the controlling power of the Peloponnesus, 
Sparta in the sixth century, B. C, began to assume the right of 
interference in the internal affairs of the Grecian states beyond ) 
the Peloponnesus, and she would probably have brought them all 
under her sway, if it had not been that all the states were called 
upon to unite their arms against the Persians 500 B. C. 

Parallel with the rise of Sparta was the growth of Athens. At. 
first the Athenians were under kings, but by the time that relia- 
ble history begins, we find that Athens had become a republic. 
A privileged class of nobles managed the affairs. Thus, though 
Athens was a republic, it was not at the time a democracy. 

The people became discontented under their rule, and at length 
a statesman named Draco was appointed in 624 B. C. to draw up 
a written code of laws, which were so severe that Solon was com- 
missioned to remodel the constitution of Athens, 594 B. C. The- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 15- 

successful manner in which he performed this work laid the foun- 
dation of the happiness of his country. 

In 510 B. C, the Athenian state became a pure democracy, 
and the establishment of liberty and equality gave a great im- 
pulse to the spirit of patriotism. The result was that Athens 
»oon rose to be the leading state of Central Greece. In 500 B* 
C, the Ionian cities conquered by Cyrus revolted and Darius re- 
solved to chastise them. 

In execution of his purpose, instructed his son-in-law, Mardo- 
nius, to march an army against the Athenians. He was unable 
to reach Greece, but in the spring of 490 B. C, a vast force under 
a commander named Datis, sailed in six hundred trisemes from 
Lamos across the JE^ean, reducing the Cyclades islands on the 
way, and after capturing Evetria, made a landing in the bay of 
Marathon, on the east coast of Attica. The plain of Marathon 
was the scene of the conflict, one of the most important and mo- 
mentous in history. The little Athenian band under Miltiades 
defeated a Persian army of ten times its size, and hostilities on 
the part of the Persians were not again renewed till after the 
death of Darius, when his son Xerxes succeeded to the task, and 
another invasion was projected in 480 B. C. An army was col- 
lected, larger than ever seen before, and transported across the 
Hellespont. The Greeks resolved to take their stand in the 
celebrated Pass of Thermopylae. When the Persian host reached 
Thermopylae and sought to force the pass, the Grecian guard 
made a stout defense, and for two days kept the enemy at bay, 
but on the third day, their commander Leonidas, fell, and the heroic 
band were killed to a man. The date of the battle was August, 
480 B. C. The fate of Greece was finally decided by a glorious 
naval combat. In the Bay of Salamis, the Greeks had assembled 
their whole force of three hundred and sixty-six ships. The Persians 
had about one thousand vessels, and two months after the battle 
of Thermopylae, the opposing fleets contended with each other, 
the fight ending in a complete victory for the Greeks. 

Leaving behind him a force of 300,000 men, Xerxes returned 
to Persia. The following year a decisive combat, in which 
the Greeks were completely successful, was fought at Plataea, be- 
tween this force and a Greek army of 70,000 men s under the 
Spartan Pauranias and the Athenian leader, Aristides, September, 
479 B. C. On the same day, a battle at Mycale effected the de- 
struction of the remnant of the Persian fleet. This ended the war, 
and the Persians never dared to invade Greece again. The 
most brilliant period of Athenian history followed this Persian 
defeat, the main cause being the part she had played in the wars. 

During this period, when the Athenian intellect was stimulated 
by a sense of national greatness, Grecian genius put forth its rich- 
est blossoms of literature and art. Also in this ajre, the seeds 



16 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

were sown of that terrible civil strife that rent the glory of Greece; 
for Pericles, the statesman, lived to see the outbreak of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. This war was a conflict between Athens and her 
allies, on the one hand, and Sparta and her allies on the other. 

The immediate occasion of the war was a conflict between 
Corinth and Corcyra. Siding with the latter, Athens excited the 
wrath of the Dorian confederacy; and a Spartan army invaded At- 
tica, 331 B. C. During the first ten years of the wars he two parties 
contended with nearly equal success, the Athenians being much 
the stronger by sea, and the Spartans and their allies by land. 

A peace was than concluded, called the "Peace of Nicias,'' 
which was to last for fifty years, but the Athenians in B. C. 415, 
sent a fleet and force for the conquest of Syracuse. Sparta sent 
aid to the Syracusans, and thus the Peloponnesian war was 
renewed. During the last eight years the war was car- 
ried on mainly at sea, off the coast of Asia. Sparta allied her- 
self with Persia, but by the defeat of the Athenians at ^Egos 
Patamos, in the Hellespont, B. C. 405, Athens was compelled to 
surrender. The result of the Peloponnesian war left Sparta the 
greatest power of Greece. For thirty- four years after the war a 
new power was arising in Greece in the presence of Thebes. The 
greatness of this state was the work of two men — Epaminondas 
and Pelopidas, — who knew how to inspire their fellow citizens 
with their own heroic spirit. To revenge themselves for the in- 
sults of Sparta, they began a long heroic struggle, the decisive 
battle of which was fought at Leuctra, 371 B. C. Sparta was de- 
feated and fell suddenly and forever. Thebes was now the lead- 
ing state of Greece and remained so until the death of Epaminon- 
das, 362 B. C. 

The struggle between Sparta and Thebes resulted in the gen- 
eral exhaustion of Greece, so that the country soon afterward fell 
an easy prey to Philip of Macedon. 

The Macedonians, though closely allied to the Greeks, remained 
in obscurity until the middle of the fourth century B. B., when 
there came a bold and energetic prince, Philip, son of Augustus 
II. He assumed the government of Macedonia, in 359 B. C., and 
immediately set on foot a plan for the elevation of the country. 
Step by step his ambition grew, till he began to think of a grand 
scheme of conquest. His direct aggressions on Athens com- 
menced about 358 B. C, and for twenty years a system of war 
and intrigue was carried out, which at length made him master of 
Greece. In 338 B. C. he won a decisive victory over the Athe- 
nians and Thebans; this crushed the liberty of Greece, and made 
it a province of Macedonia. 

Philip was succeeded by his son Alexander, known as Alex- 
ander the Great. In the year 334, he set out on his great expe- 
dition of conquest, and as he never returned to Greece or Macedo- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. . 17 

nia, we must turn away from Greek history proper, for a moment 
and follow him up. 

Alexander crossed the Hellespont with a small army of 35,000 
men, and advanced to the Granicus (in Asia Minor). Here a 
Persian army was met and defeated B. C. 334. He then passed 
through the other Persian provinces of Asia Minor, and entered 
Syria. At Issus he won a signal victory (333 B. C). 

From here he proceeded against Tyre, Gaza, and Egypt, at this 
time under the dominion of Persia. In twenty months these 
places were reduced. While in Egypt, he founded Alexandria. 
Now, having possessed himself of all the maritime provinces of 
Persia he proceeded into the heart of the empire, and was again 
victorious. Thus at the age of 25, Alexander saw himself master 
of Western Asia. He now projected great plans for conquest, 
but after marching to the Hyphasis river in India, his soldiers re- 
fused to follow him, and he retraced his steps. At the age of 
33, he died at Babylon, and his great empire soon crumbled to 
pieces. In the division of the country Egypt fell to the lot of 
Ptolemy, one of his generals. He was an energetic monarch and 
ruled well. After Alexander's death, the Greeks were inspired 
with high hopes of bursting the chains which bound them to 
Macedonia. Athens under Demonsthenes and Hyperides, took 
the lead; they formed a confederacy of the Greek states, and en- 
tered on what was known as the Lamian League. But the con- 
federates were unsuccessful, and the yoke of Macedonia was 
rivited on them more firmily than ever. During the last days of 
Greece, before she came altogether under the power of the Ro- 
mans, the chief powers were Macedonia, Achsea, iEtolia and 
Sparta. These states formed themselves into leagues, the most im- 
portant being the Achaean and ^Etolian Leagues. 

These confederations subserved a useful purpose, as they en- 
abled them to preserve a front of independence against Mace- 
don. The states of the Achaean League rose to a considerable 
eminence; but the jealous selfishness of Sparta once more led to 
discord and strife, and the Macedonian, king, being called in as 
umpire, once more became master. But Macedon itself was 
swallowed up by Rome, after a long conflict, at the final battle of 
Pydna, 168 B. C. After this event, the Greek republics were for 
a short time left independent; but quarreling once more among 
themselves, were finally reduced to a Roman province (146 B. C), 
under the name of Achia. 

GRECIAN CIVILIZATION. 

The great contribution to the world's civilization given by 
Greece was the example of free, self-governing states. In the 
Oriental nations, the government was only despotic; it was left 



18 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

for the Greek states to give an illustration of democracy, " the 
government of the people, for the people, by the people." 

This was a fact of great value; for it is only in an atmosphere 
of freedom that the human mind can expand or progress. 

The religion of the Greeks was never as exalted as that of the 
Hebrews, for the Greeks were polytheists, yet it was greatly in ad- 
vance of the superstitions of most ancient nations. 

It received its peculiar form from the beautiful fables of Homer 
and Hesiod. Thus their mythology was an inexhaustible treas- 
ury of highly ideal conceptions embodied in forms of immortal 
grandeur and loveliness. In the history of the gods, the first 
events are the proceedings of certain gigantic agents, which were 
finally reduced under the more orderly government of Zeus or 
Jupiter. Zeus divided the sovereignty with his two brothers, — 
Poseidon (Neptune) and Hades (Pluto) ; retaining for himself the 
ether and atmosphere, he bestowed the sea upon Neptune, and 
land of shades upon Hades. 

These deities, with sisters and progeny, comprehended the gods 
worshiped by the early Greeks. Twelve were called the Olym- 
pian gods, being supposed to dwell on the top of Mount Olym- 
pus, and to form the divine council of the gods which was held 
there. By the Greeks all nature was imaged as moving and 
working through innumerable personal agents; and though many 
of the legends in regard to these personages appear very silly, yet 
they were in many cases composed of beautiful and poetic con- 
ceptions. 

The popular worship of the deities consisted in sacrifices, which 
were either offerings of prayer and thanksgiving or sin-offerings, 
which were either animals, or inanimate objects, as fruits, wine, 
honey, milk, etc. The Greeks believed that they obtained reve- 
lations of the divine will from the oracles, of which the most re- 
nowned were those of Zeus at Dodona, and of Apollo at Delphi. 

The most striking feature of Grecian life was the gathering of 
the people at the four national festivals, the Olympic, Pythian, 
Isthmian, and Nemean games. " 

These festivals were celebrated in honor of Jupiter Apollo, 
Neptune, and the Nemean Jupiter. The great feature of the fes- 
tivals were those games in which prizes were awarded to the vic- 
tors in athletic exercises, in foot, horse, and chariot races, in music 
and poetry. 

They lasted for several days and drew together an immense con- 
course of people from all parts of Greece, thus affording the best 
possible means for commercial, social, and literary intercourse, 
which must have powerfully tended to maintain that intellectual 
sympathy, which was the strongest bond of nationality among the 
sons of Hellas. 

The literature of Greece is the most valuable of ail the iitera- 




Shadoof — Raising water in Egypt. 




Oriental Women on Camels. 




SCENE ON THE OHONOCO. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 21 

ture of antiquity. It is far richer and grander than the Roman, 
for, with the Greeks, came noble intellectual conceptions, em- 
bodied in forms of literary art. The oldest Greek poems that we 
have are the two immortal epics that go by the name of Homer, — 
namely, the Iliad and Odyssey, which are the finest epics ever 
written. They were for centuries lodged only in the memory of 
bards, who sang or recited them at festivals, or before assembled 
companies. 

The next poet was Hesiod, who lived in the eighth century. 
His two most famous books are the " Theogony" and the 
u Works and Days." The next style of poetry is called the Elegiac. 
The first writer of the Elegy was Syrtaeus, a lame schoolmaster at 
Athens, who sang songs to urge on the Spartan warriors in one of 
their campaigns. Lyric poetry was the next development of lit- 
erature in Greece. The chief feature of this style was its connec- 
tion with music, for these poems were always sung, accompanied 
with music and often with dancing. The most noted names in 
Greek lyric poetry are Sappho, Alcseus, Anacreon, and Pindar. 

The drama, which arose in Athens in the fifteenth century, was 
the highest form of Greek literature. iEschylus, Euripides, and 
Sophocles were the principal writers of this form of poetry. We 
now turn to prose literature. Herodotus, called the " Father of 
History," was the first great historian. He wrote charming de- 
scriptions of the Persian wars, including most interesting pictures 
of life and society among the nations of that time. The most 
philosophic historian produced by Greece was Thucydides, who 
wrote out the Peloponnesian wars. Xenophon, a contemporary of 
Thucydides, distinguished himself for his easy and graceful style 
of narrative; Polybius, another historian, lived in the second cen- 
tury B. C; Diodorus in the first century, and Plutarch in the 
second. Oratory must be mentioned in connection with prose 
literature. It was principally cultivated in Athens, and was ex- 
hibited in its highest development in the contest between JEs- 
chines, the advocate of Macedonian interests, and Demosthenes, 
who exposed and opposed the plans of Philip. 

Philosophy was first cultivated in the Grecian colonies of Asia 
Minor and Lower Italy; in the former by Thales, and in the latter 
by Pythagoras. These chiefly occupied themselves with natural 
philosophy. Socrates, one of the wisest men who ever lived (469- 
399 B. C); did not teach any positive system of philosophy; but 
strove to assert the existence of great necessary truths; which he 
did by a method of searching inquiry called, after him, the Soc- 
ratic. Plato, one of his disciples, was the founder of the Aca- 
demic school, near Athens, where the philosopher gave his lectures. 
The Platonic doctrines have had a powerful influence on the hu- 
man mind, and are the high-water mark of spirituality in the an- 
cient world. Aristotle (384-322 B. C), the founder of the Peri- 



22 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

patetic school at the Lyceum at Athens, was the most logical and 
systematic of the philosophers and scientists of Greece. He first 
gave form to what is called the deductive system of reasoning, and 
his philosophy predominated over the minds of men for two thou- 
sand years, when it was displaced by the inductive system, with 
which the name of Bacon is associated. Aristotle was the instruc- 
tor of Alexander the Great. 

The fine arts are architecture, sculpture, painting, and music, 
in the first two of which the Greeks attained a degree of perfec- 
tion never witnessed before or since. The temples of the gods 
are the most important architectural works; in these we find the 
three classic forms of the Grecian column, — the Doric, the Ionic, 
and the Corinthian. In sculpture the Greeks attained absolute 
perfection. The figures that adorned the Parthenon are the finest 
specimens. They were executed by a school of artists under the 
direction of Phidias and Praxiteles, who belonged to the grand 
period following the Persian wars. 

The mode of life and the manners and customs of the Greeks, 
form a very interesting subject. The dress was simple, consist- 
ing of but few articles, which were of wool, linen and cotton. 
Neither men nor women wore head-covering, and in-doors, no 
foot- covering. They daily ate three meals, reclining on couches, 
and using neither table-cloth nor napkins. Dried fish and barley 
bread with dates, formed the staple food, though among the rich 
all sorts of luxuries were indulged in. The state did not support 
schools, yet daily school-going was quite general. The whole 
education of a Greek youth was divided into three parts, — gram- 
mar, music and gymnastics. "Woman did not hold a very exalted 
position. She was kept secluded in the female apartment, both 
before and after marriage, and was given just enough mental cul- 
ture to enable her to manage the household, provide for the bodily 
wants of the children, and overlook the female slaves; so that we 
must look at Greek society as destitute of the refining and en- 
nobling influence of cultured mothers, sisters and wives. To 
Christianity are we indebted for the elevations of woman to her 
true place in society. 

THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

The records of the early days of Rome were destroyed when the 
city was burned by the Gauls, 380 B. C; and Livy, the earliest 
writer on Roman affairs whose works have come down to us, 
wrote nearly 600 years after the foundation of the city. At a very 
early period, the Latins in the district of Latrium, formed a con- 
federacy of thirty cities, at the head of which was the city of 
Alba Longa. It is believed that Rome was founded by a colony 
that went out from Alba Longa, with the view of establishing 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 23 

there an outpost of defense against the Sabines and Etruscans, 
whose territory joined Latrium at this point. The founding of 
the city is placed in the year 753 B. C. Tradition handed down 
the names of seven kings who ruled Rome during the regal period 
(753-509 B, C), but even the names themselves are believed to 
be fictitious. The Roman citizens were from the earliest times 
divided into two classes, Patricians and Plebeians, a distinction 
of great importance in Roman history. To the Patricians be- 
longed all magisterial offices, all the higher degrees of the priest- 
hood, the ownership of the public lands, and the privilege of 
using a family Dame. The Plebeians, though freemen and per- 
sonally independent, were wholly destitute of political importance. 
During the reign of the fifth king, Servius Tuliius, the Plebeians 
were given a share in the government. He established a new 
national assembly called the Comitia Centuriata, an Assembly of 
the Hundreds, in which both Patricians and Plebeians voted alike. 
Tarquinins Superbus, the seventh king, undertook to undo these 
reforms, and to establish what the ancients called tyranny; but 
he was expelled from Rome with his family, and the kingly form 
of government was abolished 509 B. C. 

The history of Rome as a republic covers a period of 479 years 
(509 B. C.-27 B. C.) When it ceased to be under kingly rule it 
became a republic. Instead of a king, two magistrates called con- 
suls were elected every year. 

In other respects the constitution remained as before. The 
first consuls were Brutus and Collatinus. Rome had attained a 
high degree of power under her kings. The state of affairs under 
the republic was for a long time much less fortunate. The Ro- 
mans became engaged in contests with their neighbors, and soon 
after the change of government, they lost a considerable part of 
their dominion. These were: Wars with the Etruscans; war 
with the Sabines, Volscians and ^Equians; wars with the^Equians, 
and Veientines, and finally, after a century of strife, Rome was over- 
whelmed by the Gauls, 390 B.C. In addition to troubles without, the 
young republic had to meet internal difficulties; a struggle between 
the Patricians and Plebeians, the first of a long series of social con- 
quests that constitute the most important portion of the annals of 
the early commonwealth. After a time, two magistrates, chosen 
from the Plebeians, and called Tribunes of the Plebs, were ap- 
pointed. These afterwards became ten in number. They held 
office for a year, during which time their persons were sacred, and 
they could nullify any decree of the senate, they thought injuri- 
ous to the commons. A code of laws was afterwards prepared, 
and consuls were elected from the Plebeians. 

After the Gallic invasions which ended in 390 B. C, the Plebe- 
ians were in a state of great poverty and distress, and the severe 
measures of the Patricians threatened to reduce them to a state of 



24 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

practical slavery. The contest came to a crisis in 376 B. C. At 
this time two bold and able tribunes of the people, Licinius Stolo 
and Lucius Sextius, came forward with a plan to settle all the 
difficulties. 

They found two evils to be remedied, — material want, and po- 
litical inequality. The first was to be mitigated by a new plan, 
providing that the interest already paid on debts should be de- 
ducted from the capital, and the residue in three years, and also 
that the Patricians, who had hitherto held all the public lands 
should be confined to 500 jugera, (a jugerum was rather more 
than a half acre), and the remainder should be distributed among 
the Plebeians. For the second evil, the new plan restored the 
consuls, and provided that one should always be chosen from the 
Plebeians. This new constitution, known as the Licinian Roga- 
tions, was resisted to the utmost by the Patricians; but all their 
efforts were unavailing, and the plan became a law in 367 B. C. 
In the following year Lucius Sextius was elected as the Plebe- 
ian consul. All the other offices were soon thrown open to the 
commons, so that at last, after the long struggle, perfect political 
equality was established. From this time begins the golden age 
of Roman politics. Up to this time the Romans were but a small 
nation; their territory included but a few townships on the Tiber, 
and the whole number of adult Roman citizens at the close of the 
fifth century was under 300,000. With the settlement of politi- 
cal difficulties in the middle of the fourth century, we enter on a 
new era of Roman history. The republic now began a series of 
wars for dominion. These were with their immediate neighbors 
the Latins; with their distant relatives, the various Italian nation- 
alities; with the Greek settlements in Southern Italy; with the 
Gauls in Northern Italy. The series of wars against Etruscans, 
Latins, Samnites, and Gauls, is known in Roman history by the 
general designation of the "Latin wars" and the " Samnite Wars." 
They fill the time between 343 and 290 B. 0. These were suc- 
ceeded by a short, brisk war, designated in Roman history, " the 
war with Pynbus and the Greeks in Italy." The subjugation of 
Southern Italy, known as Great Greece, soon followed, and at the 
close of the year B. 0. 266, Rome reigned supreme over the 
length and breadth of the peninsula of Italy, from the southern 
boundary of Cisalpine Gaul to the Sicilian Straits, and from the 
Tuscan Sea to the Adriatic. The era of Rome's first great foreign 
conquests, from 266 B. O. to 133 B. C, embraces the Punic and 
Macedonian wars, and lasts down to the rise of the civil broils 
under the Gracchi. In the middle of the third century B. O. the 
great maritime power of the western Mediterranean was Carthage. 
It was hardly possible that two such powers as Rome and Car- 
thage should not come into collision, and it was the more likely, 
as the island of Sicily lay between them, where the Carthaginians 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTOBY. 25 

bad large possessions, and where the Greek cities were closely- 
connected with the Greek subjects of Rome in Southern Italy. 
The pretext soon came, for the Mamertines, a body of Campanian 
mercenaries, who had seized the town of Messana on the Sicilian 
Straits, being threatened with destruction by the combined Car- 
thaginians and Syracusans, applied to Rome for help, and were 
readily received into alliance. From this resulted the first Punic 
war, which lasted for twenty-three years (264-241 B. C). 

The treaty at the close compelled the Carthaginians to evacu- 
ate Sicily and the adjacent islands, to pay a heavy indemnity, and 
to recognize the independence of Hien, king of Syracuse. 

That part of Sicily which the Carthaginians had possessed was 
organized into a province, thus commencing a new feature of Ro- 
man rule, the institution of provincial government. 

Having thus triumphed over Carthage, the Romans' turned 
their eyes toward Cisalpine Gaul. The Gauls took the alarm and 
began a movement toward Rome. They were, however, met by 
three armies, and were so thoroughly punished, that in three years 
all Cisalpine Gaul submitted to Rome, 222 B. C. The Carthagin- 
ians felt that they had been deeply wronged by the Romans, and 
ever since the close of the war they had been studying how the 
injury might be revenged. 

Under Hamilcar Barca, they first directed their attention to 
Spain as a fit " base of operations" against the Romans. Hamil- 
car fell in battle, his son who succeeded him was assassinated, and 
the command of the army devolved upon Hannibal. He immedi- 
ately carried the Carthaginian line up to the Ebro, and besieged 
Sasruntum, an ally of Rome. 

The city fell, and Rome declared hostilities. The result was 
the second Punic war, which began in the year 218 B. C. Before 
the Roman army was ready to take the field, Hannibal, one of the 
greatest generals who ever lived, crossed the Pyrenees on his way 
to Italy. He then proceeded to perform one of the most famous 
exploits on record. With his army he climbed over the Alps, 
losing 30,000 men, burst into the plain of Italy, and defeated the 
Romans in four battles, the greatest of which was Cannas, fought 
in 216 B. C. In Italy the career of Hannibal was most extraor- 
dinary; for fifteen years he maintained himself in the peninsula, 
and might have remained there for an indefinite time, had it not 
been that the Romans assumed the offensive against Carthage. 
Publius Scipio, was sent into Spain, which he reduced to the con- 
dition of a Roman province. Scipio now passed over into Africa, 
and having defeated the Carthaginians in several battles, so terri- 
fied the authorities at Carthage, that they recalled Hannibal from 
Italy. 

The final battle of the war was fought on the plains of Gama, 
in Africa, in the year 202 B. C. The victory was with the Ro- 



26 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

mans, and the Carthaginians, in consequence, were obliged tc 
agree to a peace on very severe terms. The third Punic war be- 
gan in 149 B. C. The siege of Carthage, which lasted four years, 
and was conducted on the part of the Romans by the younger 
Scipio, was the one event of the final struggle. 

Carthage with its walls and buildings, the habitations of 700,- 
000 people, was razed to its foundations. The Carthaginian ter- 
ritory was then made into the Roman province of Africa, under a 
pro-consul, and the seat of government was fixed at Utica (B. C. 
146.). The Roman Dominion, had in the meantime been enlarged 
by the annexation of Macedonia and Greece. At the commence- 
ment of the period of conquest, the Roman Dominion was con- 
fined to the peninsula of Italy; at its close it extended over the 
whole of Southern Europe, from the shores of the Atlantic to the 
Straits of Constantinople, over the chief Mediterranean Islands, 
and over a portion of North Africa, while farther east, in Egypt,. 
Asia Minor, and Syria, her influence was paramount. 

The Roman Dominion now became a duality, it was "Italy and 
the Provinces." The luster of the Roman power and the glory of 
the Roman name were now at their height. 

The eyes of all the world were now on Italy, the young Repub- 
lic of the West. The effect on Rome of the conquest of the 
Grecian countries was very marked. Greek scholars, flute-play- 
ers, and philosophers in large numbers took up their abode in 
Rome. 

The city swarmed with Greek schoolmasters, who became per- 
manent inmates of the palaces of Rome; people speculated in 
them, and there is a statement that the sum of 200,000 sesterces 
($10,000), was paid for a Greek literary slave of the first-class. 

The stimulus of Greek literary culture led to native production,, 
and in the second century B. C, we have the beginning of that 
Latin literature which we still read. 

The political system of Rome now began to lead to a dreadful 
state of public corruption. The Roman government had been 
devised only for the rule of a- city. The demands of the large 
planters and merchants led to a great extension of the slave-trade. 
All lands and nations were laid under contributions for slaves, but 
the places where they were chiefly captured were Syria and the 
interior of Asia Minor. It is probable that, at the middle of the 
second century B. C, there were 12,000,000 sWes against 5,000,- 
000 free inhabitants in the Italian Peninsula, — a most lamentable 
state of affairs ! 

In addition to the slaves, the country became filled up with a 
motley parasitic population from Asia, Africa, and the other con- 
quered lands, — and the result of this intermixture was a marked 
degeneracy in the Roman race itself. 

The decay of old Roman virtue became at the same time appar- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 27 

entinagreat increase of luxury, the evil system went on increasing, 
and finally, a century afterwards, it resulted in the total subver- 
sion of the republic. Roman society had now ceased to have any 
middle class, and was divided between two extremes, — grandees 
and slaves. The cause of the poor was taken up by a noble 
young tribune of the people, named Tiberius Gracchus. He 
with his brother Caius (the two being known in history as the 
Gracchi), were sons of a noble Roman matron, Cornelia, daughter 
of the great Scipio Africanus. 

Tiberius proposed a land law, which was practically a revival 
of the Licinian law. The Gracchi were soon afterwards mur- 
dered, but their work remained. The ill-will between the nobles 
and the people was just as bitter, and matters finally shaped 
themselves in such a way that the nobles came to be represented 
by a leader named Sulla, and the Commons by another named 
Marius. These men finally acquired such power as to bring on a 
civil strife that deluged Italy with blood. 

These wars were the Jugurthine war (111-106 B. C), the war 
against the Cimbri (113-101 B. C), the Social war (90-80 B. C), 
and the Mithridatic war. The command in the last war obtained 
by Sulla, who defeated the army of Mithridates, and subjugated 
Greece. During his absence, Marius entered Rome in 86 B. C, 
filled the city with bloodshed, and caused the murder of the lead- 
ing senators that had supported his rival. 

Then he caused himself to be proclaimed consul without going 
through with an election; but a fortnight later he died. 

His party, however, continued in power. Sulla, hearing of their 
successes, hastily concluded a peace with Mithridates, and hur- 
ried to Italy. After a severe struggle, he utterly overthrew the 
Marians. Then he caused himself to be proclaimed dictator for 
an unlimited time, and proceeded to reorganize the government 
wholly in the interest of the aristocratic party; but to the great 
surprise of every one, after three years he resigned his power 
and retired to private life. 

Sulla died in 78 B. C. Cneius Pompey was the most promi- 
nent figure in the aristocratic party, being elected consul in the 
year 70 B. C, with a rich senator named Crassus. 

At the expiration of his year of office, he retired to private 
life, but was soon called upon to suppress a formidable combina- 
tion of pirates who infested the Mediterranean Sea, 

He procured the command in the war against Mithridates, who 
had renewed his scheme of conquering the Eastern Roman pro- 
vinces. 

The war lasted for four years, and was marked by a series of 
brilliant triumphs for Pompey. He utterly crushed Mithridates, 
subdued Phoenicia, made Syria a Roman province, and took Jerusa- 



28 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

lem. Thus with the glory of having subjugated and settled the 
East, he returned to Rome. 

After the death of Sulla, there grew up four factions in Rome; 
"the oligarchical faction," at the head of which was Pompey; the 
"Marian party," headed by the famous Julius Caesar; the "aris- 
tocratic faction" headed by Crassus; and the "military faction, a 
crowd of old officers of Sulla, who were eager for some revolution 
that might give them the opportunity to improve their condition, 
their leader being Catiline. Caesar and Pompey, finding that they 
agreed in many of their views, resolved to unite their forces. To 
cement the union more closely, Cassar gave his only daughter 
Julia in marriage to Pompey. For various reasons it was found 
desirable to admit Crassus to their political partnership, and thus 
was formed what was known in Roman history as the " First 
Triumvirate," (60 B. C). Next year Caesar was elected to the 
consulship, and when his term of office expired he obtained for 
himself the government of Gaul for five years, and then for 
another five. 

During the years 58-50 B. C, he made eight campaigns in 
Gaul, forming the remarkable series of operations which he after- 
wards described with such pointed style in his commentaries. 
The result of his eight y ears' campaign was that, in the spring of 
50 B. C, Caesar was able to take up his residence in Cisalpine 
Gaul, leaving the tribes which he had captured, not only pacified, 
but attached to him personally. During Caesar's absence, Pom- 
pey and Crassus were elected consuls for the year 55 B. C.; and 
when their own year of office expired, obtained important com- 
mands; Pompey secured the government of Spain, as pro-consul, 
for five years, and Crassus a similar appointment over the East. 
Soon after this, Crassus was murdered, and the triumvirate be- 
came a decemvirate, or league of two men, Caesar and Pompey. 
As- the period of Caesar's command would expire in the year 49 
B. C, he had determined to obtain the consulship for the year 48 
B. C, since otherwise he would become a private citizen; but 
this was denied him and he took arms against his country. In 
sixty days he made himself master of Italy. Then marching to 
Rome he had himself appointed dictator and consul for the year 
48 B. C. He showed masterly statesmanship, and soon brought 
the current of general opinion completely over to his side. Mean- 
time, Pompey had gathered a powerful army in Thessaly, and 
thither Caesar with his legions proceeded against him. The de- 
cisive battle between them was fought at Pharsalia, in 48 B. C. 
It resulted in the utter defeat of Pompey; and as it left Caesar 
the foremost man in the Roman world, it must be regarded as 
one of the great decisive battles of history. At Alexandria Caesar 
became bewitched by Cleopatra of Egypt. Having mixed himself 
up with a quarrel that was going on between her and her 




A STKEET IN CAIRO. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 31 

younger brother Ptolemy, he was brought into conflict 
with the troops of the king. Csesar was finally successful. 
Soon afterwards he returned to Rome. The republic went 
out when Oato fell upon his sword at Utica; the monarchy 
came in with the triumphal entry of Csesar into Rome in the 
summer of 46 B. C. His position of chief of the state was there: 
he was invested with the dictatorship for ten years, — an arrange- 
ment changed soon afterward to perpetual dictator, — and was 
hailed with the title of Imperator for life. His rule was just, and 
the Romans were satisfied. It is important to recognize this as 
the real state of public feeling, because we shall now have to see 
that Caesar fell a victim to assassination, and it might be thought his 
overthrow was the people's revolt from monarchial rule. A con- 
spiracy headed by Caius Cassius and Marcus Junius Brutus was 
made against him. Both of these men had received great favors 
from Cassar, but they felt that they had not been honored enough, 
and were jealous of the dictator's greatness. The conspiracy 
finally included about sixty senators, and he was assassinated on 
the Ides (i.e., loth,) of March. After Cassar's death, Antony and 
Octavius, associating with them Lepidus, formed the second Tri- 
umvirate (43 B. C), and concerted a plan to divide among them- 
selves the supreme authority. After a bloody year they completed 
the division. Antony made the headquarters of his half at Alex- 
andria. Joined in marriage with Cleopatra, he was finally con- 
quered by Octavius 31 B. C, and Egypt became a Roman 
province. There was now no one left to withstand Octavius 
Caesar, who then remained sole master of the great dominion 
which the mighty Julius had prepared for him. Gradually all the 
great offices were united in his person and he became Emperor 
of the Roman world. The Roman Empire began in the year 27 
B. C, when Octavius was saluted with the new and peculiar title 
of Augustus. The boundaries of the empire as founded by 
Augustus may be stated in a general way as follows : On the 
north, the British Channel, the North Sea, the Rhine, the Danube, 
and the Black Sea; on the east, the Euphrates and the Desert of 
Syria; on the south, the Sahara of Africa; and on the west, the 
Atlantic Ocean. It extended about 2700 miles from east to west, 
and had an average breadth of about 1000 miles. Within the 
circuit of the Roman Dominion there were three distinct civiliza- 
tions: the Latin, the Greek, and the Oriental. 

The first took in the countries from the Atlantic Ocean to the 
Adriatic; Greek civilization, from the Adriatic to Mount Taurus; 
and Oriental, the lands beyond the Euphrates. Within the limits 
of the Roman Empire there were probably 100,000,000 of human 
beings. 

Not less than one-half were in a condition of slavery; and, oi 
the rest, only that small proportion who, under the envied name 



32 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

of Roman citizen, inhabited Italy, enjoyed political independence, 
or had the smallest share in the government. 

Of this vast Empire, Rome was the metropolis, a city of in- 
numerable streets and buildings, and containing a population of 
about two millions and a half. It was in this period that Rome 
became truly a splendid city. Rome was inferior to Athens in 
architectural beauty, but far surpassed the Grecian city in works 
of public utility. To enumerate all the notable edifices would be 
impossible here; but we may say that the "Eternal City," in the 
zenith of its glory contained four hundred and twenty temples, 
five theatres, two amphitheatres and seven circuses of vast extent. 
There were sixteen public baths built of marble, and the palaces, 
public halls, columns, porticos and obelisks were without number. 
The reign of Augustus is rendered memorable by the birth of 
Christ at the little village of Bethlehem, in Judea, the most mo- 
mentous event in the spiritual history of the world. Reckoned in 
our common era, this event took place in the year 4 B. C. 
Augustus died in 14 A. D., so that he ruled over Roman Domin- 
ion for forty-one years. 

For nearly three centuries after his death, the empire remained 
pretty nearly as he had left it. Though the Senate still continued 
to sit, and consuls to be elected, the Roman world became 
thoroughly accustomed to the rule of one man. At first, the em- 
pire was inherited by those who could claim decent from Au- 
gustus, or who had been adopted into the family. Nero was 
really the last emperor of the Augustan family, though all who 
succeeded to the empire, went on calling themselves Cassar and 
Augustus to the last. It soon came about that the real power be- 
hind the throne was the soldiery. During the first century of the 
Christian era the only accession which the Romans received was 
the province of Britain. The next addition was Dacia, made by 
Trajan in the early part of the second century. 

By this time the Latinizing of the western provinces was com- 
pletely effected; that is to say, in language, manner, and ideas, 
the inhabitants had become thorough Romans. A very interest- 
ing proof of this is that many of the best and bravest of the later 
emperors were provincials, or barbarians, as they would before 
this have been called. When there ceased to be any distinction 
between Italy and the rest of the Roman Empire, the importance 
of Rome as the centre of the imperial dominion was much 
diminished. Diocletian was one of a series of able Illyrians, that 
rose to the purple. 

He divided the empire between himself and Maximian, one of 
his generals, he retaining the east, while Maximian ruled over the 
western peoples. Not content with this, Diocletian took an as- 
sistant, and made his colleague do the same. These sub -rulers 
were called Caesars, and it was intended that they should after- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 33 

wards succeed to the imperial power. This arrangement did not 
last long, and after various struggles, the whole empire was re- 
united under Constantine the Great, in A. D. 323. 

Constantine made a change which had a great effect upon the 
later history of the Roman world. He removed the capital of the 
empire to the old Greek city of Byzantium, on the Bosphorus, 
which he called New Rome, but which has been better known 
-since as Constantinople. Theodosius was the last emperor who 
reigned over the whole Roman Empire. Upon his death, in A. D. 
395, the vast dominion was divided between his sons Honorius 
and Arcadius. 

From that date the history of Rome divides itself into two dis- 
tinct histories, that of the Western or Latin Empire, and that of 
the Eastern, Greek, or Byzantine Empire. 

Christianity was effecting a more momentous change on the 
minds of men, during the five centuries of imperial Rome, than 
any political revolution which could take place. In the time of 
Augustus, the different peoples and nations under the Roman 
sway had a variety of religions, but all, with the exception of the 
Jews, were pagans and polvtheists. 

Jesus Christ was crucified in the nineteenth year of the reign 
of Tiberius; at Antioch in Syria, where Barnabus and Saul taught 
the faith, the disciples were first called " Christians." And then 
began those journeys by which St. Paul carried the gospel through 
Asia Minor and Greece, until he was himself carried a prisoner to 
Rome to die in the reign of Nero. The Christian religion silently 
but surely spread itself; first among the Jews, then among the 
Greeks, among the Latins. The existence of Christianity in the 
Roman Empire is first signalized by the persecutions to which the 
Christians were subjected. In spite of this, the church constantly 
advanced and made converts, and in the first half of the third 
century, were permitted to erect and consecrate edifices for reli- 
gious worship; to purchase lands; and to conduct the elections of 
their ecclesiastical ministers in a public manner. 

At last it became evident that a deadly struggle between the 
old faith and the new was inevitable, and this came in the reign 
of Diocletian and Maximian, at the commencement of the fourth 
century. Galerius, and the Caesar under him, were special ene- 
mies of the Christian and managed to have an edict issued com- 
manding all Christian churches to be pulled down, all Bibles to 
be flung into the fire, and all Christians degraded from rank and 
honor. Over all the empire the persecution raged, except where 
Constantine Chlorus reigned as Caesar under Maximian. Says a 
historian: "With little rest for eight years, the whip and the rack, 
the tigers, the hooks of steel, and the red hot beds continued to 
do their deadly work. And then, in A. D. 311, when life was fad- 
ing from his dying eye, Galerius issued an edict permitting Chris- 



34 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

tians to worship God in their own way." We come now to &n 
epoch, remarkable in the history of Christianity, namely, the reign 
of a Roman emperor who himself professed Christianity, Constan- 
tine, the son of Constantius Chlorus. 

The first fruit of his conversion appeared in a famous decree 
called the edict of Milan, A. D. 313; this restored peace to the 
Christian church. Christianity was established as the religion of 
the state in 324. Julian, known as Julian the apostate, who be- 
came emperor in 361, made a strong effort to restore the fallen 
gods; but the effort was in vain; and Theodosius gave the final 
blow to the heathen faith by prohibiting under severe penalties 
the worship of the old gods. The removal of the capital of the 
empire from Rome to Byzantium was a signal proof of the fact that 
Italy had ceased to be the centre of the Roman world. The em- 
pire was soon divided, and easily fell a prey to the new and vigor- 
ous Teutonic, or German tribes that for centuries had inhabited 
the forest of the North. The first great lodgment of the Teutons 
within the limits of the Roman Empire took place by permission 
of the Roman emperor Valeus, in the last half of the fourth cen- 
tury. The great Germanic family of the Goths at that time 
found an extensive kingdom in the lands north of the Danube. 
They had humbly vowed that they would make it their duty to 
guard the Roman border. In spite of this they had hardly been 
allowed to settle south of the Danube when they turned their 
arms against Valeus. In 378 they were brought to capitulate, 
and settled down quietly, and large numbers took service in the 
Roman army; but this course was only preparing the inevitable 
result. 

When the sons of Theodosius divided between them the Roman 
world, the Visigoths revolted, and hoisting their chief Alaric upon 
their shields, precipitated themselves upon Italy. Rome was 
captured and overthrown (A. D. 410), and all Southern Italy was 
devastated. 

In the early part of the century the province of Britain was 
evacuated by the Romans, and was soon overrun by the Angles 
and Saxons. Spain was conquered by Vandals, Suenes, and 
others, while Gaul was filled with Franks and Goths, all of whom 
belonged to the Teutonic family. Rome was captured A. D, 
455, and for fouiteen days it was wrecked and pillaged without 
mercy, The last of the Western Roman emperors was Romulus 
Augustus, a handsome but feeble youth, who was pensioned off 
in the year 476. Then, "when Odoaces was proclaimed king of 
Italy, the phantom assembly that still called itself the Roman 
Senate, sent back to Constantinople the tiara and the purple 
robe, in sign that the western empire had passed away." 



OtJR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 35 

ROMAN LIFE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, ETC. 

The most remarkable garment of the Romans was the toga, 
made of pure white wool, and in shape resembling a sequient of a 
circle. On the street it was exchanged for a mantle of warm 
cloth, called the pallium or lacerna. 

The head was almost always kept uncovered. In the house 
soles were strapped to the bare feet, and abroad the calceus,, 
nearly resembling our shoe, was worn. On the fourth finger, of 
the left hand, every Roman of rank wore a massive signet ring. 

The dress of Roman ladies consisted of three parts, — an inner 
tunic, the stola, a tunic, with short sleeves, girt around the waist,, 
and the palla, a gay-colored mantle worn out of doors. 

The early Romans lived chiefly on bread and pot-herbs but 
when wealth was introduced, they ate the most delicious food. 
They ate three meals, reclining upon couches. At feasts, instead 
of the toga, short dresses of red or other bright colors were worn,. 

The Romans spent much time in their splendid baths, 
where the gossip of the day was exchanged. The theatre sup- 
plied them with amusement. Roman books were rolls of papyrus- 
bark, written upon with a reed pen, dipped in lamp-black or sepia.. 
They had three forms of marriage, the highest being called con- 
farreatio. The bride was escorted by torchlights to her future 
home. A cake was carried before her, and she bore a distaff and 
spindle with wool. Arrived at the flower-wreathed portal, she 
was lifted over the threshold lest her foot might stumble over it. 
Her husband then brought fire and water, which she touched; 
and, seated on a sheepskin, she received the keysof the house. A 
marriage supper closed the ceremony. The household work was 
done by slaves of various classes. They may all be ranked under 
two heads, — bought slaves and born slaves. There was a slave- 
market, in which the common sort were sold like cattle; but the 
more beautiful or valuable were disposed of by private bargains, the 
prices ranging from $20 to $4,000. The principal apartments of 
the Roman house were as follows: first, an unroofed vestibule, 
then the atrium, or reception room, and farther in, a large saloon 
called the peristyle. On the roofs were bright gardens. In the 
houses were ivory bedsteads and other beautiful luxuries. But 
these descriptions apply, of course, to the wealthy, for the com- 
mon people lived very poorly. 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 



It has been seen that the Western Empire came to an end with 
the Visigothic chief, Odoaces. While he was governing, the 
Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths) established an Ostrogothic kingdom 
between the Black Sea and the Adriatic, which was ruled by their 
young hero-king Theodoric, or Dietrich. They were partly allies, 
but quite as much enemies, of the emperor of the East; so the 
Emperor Zeno gave Theodoric a commission to march into Italy, 
and bring that country back to the empire. After a three years' 
struggle Odoaces was compelled to capitulate (A. D. 493), and 
* was soon after assassinated. Theodoric secured his conquest by 
distributing one-third of the lands of Italy to his soldiers in mili- 
tary tenures. Under his rule Italy revived, and Romans and 
Ostrogoths lived in peace and plenty. So passed three-and- 
thirty years, until Theodoric died, in A. D. 526, and then fright- 
ful scenes of blood were enacted over his fallen throne. In this 
confusion the Byzantine government took the opportunity to in- 
terfere. The emperor of the east was Justinian, the first able 
ruler on the throne of Constantinople since the downfall of the 
Western Empire. His General Belisarius, a man of great military 
talent, now marched with the imperial forces into Italy, and cap- 
tured Rome. Narces, the successor of Belisarius, completed the 
overthrow of the Ostrogothic power in Italy, A. D. 533. Italy 
was then reduced to a Byzantine province, and was governed by 
rulers appointed from Constantinople and called the Exarchs of 
Ravenna. 

Three years after the death of Justinian, Italy, governed by an 
Exarch, was overthrown by the last great Teutonic deluge, the 
Lombards. While they overran the greater part of Italy, the 
Byzantine power still retained Ravenna, Rome, Naples, part of 
the coast-line, and most of the southern part. So, for two hun- 
dred years, the Lombard kings and the Exarchs of Ravenna 
divided Italy between them. The last Lombard king was De- 
siderius, who was made prisoner by Charlemagne in 774. 

In Gaul at this time, several Teutonic tribes were established. 
There were Visigoths and Burgundians and Franks, the latter 
having the upper hand, under Clovis. 
36 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 37 

They were too powerful and too far off for the Byzantine em- 
perors to have much real authority over them ; so they were held 
to be friends of the empire. On the death of Clovis, his dominions 
were divided among his four sons. Latterly the Frankish kings be- 
came mere imbeciles and were too weak even to be wicked. In 
this state of affairs, the power passed into the hands of a sort of 
prime minister, styled the Mayor of the Palace. One of the most 
celebrated of these mayors was Karl, or Charles, Martel, who up- 
held the Frankish power most vigorously, and, by his defeat of 
the Saracens in 732,, saved all Europe from being subjugated by 
Mohammedan rule. The son of Martel, Pepin, succeeded his 
father. 

We will now observe the foundations of the nation that after- 
wards rose to be England. The Roman troops had been with- 
drawn from the province of Britain about half a century 
before the downfall of Rome, and the Britons were left to shift 
for themselves. Various Teutonic tribes, knowing and caring- 
nothing for the language or arts of Rome, at different times in- 
vaded the country, and found for themselves new homes. They 
swept everything before them, and drove out the native Celtic 
Britons. The German immigration to England continued till the 
close of the sixth century; so that in a little more than a hundred 
years, the greater part of that land which had been the Christian 
province of Britain had become the heathen land of the Angles 
and Saxons. In the course of the following century the Anglo- 
Saxons were Christianized by Roman missionaries. Various 
little kingdoms were formed, which were finally united under 
Egbert, a contemporary and friend of Charlemagne. 

RISE OF THE SARACENS. 

We have now come to a remarkable chapter in European his- 
tory, — the invasion of Europe, the land of the Aryans, by a. 
Semitic race, the followers of the famous Mohammed, who was a 
reformer, claiming to be a prophet; and under him tribe after tribe- 
was subdued. Before the lapse of ten years the whole peninsula 
of Arabia acknowledged the sovereignty of Mohammed, and could 
boast of an unmixed population of Moslems, or True Believers. 
The prophet was preparing to carry the new religion beyond the- 
bounds of Arabia, when he was cut off by a fever at Medina in 
A. D. 632. He was succeeded by rulers, called his caliphs or 
successors, the first of whom was his father-in-law, Abu-beker,. 
They were at once spiritual and temporal rulers. 

They gave men everywhere the choice of three things — Koran,, 
tribute, or sword. By these means the religion of Mohammed 
was spread over a large part of Asia and Africa, and made its- 
way into Europe also. The first countries assailed were the Orien- 



38 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

tal possessions of the Byzantine Empire. In the reign of Abu- 
beker, Syria and Mesopotamia were subdued by Arabian armies. 
Under Omar, Egypt was conquered and Northern Africa overrun. 
In the west a stout resistance was encountered. The Saracens 
besieged Constantinople, against which they carried on a siege of 
eight years, (A. D. 668-6¥5); but every assault was repelled by 
torrents of Greek fire. A second siege, forty years afterward, 
met a like result. In North Africa they encountered long resist- 
ance; but finally the whole northern coast was subdued; and in 
710 a host of turbaned Arabs crossed the narrow strait into Spain 
and landed on the rock, Gibralter. It will be remembered that a 
Visigothic kingdom had been established in Spain, but Roderick, 
the last of the Goths, was defeated on the field of Xeres, and the 
Saracens established themselves in Spain. 

Their ambition now overleaped the Pyrenees. They obtained 
a lodgment in Southern Gaul, but Charles Martel gathered a 
powerful army, met the Saracens between Tours and Poitiers. A 
desperate battle, which lasted for seven days, ensued; but on the 
seventh the Saracens were defeated with great slaughter in 732. 
While they were thus stoppped from pushing their conquests 
farther into Europe, they firmly established themselves in Spain, 
where they founded a kingdom which lasted for 700 years. Their 
vast dominions held together for a short time, ruled by a single 
caliph in Spain and India. But soon disputes arose as to the 
right of succession to the caliphate: wars and secessions took 
place, and in 755 the Saracenic empire was divided, — one caliph 
•reigning in Spain and another in Bagdad. 

In the east the most distinguished ruler was Haroun-al-Raschid, 
who became caliph in A. D. 786, and was a contemporary of 
'Charlemagne. In Spain on the division of the Saracenic power, the 
rule was in the hands of the Ommiade line, and the capital was at 
Cordova. From this city the Ommiades ruled for 283 years, but 
in the eleventh century the supremacy of the Saracens gave place 
to the Moorish empire in Spain. 

EMPIRE OF CHALEMAGNE. 

Charlemagne was the son of Pepin, the first of the Carlovin- 
gian monarchs, who became sovereign of the Franks. He was 
born about A. D. 742. His real name was Karl, that is Charles; 
and though best known by his name of Charlemagne, yet he was 
no Frenchman, but a thorough Teuton in everything. The king- 
dom of the Franks to which he fell heir, formed an extensive do- 
main comprising portions of the countries we now call France and 
Germany. 

At the time Italy was divided between the Lombard and the 
eastern emperors, England had come into existence, but only as 




THE SHAH OF PERSIA. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 41 

a number of feeble, wavering states, and Spain was under the 
rule of the Moslems. In the meantime the Franks became the 
centre of that Teutonic civilization which was struggling into 
existence. The ruling idea of Charlemagne was the re- 
establishment of the Roman empire. In executing this design he 
aimed to use all the elements of civilization that the times 
presented, especially, the political ideas and instincts of 
the Teutons, and the adhesive power of the Christian church. 
The most important of his military enterprises were directed 
against the fierce Pagan nations -of Germany, and the wild Sla- 
vonians in the outlying lands beyond. With the Saxon con- 
federation, formed by the various Pagan tribes on the Weser and 
the Elbe, he had the most trouble, but at length they submitted 
to be baptized and to become peaceable subjects. Soon after this 
Bavaria was overpowered and became a part of the German ter- 
ritory; and Hungary was annexed to his dominions. The result 
of Charlemagne's conquest on the east side of the Rhine was that 
Germany was for the first time all united under one head, and the- 
Frankish kingdom was extended to the confluence of the Danube 
with the Theiss and the Save. An important expedition was 
made against the Saracens in Spain. The capture of Saragossa 
laid Aragon and Navarre at his feet, and he united the whole 
country as far as the Ebro to his own kingdom as a Spanish prov- 
ince. In Italy he defeated the Lombards, shut up their king in a 
monastery, and united the whole of Upper Italy to the kingdom 
of the Franks, (A.D.773). Thus by the year 800 Charlemagne found 
himself lord of a dominion as large as the ancient Roman Em- 
pire of the West, and extending from the Ebro on the west to the- 
Elbe in the northeast, the Theiss in the southeast, and including 
half of Italy, with Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearic Isles. This 
year forms the climax of Charlemagne's reign. 

He went in splendid state to Italy, and, while kneeling on the 
steps of the altar in prayer, the Pope, Leo III., placed a crown on 
his head and solemnly saluted him as " Emperor of the West," 
with the title of Charles L, Caesar Agustus. The latter years of 
the emperor were spent in labors for the consolidation of his em- 
pire and the elevation of his people. In activity he greatly re- 
sembled Napoleon. He died at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 814, at the 
age of seventy-two. The year before, he had caused his son 
Louis to assume the imperial crown. Louis, known as the gentle, 
was better fitted for a cloister, than the government of a warlike 
kingdom. His sons, among whom he divided his kingdom, turned 
their arms first against himself and then against one another. 
Finally, a treaty was made at Verdun, in 843, by which France, 
Germany and Italy became separate and independent states; so 
that in less than thirty years after the death of Charlemagne, the 



42 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

history of the Franks came to an end, and the history of France 
and Germany began. 

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

The most marked feature of society in the Middle Ages was 
Feudalism, or the Feudal System. This system sprang out of 
the peculiar relations of man to man among the various Teutonic 
tribes who obtained possession of the countries that had formed 
the Western Empire. Every free German who had helped his 
chief in conquering the country received as his share of the spoil 
a particular estate which was called his allodium, or freehold, — 
this estate being absolutely his own property. The chief as a 
matter of course received a very large domain as his share. After 
a time it became usual for him to grant portions of his own do- 
main to his followers and favorites, on condition of their being 
faithful to him, and doing him service in war. The land so grant- 
ed was called a feudum, and land held in this way was said to be 
held in feudal tenure. It soon happened that the feudal tenure 
of property prevailed over every other. It spread over all lands 
conquered by the Teutonic tribes; and was at last introduced into 
England by William of Normandy, when he couquered the 
country in 1066. 
The three influences that gradually undermined feudalism were: 

1. Royalty, 2. The Municipalities; 3. The Clergy. 

Among other influence that co-operated towards the destruc- 
tion of feudalism, were the Crusades, the change of the mode of 
war following the invention of gunpowder, the extension of com- 
merce, and in general the progress of knowledge. 

GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 

On the overthrow of the Western Empire the Bishop of Rome 
was naturally invested with great influence, and looked up to, not 
only in religious matter, but even in political affairs. Indeed, in 
the universal wreck it was the church alone that kept up the or- 
ganization of society. The very barbarians who overthrew the 
Roman Empire were themselves brought under the sway of the 
church. The temporal power of the Catholic church began when 
Charlemagne had overthrown the Lombard kingdom, was crowned 
king of Italy, and as emperor of the west confirmed the grant of 
territory which his father Pepin had made to the popes. After 
the death of Charlemagne there was a long period of confusion, 
under the weak rule of the Carlovingian kings of France, Italy, 
and Germany. During all this time the Papal power grew, and 
exercised a great authority in political matters. 

When, howevar, in the middle of the tenth century, the sover- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 43 

«eigns of Germany came to the emperors of the west, a long and 
bitter struggle between the popes and the emperors began. The 
struggle broke out on the question of the election of the popes. 
But the emperors were humbled in a most remarkable manner, by 
the dauntless energies of one man, a humble monk of Soana. This 
was Hildebrand, afterwards known as Gregory VII., one of the 
most illustrious men of the Middle Ages. He was called to Rome 
1049 by Pope Leo IX., to assist in the Papal councils as chancel- 
lor and cardinal. This office he held for twelve years under five 
popes. It was during this time that he matured his plan for the 
complete emancipation of the church. In 1073, Hildebrand rose 
to the Papal throne with the title of Gregory VII. His first 
measure was to annul the right of bestowing on bishops and ab- 
bots the ring and staff that were the symbols of their office. The 
Emperor, Henry IV., set this decree at defiance, and was excom- 
municated. Enraged at this, Henry prepared for war; but being 
denounced all over the land, he went to Canossa to seek pardon of 
the pope, which he obtained. Henry, however, had his revenge; 
he renewed the war, and Gregory, forced to flee from Rome, died 
in exile at Salerno, in 1084. 

Innocent III.* (1198-1216) vastly increased the Papal power. 
He forced the Imperial prefect of Rome to swear allegiance to 
him. Indeed, he claimed to be sovereign of Europe, — an earthly 
King of kings. 

THE CRUSADES. 

The Crusades were undertaken by the western nations of 
Europe for the recovery of the Holy Land from the Saracens and 
Turks. 

A strong desire to arrest the progress of the hated religion of 
Mohammed, and recover the Holy Land from Moslem desecra- 
tion was roused into action by the enthusiasm of a monk called 
Peter the Hermit. The cause was openly espoused by the pope, 
and two councils were held on the subject in 1095. The follow- 
ing spring was appointed as the time for beginning the move- 
ment to the East. Before this time, the impatience of the ruder 
multitudes of people grew too violent for restraint, and an im- 
mense concourse of pilgrims thronged about Peter the Hermit, 
and urged him to assume its command. The fanatic rashly ac- 
cepted the perilous charge; and under his guidance, and that of a 
Burgundian knight, the accumulating torrent, amounting to more 
than 250,000, took the route through Germany, Hungary, Bulga- 
ria, and Thrace. Meanwhile, the real chivalry of Europe had 
been mustering for the enterprise. None of the sovereigns took 
part in the movement; but the feudal chiefs ranged themselves 
<under distinguished leaders, and six separate armies were formed, 



44 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

which marched by different routes to Constantinople, The ap- 
pearance of this vast host alarmed the Greek emperor with the 
fear that the Latin princes might seek to secure the mastery of 
the East for themselves and not him. It was only by the threat 
of attacking Constantinople that he was made to withdraw his* 
opposition, and further the transit of the Crusaders into Asia Mi- 
nor. The first movement of the Crusaders was directed against 
Nice, in Asia Minor. This place was captured. Next one of the 
most terrific cavalry battles on record was fought. The Sultan of 
Rosen fell upon the advancing band at Dorylaeum, but was com- 
pletely overpowered, losing 30,000 men. 

To lay siege to the capital of Syria was the next tack of the- 
Crusaders. The city held out for seven months, and during this 
time the besiegers had to suffer the horrors of famine and pesti- 
lence. Finally, they were able one dark stormy night to surprise- 
and capture the city, June, 1098. No sooner was Antioch cap- 
tured than the Crusaders were in their turn besieged in that city 
by an army of 200,000 Mohammedans, sent by the Persian sultan. 
A second and still more terrible famine was suffered. But finally 
the Crusaders, by a bold sally, completely overthrow the besieging 
host. The way was now open to Jerusalem, and thither the col- 
umns advanced. The deliverance of the Holy City and Sepul- 
cher still remained to be accomplished. At this time Jerusalem 
was in the possession of the Saracenic caliph of Egypt, who was 
head of an independent government, and had won Palestine from 
the Turks. The caliph was determined to make a stout resistance, 
so a siege was resorted to, which after five weeks, resulted in the 
victory of the Crusaders. 

Jerusalem was now created into a Christian kingdom. Godfrey 
of Bouillon was hailed King of the Holy City, July 23, 1099, and 
from this the foundation of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem may be 
dated. The great design of the First Crusade was accomplished. 

For fifty years the dominion was maintained; but at last dan- 
gers began to arise, threatening the very existence of the Chris- 
tian kingdom. One of the Turkish governors took the Christian 
principality of Edessa, and slaughtered the inhabitants (A. D. 
1145). This event led the Christian residents of Palestine to ap- 
peal to Europe for assistance. This appeal was received with 
general enthusiasm. 

St. Bernard preached a new Crusade, and his eloquence enlisted 
the two foremost sovereigns of the age, — Conrad III., Emperor 
of Germany, and Louis VII., of France. The armies, numbering" 
300,000 choice troops, moved in 1147, and, following the path of 
the early Crusaders, advanced to Constantinople. The first and 
only undertaking was the siege of Damascus. This was a miserable- 
failure; and the Second Crusade closed in gloom, with the return, 
jf the Crusaders to their country. Forty years elapsed before- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 45 

the Third Crusade began. In the interval an important revolution 
had taken place in Mussulman politics. Saladin, a young Curdish 
•chieftain, had united the Mussulman states, from the Nile to the 
Tigris, under his single empire. Meanwhile the Latin kingdom 
was fast falling into a state of weakness. Taking advantage of 
this fact, Saladin invaded Palestine, took town after town, and 
lastly Jerusalem in 1187. 

The only place that remained to the Christians in Palestine 
was Tyre. The news of the extinction of the kingdom of Jerusa- 
lem called forth the Third Crusade. The three great western 
princes — Richard I. of England; Philip Augustus of France, and 
Frederick Barbarossa, Emperor of Germany. A tax was laid upon 
Christendom to meet the expenses of the war. The French and 
English monarchs transported their armies by sea, and the high- 
souled Frederick marched overland. The Christians in Syria had 
in the meantime rallied and were laying siege to Acre. Now the 
European chivalry came to their aid, and in vain Saladin attempt- 
ed to relieve Acre. Numerous battles was fought, and after a 
siege of two years, Acre surrendered to the Christians, A. D. 1191. 
This was the only important event of the Crusade. 

Several subsequent crusades were .undertaken; but some of 
them were not directed toward the Holy Land, and the others 
failed of any great results. 

During the five centuries of the Dark Ages, we find but few 
names of really eminent men. Bede, the Englishman, and Alcuin 
were men of learning rather than of genius. John, surnamed 
Scotus, a native of Ireland belonging to the ninth century, and 
Pope Sylvester of the tenth, were the two really original thinkers 
during this long period. These centuries have been called the 
Ages of Faith; but they were quite as much ages of superstition. 
In the good work of the church the most active agents were the 
monks. Monarchism took its rise in the East. At first, monks 
were laymen, but in time they all belonged to the priestly order, 
and came under certain vows. 

About the beginning of the eleventh century, civilization began 
to rapidly advance. One of the first signs of this civilization, and 
also one of the great agencies of future progress, was the grow- 
ing up of towns to a position of prime importance. The real im- 
portance of these German towns is to be dated from their famous 
union in what is called the Hanseatic League. This was a con- 
federation, made about the middle of the thirteenth century, of 
eighty of the most considerable German cities. In Italy, the 
cities rose to greatness 1 even earlier than in Germany. This was 
particularly the case in Northern Italy, that is, Lombardy. The 
Lombard League was formed in 1167; and the peace of Con- 
stance, in 1183, secured the independence of the cities. With the 
growth of the towns, industries of various kinds began to spring 



46 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

up; and trade and commerce to spread and flourish. Among the 
greatest scholars of this period may be mentioned Roger Bacon, 
an English monk, and Albertus Magnus, both of whom liyed m 
the thirteenth century. The characteristic art of the middle ages 1 
was architecture, especially the building of cathedrals. 

Out of the Empire of Charlemagne grew three states, — Ger- 
many, France, and Italy. But neither of these countries re- 
mained long under the rule of the descendants of Charlemagne. 

When the last of the German Carlovingians died, in 911, five 
dukes got together and chose Duke Conrad of Franconia, to be 
king; so that Germany became an elective kingdom. 

On Conrad's death, Henry, a Saxon, was placed on the throne 
(A. D. 919); and he was the first of a series of five Saxon em- 
perors, who reigned over Germany for more than a century, and 
raised it to the greatest power of Europe. 

Henry was succeeded by his son Otho the Great, under whom 
took place a very important event, namely, the revival of the 
Western Empire under the title of " Holy Roman Empire of the 
German Nation." The Saxon dynasty went on in three descend- 
ants of Otho, till A. D. 1024, when a line of Franconian emperors 
begins, which lasted for a 'century and a half. After Lothaire of 
Saxony had held the imperial crown for twelve years, it passed to 
the Hohenstaufen family, or Dukes of Suabia. The first of this 
line was Conrad III., wfto reigned as king of Germany, but who 
was never crowned emperor. Frederick Barbarossa succeeded 
him. Under Henry VI., Frederick's successor, the kingdom of 
Sicily was conquered, and united with the empire. 

It was in the time of the Franconian rulers that the empire came 
to have a great deal to do with the election of the popes, for 
Henry III. took the matter into his own hands. Under Henry 
IV., the troubles between the popes and the emperors grew to a 
great height. 

A period of confusion followed, but finally Rudoif I. was chosen 
king of Germany, and with him began the rule of the House of 
Hapsburg. There followed other kings, on whom we need not 
dwell, till we come to Sigismund, who was crowned emperor. 
The empire itself was growing so weak that the electors thought 
it best to choose some powerful prince who had possessions out- 
side of Germany. With Albert II. came in the Austrian branch 
of the Hapsburg line. The long reign of Frederick III. (1440- 
1493), the second of this house, carries us through the Middle 
Ages. 

The real beginning of France was in the tenth century. When 
Gaul was conquered by the Franks, it became a part of their 
kingdom, and while under Charlemagne it was a part of his ex- 
tensive empire. In 987, the Duke of France became king of 
France. During the imbecile rule of the Carlovingians, the north- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 4? 

era coast of France was invaded by Scandinavian bands named 
Norsemen. Under Ralto they appeared in the Seine, and made 
themselves so formidable that Charles the Simple granted them 
the province thenceforward called Normandy. In France the- 
Norsemen became Christianized, and their name was soft- 
ened to Normans. 

The Capetian line of French kings continued for nearly three 
centuries and a half, and comprised fifteen kings. During the 
reign of the third king, Henry I., Duke William was ruling over 
the Duchy of Normandy. William laid claim to the crown of 
England, and he invaded and conquered that land in 10G6. In 
1154 Henry II. of England began to rule. He married Eleanor, 
the divorced wife of Louis VII. of France. 

Philip II. wrested from the English king John, Normandy, and 
other possessions in Northern France. This added greatly to the 
strength of France; and the wise rule of Louis IX. gave her in- 
creased importance. The last of the Capetian dynasty was 
Charles IV., who died in 1327, leaving the crown to his cousin, 
Philip of Valois. The House of Valois ruled for more than two 
and a half centuries when the power passed to the House of 
Bourbon. At this time Edward III., of England, ma.de war 
against France, thinking that the French crown belonged to him. 
There thus began a great war, called in French history the Hun- 
dred Years' War. And, regarding the history of France during 
the Middle Ages as closing with Louis XL (A. D. 14 s 3), we may 
say that the French nation was then the most powerful in Europe. 
At the time of Charlemagne, the various petty kingdoms of Eng- 
land were all united under King Egbert, at the beginning of the 
ninth century. Egbert was soon interrupted by the Danes, and 
both he and his successors were greatly disturbed by them. Al- 
fred the Great, was a grandson of Egbert, and became king of 
Wessex in 872. All he could do with the Danes, he could not 
prevent them from making a lodgment in England; and a century 
after Alfred's death, the country was won by them. The Norman 
conquest of England under William the Conqueror, in 1066, was 
the next great event in the history of England. By this, the 
English nation was thoroughly subjugated, the Normans being 
the ruling class. Anglo-Saxon remained the speech of the com- 
mon people, while French was the official and the fashionable 
language. Not until the fourteenth century, did the languages 
coalesce, and then there was a sudden rushing together, resulting 
in the dialect which we may read in Chaucer. The Norman was 
composed of four sovereigns, who reigned from 1066 to 1154. It 
was at this time that the long rivalry between England and France 
began. With Henry II., son of Godfrey Plantagenet, began the 
Plantagenet line of sovereign;"", who ruled England for a century 
and a half. 



48 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

During the reign of the wicked and foolish King John, the 
French won back Normandy, and on the whole it was a very good 
thing for England that they did so. In the thirteenth century the 
Constitution of England began to put on the shape which it has kept 
ever since. The first step was when the English people in 1215 
forced King John to grant the Great Charter (Magna Charta), by 
which all the old rights and good laws which he had broken were 
confirmed. 

The next step in freedom was one of even greater importance. 
This was the establishment of Parliament in the form of an assem- 
bly with two houses. These long-continued wars had the effect 
of developing in the English people a strong sentiment of nation- 
ality. All distinction of Norman and Saxon had ceased, and they 
were all only Englishmen. 

With the deposition by Parliament of Richard II., in 1399, the 
Plantagenet line went out. Three kings of the house of Lancas- 
ter now followed: Henry IV., Henry V., and Henry VI. 

In 1455 there broke out a great civil strife known as the "War of 
the Roses. The contending parties were the respective represen- 
tatives of the families of Lancaster and York, both parties being 
claimants to the throne. Six years of war resulted in the acces- 
sion of Edward IV., of the family of York. This family included 
three kings: Edward IV., Edward V., and Richard III. In 1485 
a Lancastrian Earl came to the throne as Henry VII. With him 
the Tudor line of English sovereigns begins, and English me- 
diaeval history ends. 

Italy, on the division of Charlemagne's empire, fell to Lothaire, 
one of his grandsons. Under the German Otho, these were ab- 
sorbed in the " Holy Roman Empire." But this did not bring 
quietude to Italy; for the emperors and the popes were continu- 
ally quarreling, and Italy was drawn into struggles between the 
Guelphs, who were friends of the pope, and the Ghibellines who 
upheld the cause of the emperors. 

In the latter half of the twefth century Frederick Barbarossa 
attempted to strip the Italian towns of their liberty. This resulted 
in the League of Lombardy in 1167, when twenty-three Italian 
cities claimed the right of making their own laws. For nine years 
war wasted Northern Italy, until the decisive battle of Segnano 
was fought in 1176. Seven years later, by the Peace of Con- 
stance, the emperor acknowledged the right of the republics to 
govern themselves. The most illustratious of the Italian Repub- 
lics were Venice and Florence. In 1172 the appointment of the 
Doge, or Duke, and other magistrates, was vested in a grand 
council of four hundred and eighty members. Change after 
change took place, until a Council of Ten secured the government 
to themselves. Under this unchecked oligarchy a reign of terror 
began; in the course of which a family of merchants named the 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 49 

Medicis rose to great influence in Florentine politics. One of these, 
Lorenzo de Medici, raised himself to be the head of the state. 
His splendid patronage of art and literature gained for him the 
name of Magnificent. When Charles VIII, of France invaded 
Italy, Florence was rudely despoiled. The Medicis were banished; 
but were restored again in 1512. The republic, however, did not 
long endure. Its extinction dates from 1538, when Cosmo I. was 
proclaimed Duke of Florence. 

In the early part of the eighth century, Spain was overwhelmed 
by a Saracenic deluge. The kingdom of Navarre was founded in 
873, the kingdom of Aragon in 1035, and the kingdom of Castile 
in 1026. Leon and Astuaris were added in 1037; and between 
1234 and 1248, Cordova, Toledo and Seville also. The kingdom of 
Spain was formed by the union of Castile and Aragon, and in 
1491, Granada, the last of the Mohammedan possessions, was 
wrested from the Moors by these sovereigns, • 



MODERN HISTORY. 



In the middle of the fifteenth century, Constantine Palasologus 
was the ruler over the Byzantine Empire, which was reduced to 
the limits of the city of Constantinople. The power of the Otto- 
man Turks commenced in Asia Minor, and was laid by^ Othman, 
who, originally ruler of a small mountain district in ancient Bith- 
ynia and Phrygia, gradually extended his dominions till it became 
one of the most nourishing states of Asia Minor. 

The advance of the dynasty after this was rapid. In the four- 
teenth century they made Adrianople their capital, and gradually 
obtained Thrace. Macedon, Servia, and Southern Greece. At 
length Mohammed II. ascended the throne (1451), and immedi- 
ately directed his attention to the capture of Constantinople. He 
besieged the city for fifty-three days, and at last, on the 29th of 
May, 1453, after battering and storming the walls, Constantine 



50 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

fell, sword in hand, and with him the Byzantine Empire fell for- 
ever. 

The maratime discoveries of the fifteenth century made great 
changes in trade and commerce. The whole African coast and 
some of the interior of the country was explored, routes for sail- 
ing around the peninsula to India were opened up, America was 
discovered by Columbus, and the Cabots made their explorations 
and discoveries. 

GREAT EVENTS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

The brilliant figure of Spain first attracts our attention at the 
beginning of modern history. Emperor Charles V. was'born at 
Ghent in the year 1500. At the age of fifteen he assumed the 
government of Flanders. In the following year, 1516, the death 
of his grandfather, Ferdinand, placed on his head the brilliant 
crown of Spain, and as Don Carlos I., he ruled 'jointly with his 
mother. The Spanish dominion now included Spain, Naples, 
Sicily, Sardinia, and those vast regions beyond the Atlantic with 
which the genius of the Genoese navigator had dowered the Cas- 
tilian crown. Three years after this, the Emperor Maximilian 
transferred to him the sovereignty of Austria .and of the other 
hereditary possessions of the house of Hapsburg. The two great 
•events of the reign of Charles V. are: 1. The rise of Protestant- 
ism; 2. The wars carried on under the lead of Francis I. of France 
against Charles V., to maintain the balance of power. When 
Leo X. came to the Papal chair, he found the treasury of the 
church exhausted. He adopted an extensive sale of indulgences 
which were remissions of penances imposed upon persons whose 
sins had brought scandal on the community. Martin Luther, 
Professor of Theology in the University of Wittenberg, took the 
Head in opposing this. He was therefore cited to appear before 
ithe, assembly or Diet of Worms in 1521. Being called upon to 
retract, he refused to do so; and though he was dismissed under 
" safe-conduct " from the emperor, yet Charles V. promised to 
" use all endeavor to extirpate the heresy." 

The new doctrines rapidly spread, and under various forms took 
deep root in Germany, France, Switzerland, England, Scotland, 
and Scandinavia. An attempt was made to check the movement 
by the Diet of Spires, 1529; for by this assemblage a decree was 
promulgated forbidding any change until the meeting of a gen- 
eral council. Luther's friends and followers protested against this 
decree, and hence the professors of the reformed religion received 
the common name of Protestants. We now turn to the compli- 
cations with Francis I. of France. In the first war, the decisive 
action was the battle of Pa via, 1525. Here the imperial forces 
shattered the French power in Italy; and Francis himself was 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 51 

taken prisoner and conveyed to Madrid, where he lay a year in 
prison. He then made stipulations which he never intended to 
keep; the result was, that hostilities were immediately renewed, 
and the second war (1527-1529) began. This time Henry VIII., 
of England sided with Francis, who was also supported by the 
pope. The French army entered Italy, but was repeatedly de- 
feated. This inclined Francis to peace; and as he was at the 
same time anxious to suppress the Reformation in Germany, a 
treaty was made in 1529 (Treaty of Cambray), quite unfavorable 
to Francis. The third war began in 1535, but in three years both 
parties were exhausted; so by the mediation of the pope they 
concluded in 1538 a truce which was to last for ten years, but 
hostilities were renewed in a few years and the fourth war com- 
menced. A peace was concluded with Charles at Orespy in 1544. 
At this time Charles V. became engaged in a contest with the 
Protestant princes of Germany, who had formed a league for 
their mutual protection at Smalcald, in 1531. A great council, 
called the Council of Trent, was convened against Protestantism 
in 1545. The result was unfavorable to the Protestants, upon 
which Charles V. became tyrannical. 

But the emperor's reverses were rapid, and in 1555 the Reforma- 
tion gained its first decisive political triumph in Germany. In 
this state of affairs Charles V. determined to lay aside his crown. 
Accordingly, in 1556 he resigned the scepter of the Netherlands 
and of Spain to his son Philip II. and the imperial crown to his 
brother Ferdinand ; he then retired to the monastery of San 
Yuste, where death overtook him in 1558. 

In the year 1509, Henry VII., the first of the Tudor line of Eng- 
lish sovereigns, died, leaving as heir to the throne his son Henry 
VIII. During the first twenty years of their reign, the most not- 
able figure in political affairs was Cardinal Wolsey. It was 
in the early part of this reign that the doctrines of Luther began 
to make a great stir in Europe. At this time the English people 
were ardently Roman Catholic in faith, and Henry VIII. distin- 
guished himself by writing a book against the Lutheran doctrine, 
on account of which the pope gave him the title of Defender of 
the Faith.. 

As regards the relations of the English people to the Catholic 
church, all that had been done thus far was to declare that the 
pope had no jurisdiction in England. There was no thought of 
secession from the unity of the Catholic faith, and parliament de- 
clared this in 1534. Nevertheless the breach was widened and in 
the same year, Henry was excommunicated from the fellowship of 
the church. Parliament then passed an act declaring the king to 
be the supreme head of the church of England, and all who de- 
nied him this title to be guilty of high treason. 



52 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Henry VIII. died in 1547. The common verdict pronounced 
upon him by historians is that he was a remorseless tyrant. 

The name of the Netherlands is at present given only to the 
kingdom of Holland. In the sixteenth century, however, that 
name denoted a cluster of provinces extending from the Zuyder 
Zee and the Dollart to the Northern frontier of France. At this 
period the Netherlanders had attained a high degree of prosperity, 
and had embraced the principles of the Reformation. 

This was offensive to Philip II., and introduced the terrible in- 
quisition. In this sad situation the man to whom the Nether- 
landers looked for deliverance was William of Nassau, Prince of 
Orange, and known in history as William the Silent. He was a 
Protestant, and took up the cause of the people. He led an 
army of Germany into the Netherlands. The capture of Brille 
(1572) was the first success. Then the people of the province of 
Holland, under the Prince of Orange, cast off the Spanish yoke. 
The province of Zealand followed. The gallant defense of Har- 
lem convinced Alva, the general, of the inability of strong meas- 
ures, and he asked to be recalled. 

The war still went on, commanded by Requesans; but soon after 
he died, and the Spanish garrison committed such atrocities at 
Antwerp, that all the provinces entered into a union called the 
Pacification of Ghent (1576), William of Orange being chosen 
chief magistrate, with the title of Stadtholder. 

The struggling Dutch were able to confirm their constitution in 
1579, when the Union of Utrecht formed the seven provinces into 
the Dutch Republic, under the presidency of William. Philip 
II. had set a reward on the head of the prince, and the dagger of 
an assassin deprived the states of their able and patriotic leader. 
The bitter contest continued for several years yet, but after a 
severe struggle the independence of the Dutch republic was se- 
cured, though it was not till the Peace of Westphalia (1648), that 
it was acknowledged independent by Spain. 

The history of France during the latter half of the sixteenth 
century, is mainly taken up with a series of civil and religious 
wars between the Catholics and Protestant-. Protestantism had 
taken root in France; but the French Protestants were followers 
of John Calvin, a Frenchman by birth, who had settled at Geneva, 
The followers of Calvin grew to be very numerous in France, 
where they were known by the name of Huguenots. In 1562 an 
event happened which precipitated France into a civil war. The 
Duke of Guise passing through the town of Vassy in Champagne, 
found some Protestants singing hymns in a barn; his attendants 
insulted them; blows were given and returned, and sixty of the 
Protestants were killed. This kindled the flame and for a year 
there was mutual massacre. The contest went on till the follow- 
ing year, 1563, when hostilities were brought to a close by a treaty; 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 53 

but this was soon broken, and between 1567 and 1570, the whole 
period was a continuous war, interrupted only by short and un- 
steady truces. The treaty of Germain (1570) put an end to the 
contest. In the latter part of the contest, the chief part on the 
Reformed side was taken by the young Henry of Bourbon, King 
of Navarre, who was next heir to the crown of France after the 
sons of Henry II. Soon after the war Catherine de Medici got 
the imperial power into her hands, and began to persecute the 
Protestants. On the night of August 23-24, the dreadful tragedy 
known as the massacre of St. Bartholomew began. Coligny was 
one of the first victims; but Henry of JNavarre saved his life by 
promising to go to mass. After three days of direful slaughter, 
there was no one left in Paris to destroy. Ten thousand victims 
are said to have fallen in that city. 

Royal orders were then forwarded through the provinces for the 
renewal of the massacre, and forty-five thousand more victims 
were sacrificed. The Huguenots, utterly desperate, flew to arms; 
the war broke out with greater fury than before, and it was ter- 
minated only after a year of bloodshed. 

In 1574, Charles IX. died at the age of twenty-four. His 
brother, the third son of Catherine de Medici, came to the throne 
with the title of Henry III. During his reign of fifteen years 
France was in a frightful state of anarchy, confusion, and blood- 
shed, and in 1589 Henry HI. died by the hand of an assassin. 

Queen Elizabeth of England was the daughter of Henry VIII. 
and Anne Boleyn. She came to the throne at the age of twenty- 
five, in the year 1558, eleven years after the death of her father. 
Soon after her accession two celebrated acts — the Act of Suprem- 
acy and the Act of Conformity — were passed for the purpose of 
crushing the political influence of Catholicism. 

It was at this time that the Puritans arose in England. Many 
Protestants who had fled to the continent returned on the acces- 
sion of Elizabeth. For a time they re-united themselves with the 
church of England, but being pressed to acknowledge the au- 
thority of Elizabeth as supreme head of the church, they separated 
from that body in a few years. As they professed a desire to es- 
tablish a purer form of worship, they received in derision the 
name of Puritans. 

Mary Queen of Scots in 1561, returned to Scotland. After seven 
stormy years there, she was compelled to flee across the border 
and came to implore the pity of Queen Elizabeth. The English 
Queen cast her into prison at Fortheringay Castle, where Mary 
was confined for eight years. During this time Elizabeth was 
constantly harassed by plots formed by her Catholic subjects in 
behalf of the Queen of Scots. When a gentleman named Babing- 
ton formed a conspiracy for assassinating Elizabeth and placing 
Mary on the throne, the latter was subjected to a formal trial and 



54 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

found guilty. The warrant for her execution was delayed by the 
reluctance of Elizabeth. But finally, in 1587, Mary Stuart wag 
beheaded. Spain finally invaded England on account of her re- 
ligious ideas. The Invincible Armada was fitted out against 
England. It consisted of 150 ships, 3,000 cannon, and 20,000 
men. In July, 1588, the Armada entered the English Channel. 
After seven daj^s of warm action the Spanish fleet was over- 
whelmed and but a third part returned to tell of the calamity. 

This success was regarded as a triumph of the Protestant cause 
throughout Europe; it virtually established the independence of 
the Dutch, raised the courage of the Huguenots, and destroyed 
the influence of Spain. After this England became supreme 
upon the seas. 

The queen died in 1603. The proud pre-eminence which Eng- 
land gained while she grasped the scepter is the noblest epitaph 
on the Virgin Queen. 

GREAT EVENTS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

After the death of Elizabeth in 1603, James VI. of Scotland 
succeeded to the throne and took the title of James I. of Eng- 
land. With him begins the Stuart period of English history, 
covering the whole seventeeth century. The distinguishing char- 
acteristic of this period is the struggle of the people against the 
arbitrary and unconstitutional government of the Stuart sov- 
ereigns. Times had been changed, and though the Tudors had 
been despots, the people had been advancing in intelligence and 
in the love of liberty, and would not be controlled. But James 
I. disregarded this fact, and as soon as he became king, in- 
augurated the Stuart doctrine, known as the " Divine Right of 
Kings," and in carrying out this policy he was guilty of the most 
arbitrary and illegal measures. The reign of James I. was not 
marked by any great events. The respect of the English people 
for loyalty was not increased by the policy or character of James 
I., and when his son, who had even a higher notion of the "Divine 
Right of Kings to govern wrong," came to the throne, a general 
discontent pervaded the nation. At this time a war with Spain 
was in progress. Parliament refused funds for its prosecution 
and the king raised money by illegal means. , The Commons saw 
that he would soon become independent of all control from his 
parliaments, and after inquiring into the ancient powers of the 
crown, they embodied the result in a pamphlet called a Petition 
of Right. Charles gave his sanction to the bill (1628), but soon 
after, in a high dispute with Parliament, he dissolved that body, 
resolving nevermore to call it together, and for some years gov- 
erned the country as an irresponsible despot. In 1640 the mem- 
orable assembly known as the Long Parliament came together, 



OUK GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 55 

resolving to curb the royal power and remove the national griev- 
ances. The king himself at last gave way to their influence. 

In 1642 Charles committed another despotic act. He ordered 
the surrender of six of the most troublesome members of the 
Commons on a charge of treason. Of course they were not given 
up, and there was great indignation against the king, for he had 
insulted the nation. For some months messages passed between 
Parliament and the king (who had retired to York); but there was 
no desire to yield on either side. As a last resort Parliament de- 
manded that he should give up the command of the army. He 
refused, and civil war became inevitable. On the king's side were 
the nobles, the clergy, and the country gentlemen. These we call the 
Royalists. The opposition 'received the name of Roundheads, but 
in a few years the names Tory and Whig took the place of Royal- 
ist and Roundhead; while in modern times the parties in England 
are known as Conservative and Liberal. 

On the 25th of August, 1642, the royal standard was unfurled 
at Nottingham. The opening battle was fought at Edgehill. From 
here (1642) to Colchester (1648) were six years of strife. At first 
the Royalists were successful, but afterwards the Roundheads 
were victorious. Oliver Cromwell fought at Edgehill on the side 
of Parliament, as captain of the horse. After that he became a 
captain of cavalry. He put his regiment under the severest dis- 
cipline, and soon Cromwell's "Ironsides" became famous. After 
a few years the army was remodeled; and though Sir Thomas 
Fairfax was appointed commander-in-chief, the real captain was 
Cromwell. Then was organized that army composed of stern, re- 
ligious men, who prayed when they did not fight, and scattered 
the Royalists like chaff, when they marched to battle with the 
singing of psalms. 

Naseby (1645) was the decisive battle of the war — the king 
was completely beaten and could no longer keep the field. 
Meantime the Puritans became divided into two parties, the Pres- 
byterian, and the Independent. 

Soon after this, Cromwell caused Charles to be seized and con- 
fined as a prisoner at Hampton Court. Negotiations went on, and 
for a time between Charles and Parliament there were satisfac- 
tory arrangements; but under the direction of Cromwell, forty 
leading Presbyterian members of Parliament were arrested, and 
on the following day (December 7, 1648), one hundred and sixty 
others were shut out. The remaining fifty or sixty members were 
called the "Rump." This remnant nominated a High Court of 
Justice for the trial of King Charles. After much protest, in 1649 
he was condemned to execution. He was the only king of Eng- 
land that has died on the scaffold. 

England now became a republic, governed by Parliament and 
called The Commonwealth. It lasted for eleven years. Under 



56 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Cromwell's direction a new Parliament known as " Barebone's 
Parliament" was called; but it soon surrendered its power to him, 
giving him the title of Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. He 
was king in all but name, and had more power than any king since 
Henry VIII. He made England honored and feared. He van- 
quished the Spaniards, dictated peace to Holland, united the Prot- 
estant states of Europe, and forced the pope himself to moderate 
the religious zeal of Catholic princes. But his latter days were 
clouded with cares and fears. In his sixtieth year (1658) he died. 
Richard Cromwell, his son, succeeded him; but he was entirely 
unfit for the position. In five months he resigned the office, and 
there followed an interval of confusion, which culminated in the 
reign of Charles II. This was called the Restoration, but the 
state of affairs which followed his accession was worse than be- 
fore. However, England advanced in material prosperity during 
his reign. 

In 1685 Charles II. died and was succeeded by his brother, the 
Duke of York, who received the title of James II. His reign was 
brief and inglorious. James II. was a man of one idea — that of 
making Catholicism the national faith. His efforts were for a time 
attended with success, but at last both parties were disgusted, and 
united in inviting over William, Prince of Orange, to deliver the 
nation. He accepted the invitation, and collecting a large fleet 
and force, landed on the coast of England, 1688. A part of the 
English army went over to William ; and then James fled to 
France and lived at St. Germain, a pensioner of Louis XIV. 

William and Mary were then called to the throne; but the 
English people first secured their liberty by the Bill of Rights. 
The death of Mary in 1694 left William to rule alone. He acted 
prudently by conceding a good deal to parliament, provided that 
they gave him money to carry on war with Louis XIV. The 
greatest political event of Continental Europe during the first half 
of the seventeenth century was the Thirty Years' War, which be- 
gan in 1618, and was terminated by the treaty of Westphalia in 
1648. This war was properly a contest between the Catholic and 
Protestant princes of Germany; but eventually most of the na- 
tions of Europe were drawn into it. At the period of the abdica- 
tion of the Emperor Charles V., Germany was distracted by the 
political factions and quarrels of the independent princes, and by 
the sects of the Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists. Ferdinand I. 
successor of Charles V. strove to reconcile the factions and unite 
the three religions, but in vain. 

This state of affairs remained unchanged until Matthias was 
elected emperor in the early part of the seventeenth century, 
at this time he made his cousin Ferdinand King of Bohemia. The 
latter was intolerant towards the Protestants and they rose in re- 
revolt. Matthias then died, and to the alarm of the Protestant 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 57 

party, Ferdinand II. was raised to the imperial throne, 1619. The 
Bohemians chose as their king the Elector Palatine, Frederick, a 
Protestant prince; but he was driven out by the imperial army. 
Ferdinand then determined to crush Protestantism in Germany, 
But now other powers stepped in. The first was Christian IV., 
King of Denmark, who became chief of the Protestant League 
(1625). Gustavus Adolphus, the zealous Protestant king of 
Sweden, landed in Germany in 1630, and began his career of con- 
quest. Cardinal Richelieu made a treaty with him and helped 
him 'with money. 

England, too, although she never formally joined in the cause, 
lent it her moral support, and thousands of Englishmen and 
Scotchmen enlisted under Gustavus Adolphus, the "Lion of the 
North." The career of Gustavus was most brilliant for two years, 
when he died in the fullness of his glory. The Swedes almost 
despaired of their cause, but the management of the war was in- 
trusted to Oxenstiern, a statesman of the highest abilities, and under 
his guidance the Protestant cause soon begun to assume a formid- 
able aspect. 

About this time an event occurred which raised the confidence 
of the Protestants. Wallenstein, who had meditated using the 
imperial army of Germany for the purpose of obtaining sovereign 
power, was discovered. As he was too powerful to arrest, he was 
assassinated (1634) by some of his officers. France under Riche- 
lieu now took a direct part in the contest. It really became a war 
for the aggrandizement of France, — and all the more so as most of 
the Protestant states of Germany made peace with the emperor in 
1635. Under the guidance of Richelieu and Oxenstiern, the strug- 
gle went on in most parts of Europe with varying success. After 
the death of Richelieu in 1642, his policy of hostility to Austria 
was continued by Cardinal Mazarin, who succeeded to the power. 
After a time the French armies were crowned with such success 
that the Emperor found it necessary to propose a treaty, and after 
long and tedious negotiations the Treaty of Westphalia was 
signed at Munster, in 1648. 

This is one of the most important treaties in European history. 
It established the religious independence of the Protestant states 
and formally acknowledged the independence of Switzerland and 
Holland. And, what was more important, the two foreign kingdoms, 
France and Sweden, obtained possessions in the empire ,and a gen- 
eral right of meddling in the affairs of Germany. This Thirty 
Years' War was most ruinous to Germany. The empire was 
thoroughly shattered, and became a mere lax confederation 
of petty despotisms and oligarchies, with hardly any national feel- 
ing. 



58 FOOTPRINTS OP THE AGES. 

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 

In 1610, Henry IV. died by the dagger of Ravaillac. His son, 
Louis XIII., being then but nine, the queen-mother, Mary de 
Medici, ruled as regent, and France sank into weakness, faction, 
and disorder. Louis XIII. becoming of age, assumed the gov- 
ernment, banished his mother, and for two years the kingdom was 
kept in a state of anarchy. Richelieu now came to the front. 
From 1622 to 1642, up to the time of his death, he exercised an 
entire control over the king, making him "the first man in Europe, 
but the second in his own kingdom." 

The chief domestic object of Richelieu was the crushing of the 
Huguenots. They had revolted, and attempted to throw off their 
allegiance, and make Rochelle their capital. Richelieu laid siege 
to the city and it was forced to surrender. By this event the 
civil war was ended and the Protestant power in France was 
crushed. The principal aim of Richelieu's foreign policy was the 
humiliation of Austria. This he accomplished by giving his aid 
to Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years' War. 

In 1642 the cardinal died, and the king five months later. Louis 
XIII. left a son who was at this time only five years old, but who 
under the title of Louis XIV., inherited the throne of France. 
His reign lasted seventy-two years (1643-1715). It was one of 
the greatest periods of French history, for France rose to be the 
most formidable power in Europe. 

During the minority of Louis XIV. the regency was in the 
hands of his mother, Anne of Austria. 

Louis XIV. at the age of twenty-three assumed the reins of 
government. He wished to enlarge his empire, and to render his 
name illustrious by military renown. He took advantage, there- 
fore, of the death of the Spanish king, Philip IV,, to make pre- 
tentions to his inheritance as the husband of Maria Theresa 
Philip's daughter, and to march an army into the Spanish Nether- 
lands, 1667. By the alliance of England, Holland, and Sweden, 
he was compelled to surrender, after a short campaign, the greater 
part of his conquests; through the treaty of Aix-la-Ohapelle, Louis 
won Sweden to his side, and purchased the favor of Charles II. 
(of England) by bribes. With this aid, in 1672, he began a 
second war, which was at first directed against Holland, but in 
which most of the European states became involved. On the 
Holland side, William of Orange was chosen to command the 
army. Passing the Rhine, the French army achieved a rapid 
course of victories into the territories of the United Nether- 
lands. 

It seemed that the ruin of Holland was complete; but the calm 
and resolute William ventured on a desperate yet successful 
measure. He opened the sluices throughout the land. The Ger- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 59 

man Ocean and the Rhine poured over all the plain, and the in- 
vading army was confined to the high places where their citadels 
were placed. William then sent the Dutch fleet to meet his ene- 
mies on the sea, and the great Admiral de Ruyter met the united 
French and English armies in three combats which were to the 
advantage of the Dutch. And now from many quarters unlooked- 
for aid came to the Netherlands. The English Parliament forced 
Charles II. to sign with his nephew, William of Orange, a treaty 
of peace in 1674. 

The king of Spain, the German Emperor Leopold, and the 
Elector of Brandenburg took arms against the oppressor. A grand 
combat of the nations, in which Louis XIV, stood opposed to half 
of Europe, took place and continued for five years. The conflict 
was at length ended by the Peace of Nimeguen, 1678, which was 
especially favorable to the interests of France. 

Louis XIV. was now at the height of his power and the title of 
Great was conferred upon him. The first downward step was the 
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, granted by Henry IV., for 
the toleration of the French Protestants. As a result of this, over 
500,000 Huguenots left France, and the country lost the quarter 
part of her most useful and industrious subjects. 

The Revolution of 1688 brought William of Orange to the 
throne of England. King William became the soul of a general 
League, called the Grand Alliance, made against the aggressions 
of Louis. The war went on everywhere at once; and many bat- 
tles were fought and towns taken on both sides. It was at last 
ended by the treaty of Ryswick (1697), by which William III. 
was recognized as the lawful sovereign of England. In 1701 the 
war of the Spanish Succession broke out. It originated as follows: 
Charles II. of Spain died, leaving a will by which he bequeathed 
the succession of his house to a grandson of Louis XIV., Philip 
of Anjou. The latter was a mere boy, and so Louis would be the 
real ruler, and the other nations of Europe became alarmed, for 
the union of France and Spain would be greatly feared. The 
German emperor, therefore, and William III. of England united 
with Holland and Russia to prevent Philip wearing the Spanish 
crown. 

They supported the claims of the Archduke Charles, second 
son of the German emperor, as king of Spain. The war lasted 
thirteen years (1701-1714), and resulted in the humiliation of 
Louis XIV. But Philip was placed on the throne of Spain; for 
when the German emperor died, Charles became emperor, and 
the union of Germany and Spain was more feared than that of 
France and Spain. The chief point ' being thus conceded, the 
treaties of Utrecht (1713) and of Rastadt (1714), terminated the 
war. 

During the last thirty years of the reign of Louis XIV., France 



60 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

stood at the culminating point of her power abroad and her pros- 
perity at home. The government, though tempered by courteous 
manners and superficial polish, was an Oriental despotism. 

The seventeenth century was one of the most active and pro- 
gressive periods in the intellectual history of Europe. In philosophy 
the most notable change was the substitution of inductive inquiry for 
that method of reasoning which consisted in assuming causes, in- 
stead of interrogating nature herself. The name of Bacon is as- 
sociated with the new philosophy, but to the French philosopher 
Descartes was it most indebted. 

A bold course was adopted by Spinoza, a Jew of Holland, who 
by a method akin to geometrical demonstration proved that there 
must be only one "Infinite Substance," of which all the various 
forms of existence are but emanations. 

In astronomy Galileo led the way, by the discovery of the 
larger planets and their motions. Then the great Kepler followed, 
who earned for himself the title of the "legislator of the heavens." 
Newton was the discoverer of calculus, that powerful instrument 
of mathematics. 

The discoveries in astronomy led to improvements in naviga- 
tion. Napier invented logarithrims. The Florentine physicist 
Torricelli, laid the foundation of hydraulics, and invented the 
mercurial barometer. Otte Guericke invented the air pump. In 
1628 Harvey published his discovery of the blood, and Brant, an 
alchemist, discovered phosphorus in 1677. 

The English Royal Society was incorporated by Charles II. in 
1662, and the French Academy of Science, was instituted in 1666 
by Louis XIV. The progress of literature was equally remark- 
able with that of science and philosophy. The French drama 
was the creation of this age. Corneille, Racine, and Moliere are 
noted in this connection. The French pulpit oratory of this cen- 
tury boasts of Bossuet, Massillon, Bourdaloue, and Fenelon, the 
author of Telemaque; Pascal, the mathematician, Rochefoucauld, 
Boileau, and La Fontaine, the modern JEsqp, and author of the 
most delightful fables ever written, also nourished. 

English literature has the names of Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, 
Fletcher, Milton, Jeremy Taylor, Bunyan, Dryden and Butler. 
The period of civil war was not favorable to literary progress. 

The Netherlands led in art at this time. Rubens was the 
greatest painter of the Flemish school; Vandyke, his pupil, painted 
those portraits which hand down to us the beauties of the court 
of Charles I. Of the Spanish painters, Murillo was the most cele- 
brated. The land of Michael Angelo and Raphael produced no 
greater names than that of SalvatorRosa. Of England, Sir Christo- 
pher Wren, the architect of St. Paul's cathedral, was the most 
noted. The state of culture and education was very low. Those 
great branches of manufacturing industry which now form the 



OUR GOVEKNMEMT AND HISTORY. 61 

wealth of England were in their infancy. The mineral wealth of 
the country received no attention until the close of the century. 

GREAT EVENTS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

The history of England has been traced down to the death of 
William III., in 1702. He was succeeded by Anne, the daughter 
of James II. She reigned for twelve years, and with her ends 
the Stuart line of English sovereigns. The chief events of her 
reign are: 1. The union of Scotland with England in 1707, which, 
to a great extent, laid the foundation of Scottish prosperity. 
2. The campaigns of Marlborough, in the war of the Spanish Suc- 
cession, which was brought to a close by the treaty of Utrecht, 
1713. 3. The contests between the Whigs and Tories. These 
had for their object, the settlement of disputes as to the pos- 
session of the government by the different parties. The two 
great questions were. — the war and the church. The Whigs 
wanted war; the Tories, peace. The Whigs were Low church, 
the Tories. High. At last the Whigs were forced to succumb, a 
Tory ministery came into power, and the Treaty of Utrecht was 
their work. Anne died in IT 14. Her reign is noted as one of 
the brilliant periods of English literature. 

Her successor was George, Elector of Hanover. With George 
I. began the reign of the House of Brunswick, which dynasty still 
continues to rule England. The reign of George I. furnishes few 
important events. George II. son of George I., ascended the 
throne of Great Britain in his 45th year, 1727. The four impor- 
tant events of the reign were: 1. The war with Spain; %. The 
war of the Austrian Succession; 3. The war for the young Pre- 
tender; 4. The American war with France. Mr. Pitt figured in 
political circles in the middle of the eighteenth century, and to 
him Great Britain owed her formidable position in European 
politics. George III. ascended in 1760 a glorious throne. This 
reign was fruitful in colonial history. Indeed, ere it was five 
years old. symptoms of the American war began to appear. The 
trouble arose during the administration of Mr. Grenville, under 
whos^ influence the Stamp Act was passed in 1765. 

This was afterwards repealed; but other taxes were imposed 
which finally precipitated that conflict which resulted in the in- 
dependence of the American colonies and their appearance 
among the powers of the earth as the United States. 

Then too oc2urred that great struggle between France and Eng- 
land for the possession of India, resulting in favor of the latter. 
The English power made great advances under CTive and Warren 
Hasting-s; and after annexing various Indian dominions, England 
at present rules over 200,000,000 people in Hindostan. 

We are now to trace the rise of Prussia. It was first a small 



62 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

territory lying alongside the Electorate of Brandenburg. While 
Elizabeth was queen of England it was annexed to Brandenburg. 
By good management Brandenburg grew, and toward the close 
of the seventeenth century, the Elector Frederick III. bargained 
to lend the emperor aid in the war of the Spanish Succession, 
provided he obtained the crown of Prussia. 1701 marks the 
change of the last Elector of Brandenburg, into the first king of 
Prussia, Frederick I. The second king of Prussia was Frederick 
William (1713-1740). He set himself to drilling the army, which 
in the hands of his son was to be the instrument of raising Prussia 
to the position of one of the greatest military powers in Europe. 
This son was Frederick II., or, as history calls him, Frederick the 
Great. 

He ascended the throne in 1740 at the age of twenty-seven. In 
the same year the Emperor of Germany, Charles VI., died. His 
daughter, Maria Theresa, became ruler over the kingdom of 
Hungary and Bohemia, the Archduchy of Austria, etc., and was 
called Queen of Hungary. 

The empire was at the disposal of the Electors, and they im- 
mediately began to lay claim to the whole or part of her domin- 
ions. Frederkjk set up a claim to Silesia, claiming it as part of 
the ancient dominion of the House of Brandenburg, and marched 
an army into it, won two victories, and Maria Theresa made over 
Silesia to him. This is known as the First Silesian War. 

Hostilities were renewed in 1744; but nothing came of this 
Second Silesian War. 

Prussia continued to rise in importance. In 1756 there broke 
out another contest, called the Seven Years' War. In this Fred- 
erick was not to blame: for Austria, with France, Russia, Poland, 
Saxony and Sweden, formed a secret treaty, for the partition of 
Prussia. England took s ; des with Prussia, and Frederick had to con- 
front more than half of Europe in arms. The story of how the Prus- 
sian captain-king bore up against this " sea of troubles," forms 
one of the most wonderful chapters in military annals. After the 
conflict two results appear: 1. Frederick became one of the world- 
soldiers, one of the men that make epochs in the history of war 
and nations; 2. Prussia took rank as one of the Five Great Euro- 
pean Powers, and the Holy Roman Empire was practically di- 
vided into the two great monarchies of Austria and Prussia, which 
till the French Revolution held the balance of power on the con- 
tinent. Frederick the Great died in 1786. His last public act 
was the conclusion of a commercial treaty with the United States 
of America. He reigned forty-seven years. 

In the history of Europe down to the eighteenth century, Rus- 
sia is a blank, because the fierce Mongolian savages of Central 
Asia were wont to pour themselves in devastating tides into the 
Slavic land. In the thirteenth century it was completely overrun 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 63 

Dy the Tartars of Gurghis Khan, and for two centuries were held 
in bondage by these savages. The deliverance of Russia was due 
to Ivan Vasilovitz, who became czar about the same time that 
Queen Elizabeth ascended the throne of England. Russia was 
now a powerful state, and the close of the seventeenth century saw 
the appearance of a ruler who was to give Russia for the first time 
a place in the states-system of Europe. This was Peter the Great. 
He was the son of Alexis, and the father of this Alexis was a 
certain Michael Romanoff, who in 1613 was made czar; from him 
the present royal family springs. The first great idea that seems 
to have possessed Peter seems to have been that the absence of 
any available seaboard was a source of weakness to his country. 
Seizing Azof from the Turks (1696) he obtained a footing on the 
Black Sea, and then resolved to form a fleet sufficient to over- 
come that power. With this view he traveled to Holland and 
England for the purpose of learning the art of ship-building, and 
of acquiring whatever knowledge might be necessary for his great 
undertaking. Returning home in the first year of the eighteenth cen- 
tury, Peter began his social reforms. He gave free circulation to 
the Bible. He obtained an outlet on the Baltic. The opportu- 
nity seemed to be excellent. Three years before this (1697) the 
king of Sweden had died, leaving a youth of fifteen years as his 
successor. He seemed to be helpless, and Russia, Denmark and 
Poland formed a league for the dismemberment of his kingdom. 
But this was not so easily done, for the youth was Charles XII., 
and he defeated them all. He prepared to invade Russia, but 
was completely defeated before Pultowa, and forced to seek shel- 
ter within the frontiers of Turkey. To Russia the winnings of 
the struggle were most important, for Peter gained Sivonia and 
the other Swedish possessions east of the Baltic, so that now he 
had a water-front on that sea as well as on the Euxine. Later in 
his reign he extended his borders on the other Russian sea, the 
Caspian. In 1704 he founded the city of St. Petersburg, and 
made it his capital in place of Moscow. He remodeled the army, 
created a navy, improved the administration of justice, enlarged 
the commerce, encouraged manufactures, cut canals, built roads, 
and introduced the printing press. 

He died in 1725 at the age of fifty-eight. He was succeeded 
by his widow, Catherine I., who continued her husband's policy. 
Next, Peter II., the grandson of Peter the Great, reigned for three 
years, and was then succeeded by his aunt Anne. Her rule lasted for 
ten years. Then came Peter the Great's daughter Elizabeth, who 
filled the throne till 1762. Elizabeth left her empire to her 
nephew, who became Peter III. In a few months he was mur- 
dered, and his wife was raised to the throne as Catherine II., sur- 
named the Great (1762). She was the ablest of the Russian au- 
tocrats next to Peter the Great. She won greatly from the Turks, 



64 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

achieved the conquest of the Crimea, and obtained free access to 
the Black Sea. But she won more by what is called the Partition 
of Poland. In 1772, the three powers of Prussia, Russia and 
Hungary joined for the dismemberment of Poland, and certain 
provinces were seized. In 1792 another partition was made by 
Russia and Prussia, and in 1795 Poland was destroyed altogether 
as an independent nation, and its territory was divided among its 
three neighbors. Catherine II. died in 1796. She was succeeded 
by her son Paul; but he was a half-crazy creature, and when he 
was murdered, in 1801, his son Alexander I. came to the throne. 
This ruler was the grandfather of the present Alexander II., em- 
peror and autocrat of all the Russias. 

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 

It will be remembered that the close of Louis XIV's reign saw 
France in an exhausted and demoralized condition. • Under his 
successor, Louis XV. (1715-1774), things went from bad to worse. 
Louis XV. died in 1774, leaving his throne to his grandson 
Louis XVI., a kind-hearted, amiable, pious young man, only 
twenty years old, and yet four years married to Marie Antoinette, 
the beautiful daughter of Maria Theresa. When they were saluted 
as king and queen they fell upon their faces, crying u O God, 
guide us ! Protect us ! We are too young to reign I" Already 
signs of dissolution and prophecies of war were abroad. France 
had been sowing the wind and must reap the whirlwind. The 
public credit was at its lowest ebb. The treasury presented a 
deficit of $200,000,000. The people, over taxed, half savage, and 
dangerously intelligent, abandoned agriculture, and sought a sub- 
sistence by smuggling and spoliation. A spirit of political and 
religious infidelity prevaded the middle and lower classes. In 
Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu and D'Alembert, the new opin- 
ions had found their chief advocates and leaders. By their efforts 
Christianity, Loyalty and Tradition had been reduced to powder. 
Previous to this, France had aided America against England, and 
democratic doctrines began to find their way into the head of the 
French peasant, who could not help realizing the injustice that 
gave two-thirds of the soil to the nobility and to the priests, both 
of which orders were exempt from taxes, while 25,000,000 of serfs,, 
owning but one-third of the land, had to bear all the burdens of 
the state. The war with England added to these burdens. The 
finances were in the hands of the great financier, Necker. He 
proposed to convoke a States-General, an assembly not unlike the 
English Parliament. All over France the elections went on, and 
no man who wore a decent coat was refused leave to vote. Three 
millions of people sent up their deputies to the great States- 
General, in which for the first time during nearly two centuries 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 65 

the downtrodden Commons were to sit in council with the nobles 
and the high clergy. There were 1200 representatives, and they 
met in the king's palace at Versailles on the 5th of May, 1787. 
The real strength of the States-General soon showed itself to be 
in the Commons. They numbered as many members as the 
nobles and the clergy together. 

At the outset came the trial of strength. It had not been de- 
cided whether the different classes should meet in one room or 
two: it had been assumed that the latter would be the plan. But 
the Commons would not submit to this. They invited the nobles 
and clergy to join them in their chamber; and when they scorn ' ly 
rejected the proposition, the Commons constituted themselves the • 
National Assembly. In vain did dukes and archbishops complain 
of the usurpation of supreme power. 

The king was undecided and alarmed and took a suicidal step.. 
He prorogued the Assembly for a month, and stationed soldiers 
at the door to prevent members from going in. But the presi- 
dent, Boilly, led them to the Tennis-court of the palace, where 
they swore a solemn oath not to dissolve their assembly until they 
had prepared a constitution for France ;gand their firmness gained 
them the victory. The Court, thus foiled and acknowledging its 
own defeat, adopted again an unpopular course: Necker the minis- 
ter of finance, was banished, and troops were gathered around 
Versailles. 

The Assembly proceeded with their business. They abolished 
all privileges of birth or profession; taxes were imposed on all 
equally; the public debt was consolidated, the press was declared 
free, and political and religious liberty was guaranteed. 

Meanwhile, all Paris was in a state of insane commotion. Riot- 
ing and pillage went on in various quarters, and the more so that 
the guards when called out to disperse the mob refused to fire. 
On the 14th of July the mob raised the cry, " Let us storm the 
Bastile." The wild multitude raged around its walls, but the 
governor refused to surrender; then came a siege of four hours, 
after which the governor, his lieutenant, and some of the aged in- 
valids were massacred and the building was razed to the ground. 
From this moment the people were supreme. The troops were 
dismissed from Versailles, Necker was recalled, the king visited 
Paris, and was invested at the Hotel de Ville with the tri- colored 
emblem of democracy. Then began the flight of the nobles be- 
yond the frontier, where they watched the revolution in ignoble 
safety. But the king with his family remained at Versailles; and 
hither came the reports of the provincial uprisings all over the 
country, the burning of chateaux, and the like. 

It was plain that the nobles must bow before the Commons and 
make restitution. The memorable 4th of August came when the 
nobles did this, making ample confession of their weakness. 

5 



66 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

And now another false step was taken by the king. The pop- 
ular demonstrations had so alarmed the little court yet hanging 
around Louis, that they persuaded him that he must have military 
assistance. The regiment of Flanders, and a body of dragoons 
came; and on the 1st of October the newly arrived officers were 
invited to a grand banquet by their comrades of the roj^al body- 
guard. Revelry ran high; and. news of the evening flew to Paris. 
The mob rose in fury, and with cries of " Bread ! Bread !" poured 
out of Paris and took the road to Versailles. They camped out- 
side the city till morning, when a grating that led into the grand 
court was found to be unfastened, and the mob rushed in. They 
made straight for the royal apartments, but at the moment of peril 
Lafayette with the national guard, came and cleared the palace. 
The crowd demanded that the king should come to Paris; 
and amidst a procession of market-women, with human heads 
borne on pikes before the carriage, the unhappy Louis and Marie 
Antoinette were conducted to the capital (October 6, i789), and 
placed under the eyes of the revolutionists. During all this time 
the emigration of the noblesse went on. Assembling upon the 
German frontier towards the spring of 1791, they formed them- 
selves into an army, under the command of the Prince de 
Conde, and had for their motto, "Conquer or die." 

In regard to the king, flight had long been talked of, but fre- 
quently delayed ; but at last everything was ready, and on 
Monday night, June 20, 1791, they started, but their efforts 
were vain, for they were interebpted and again taken to Paris. In 
the meantime the articles of a new constitution had' been drawn 
up, putting France on the basis of a constitutional monarchy. 
Its articles were ratified by the royal oath and signature, Septem- 
ber 14, 1791. Then the assembly dissolved itself, and its place 
was taken by a new body called the Legislative Assembly. By 
this time three distinct factions were clearly marked out. First 
were the Feuillants, who adhered to the law and constitution. 
Next the Girondists, or Moderate Republicans. Occupying the 
highest seat in the hall, and therefore called the Mountain, sat 
the Red Republicans, whose rallying cry was, "No king!" In 
this third party were those terrible names Robespierre, Danton, 
Marat, the men of blood. 

The spirit of the revolution spread to other lands and menaced 
every throne. Armies were raised by Austria and Prussia to de- 
fend their royal causes, hostilities were threatened, and the Legis- 
lative Assembly declared for war, April 20, 1792. Soon after- 
wards a force of 70,000 Prussians and 68,000 Austrians and emi- 
grant French Royalists crossed the frontier. The Assembly re- 
plied by fitting out an army of 20,000 national volunteers, giving 
the command to General Dumousies, who repelled the invaders in 
several actions. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 67 

On the 10th of August the palace of the Tuiieries was attacked 
bj the Parisian mob. The national guards went over to the in- 
surgents, and pointed the cannon against the chateau. The king 
and his' family escaped to the Legislative Assembly, and on the 
14th were removed to the old Temple Prison. From this time 
that awful period known as the Reign of Terror may properly be 
said to have begun, thousands of captives were slain, and horrible 
scenes of bloodshed took place. On the 21st of September, 1792, 
the Legislative Assembly was succeeded by the National Conven- 
tion. This convention was divided between the Girondists and 
the Mountain, the Feuillants having become extinct. To proclaim 
a republic was the first act of the convention. Then came the 
trial of the king. The charges brought against him were based 
principally upon some papers which disclosed the intrigues of the 
•court against the revolution, and on others that seemed to indicate 
a knowledge of the proceedings in favor of the royal cause in 
foreign countries. Louis stood before his judges with a firm 
countenance. He required consul, and after some difficulty ob- 
tained Malesherbes, who had once been his minister. On the side 
of the Girondists vigorous efforts were made in the king's defense; 
but finally the discussion was closed. Louis was pronounced 
guilty and was sentenced to death within twenty-four hours. 
Louis requested the attendance of a priest (the Abbe Edgeworth), 
to administer the offices of religion to him in his last moments; 
the request was granted. A last interview with his family was 
granted also. Then on the morning of January 21, 1793, at half- 
past ten he was beheaded. This act of regicide was equal to a 
declaration of war with all Europe. England, Holland, Spain, 
Germany, Sweden and Russia flew to arms. Almost at the same 
time the French province of La Vendee broke into insurrection; 
and the republic found itself called upon to suppress disaffection 
at home, to organize armies, and to defend France from 350,000 
of the best troops in Europe, now approaching upon every side. 
For some time war went on, the French being on the whole vic- 
torious. But the achievements won by the army abroad, were al- 
most effaced by the disgrace which fell upon the republic from the 
conduct of its authorities at home. Commencing with the aboli- 
tion of religious belief, the worship of Reason, and the suppres- 
sion of the Sabbath, the men who ruled the whirlwind passed on 
to a saturnalia of blood. The queen, Marie Antoinette, the king's 
sister Elizabeth, and hundreds of persons of rank and station 
went to their death. 

[n the spring of 1794, Robespierre became absolute ruler of 
the Convention, and he determined to exterminate the leaders of 
all parties. He therefore denounced on the one hand what were 
called the anarchists as enemies to the true welfare of the state, 
and on the other, the moderates as lukewarm in the cause of lib- 



68 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

erty. Robespierre ruled by murder, and between June 10 and 
July 17, 1794, he sent 1285 persons to the guillotine in Paris. At 
length, terrified by the rapidity, the impartiality, and the number 
of Robespierre's condemnations, the members of the Convention 
resolved to rid themselves of the tyrant. On the 27th of July y 
1794, Robespierre was defied in the tribune, and with his brother 
and some of his accomplices arrested. A contest between the 
Assembly and the Jacobins followed, which was at last decided in 
favor of the Convention. Robespierre took refuge in the Hotel 
de Ville, but was discovered and suffered death on the guillotine 
on the 27th of July, 1794. The Reign of Terror was over. 

The people awoke as from a hideous dream. The living Giron- 
dists were called from exile, the laws of Robespierre were re- 
pealed, and the churches were again devoted to the worship of 
God. 

"While these things were going on in Paris, the campaigns against 
the others, who had all along kept the field against the French, 
were eminently successful. All Flanders, the frontiers of Hol- 
land, and many strongholds on the Rhine as also several places in 
Spain, submitted in 1794 to French commanders. And early in 
1795 the French general Pichegru marched into Holland and 
took possession of Amsterdam, so that until the close of the revo- 
lutionary wars Holland remained a dependency of France; and in 
the same year Prussia and Spain made peace the French. 

Ahout this time, France received a new constitution, — the third 
since 1789. The executive power was vested in five Directors, 
and hence the name of Directory is often given to this phase of 
French government. The Directory was not established without 
a struggle. The inhabitants of Paris were dissatisfied at the 
change proposed by the convention; so the citizens by their Sec- 
tions joined battle with the Convention. The Sections, joined by 
the national guards, mustered 40,000 men and had at first the ad- 
vantage. 

The Convention gave command of the regulars to a general 
named Bonas. He nominated as his second in command Napol- 
eon Bonaparte. Bonaparte pointed his cannon down all the streets, 
leading to the Tuileries, and when the assailants attempted to ad- 
vance, he mowed them down with grape-shot (October 4th, 1795}. 
This settled the matter, the Convention triumphed, and the new 
Constitution and Directory stood firmly. This ended the French 
Revolution and opened the remarkable career of Napoleon Bon- 
aparte. 

When armies were raised to oppose the allied enemies of France, 
Napoleon was given command of the army of Italy. He was 
twenty-six years of age, and had just married Josephine. In has 
campaigns he was eminently successful. On that October day in 
1795 he stayed the oncoming of the sections and secured the vie- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 69 

tory of the Directory, and made himself for twenty years the cen- 
tral figure in European history. France had waded through a 
revolution to a republic, but it was only to find herself in the 
hand of a master more despotic than any king that had ever sat 
•upon her throne. 

PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 

The great characteristic of this period is the advance of demo- 
cratic ideas. These ideas emanated from France when about the 
middle of the eighteenth century a series of remarkable writers 
arose. The leaders of the school were Voltaire, Rousseau, Mon- 
tesquieu, Diderot, Condorcet and the encyclopedists. They at- 
tacked the Church and State. They voiced a passionate desire of 
the people for those inalienable rights of which kings had robbed 
them. These ideas found their earliest practical development in 
America, and England itself was astir with a new thought. 

In pure philosophy, the progress was not especially marked. 
Loche's "Essay on the Human Understanding," had in England 
at the time a great repute. Bishop Berkely propounded a form 
of idealism and Reed put forth his system of Common Sense. 

The writings of Hume have had a more lasting influence than 
those of any contemporary philosopher. French philosophy had 
only a temporary influence. For deeper were the metaphysical 
speculations of some profound German philosophers. Among 
these the greatest name is that of Kant, whose system laid the 
foundation of all subsequent German metaphysics. England now 
produced native painters. The chief names are Gainsborough, 
Sir Joshua Reynolds, and Benjamin West. The art of music 
made great advancement during this period. We may mention 
the names of Handel, Haydn, and Mozart. They were the 
fathers and founders of modern music. The progress of science 
was most striking. Chemistry first took rank as a science at this 
period. Black discovered carbonic acid gas. Priestly, oxygen 
-and more new substances than any other chemist. Cavendish, 
the composition of water, and the constituents of air. The French 
chemist Savoisier, systematized all previous discoveries, adding 
many important contributions. Electricity originated about the 
same time, Benjamin Franklin doing much in this branch, both 
by theory and practice. The voltaic battery was invented by 
Volta. A tithe of the great discoveries cannot be enumerated. 

The basis of modern geology was laid. Botany by the genius 
•of Linnaeus was brought into systematic form. Comparative 
.anatomy was created. The weight, form, and size of the earth 
was determined. So Place collected and elaborated the mathema- 
tics of astronomy. Sir William Herschel discovered Uranus in 
JL781, and resolved .the milky way into separate stars. Adam 



70 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Smith in his "Wealth of Nations" created the science of political 
economy. Brindley, Watt, and Arkwright, devised machinery to 
meet the requirements of the industrial era, and machinery was 
applied to spinning and weaving cotton. The spinning-jenny 
was invented by Hargraves in 1765. The spinning-frame by 
Arkwright in 1868, and the mule-jenny by Crompton in 1775. 
The crowning achievement of the age was the perfection of thr? 
steam-engine by James Watt, a Scotchman. Probably no ma- 
terial service of equal value was ever rendered to mankind. Its- 
use as a motive power at once revolutionized all the processes of 
industry, and it soon drew after it, steamboat navigation, railroad 
traveling, and a thousand other beneficial applications. It is a 
fine proof of the enlarging humanity of the age, that there now 
arose a considerable number of men who devoted their lives to 
the amelioration of the condition of the poor and down -trodden. 

GREAT EVENTS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURA 

This is an age crowded beyond all the ages of history with 
great events, — an age fuller, richer, and more varied than was ever 
seen before. The great facts that stamp the nineteenth century 
with a peculiar character are as follows : First, the struggles 
waged at this time are no longer struggles between the kings and 
the peoples. This* fact alone has served to work a complete 
change in the politics of Europe. But, secondly, new problems 
have arisen, such as the questions of democracy, of representative 
government, of national unity, of the rights of labor, etc; and, 
these have produced a powerful commotion in the minds of men- 
Third, the historic stage is enlarged to embrace the whole world,, 
since, on the one hand, new nations have arisen, and on the other, 
the old lands of Africa and Asia, which have lain dormant for ages 9 
have shown a marked awakening and have again begun to have a 
place in the world's history. 

Napoleon Bonaparte played an important part in history in the be- 
ginning of this century. It has already been seen that the French 
Revolution, which was at first political, afterwards became military v 
or aggressive, because the European sovereigns, fearful of its con- 
sequences in their own dominions, became allied against it. The 
year 1792 saw the first of that series of coalitions against France 
into which nearly all the powers of Europe were afterwards drawn. 
Napoleon's success in the war won for him the admiration, love 
and confidence of the French people. The republic was break- 
ing down and anarchy prevailed. It seemed important that the- 
executive power should be concentrated in a single individuaL 
His ambition and genius were equal to the undertaking. On the 
10th of November, 1799, with a company of soldiers he entered 
the legislative halls at St, Cloud and drove out the senators, and 



0TJR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 71 

the council proclaimed a new constitution and established a new 
government, called a consulate, of which he became first consul. 
In 1804 a decree was passed by the Senate, giving him the title of 
emperor. 

In the year 1811 .Napoleon was at the height of his power and 
glory. The French Empire, over which he ruled, extended from 
the borders of Denmark to those of Naples, and he was either 
the master or ally of every nation of Europe. But soon all this 
was changed. The beginning of Napoleon's disasters was the 
war which he commenced with Russia in 1817. In this cam- 
paign his magnificent army of 500,000 men, was totally destroyed, 
and Napoleon returned to Paris almost alone. In April, 1814, he 
walfc banished to the island of Elba, from which he escaped in ten 
months. He placed himself again at the head of the armies of 
France, but his overwhelming defeat at Waterloo crushed his 
power and influence; he was cast aside and Louis XVIII. was re- 
instated king of France. Napoleon was banished by the English 
to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821. 

When peace came to Europe, George III. was still alive; but 
did not rule. In 1810 he became crazy, and his eldest son ruled 
as regent until 1820, when the old man died, and he ascended the 
throne as George IV. The most important political event of 
George IV.'s reign was the removal of certain disabilites under 
which all persons, outside the Church of England, labored. 

In 1830 the king died, and William Henry, his brother, suc- 
ceeded him as William IV. At this time, the subject of Parlia- 
mentary reform agitated the people. The large centers of 
population, unrepresented in the legislature, demanded a change, 
and so the celebrated Reform Bill was brought into Parliament 
in March, 1831, by Lord John Russell. By this act, great and 
important changes were made; and voting was extended more 
widely among the middle classes. 

In 1833, when the Reform Parliament first met, it abolished 
slavery in the British colonies. The merit of the work was 
mainly due to Wilberforce. William IV. died in 1834, and was 
succeeded by Alexandrina Victoria, daughter of his brother. She 
was then eighteen years old, and three years afterwards was mar- 
ried to her cousin, Prince Albert, of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. 

The early important political events of Victoria's reign were the 
repeal of the Corn Laws and the Chartist agitation, — a working- 
man's movement for greater privileges. 

Though justice was long delayed a part of their proposed re- 
forms have since become law. Since Waterloo, until the out- 
break of the Crimean war in 1854, no European disturbance 
occurred. This war arose from the fact that the Czar of Russia, 
Nicholas, disturbed the balance of .power by seizing the Turkish 
Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The chief actions 



72 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

were the victories of Alma, September, 1854, arid of Inkerman, 
November, 1854. The allied armies of Great Britain, France, 
Sardinia, then invested Sebastopol; and in September, 1855, the 
place was evacuated by the Russians. In the following year, 
peace was made, and England's history since this time has been 
one of steady internal development. A reform bill was passed in 
1869, through the agency of the Earl of Derby and Mr. Disraeil. 
In 1869 and 1870 important changes were made in Ireland, one 
being the dis-establishment of the Irish Church, — a measure of 
justice to the Catholics. In 1872, an act was passed, requiring 
votes in Parliamentary elections to be given by ballot, and this 
brings the political system of England still nearer to our own. 

The modern history of France presents a striking contrastf^to 
that of England. Reform has been the watchword in England; 
but in France, since Napoleon I., changes have been effected, but 
by revolution. Louis XVIII. was fifty-nine years old when re- 
stored to the throne of his fathers, and under him, France enjoyed 
peaceful tranquillity. 

On his death in 1824, his brother Count d'Atois became king, 
with the title of Charles X. Under him, France was again placed 
under a rule as despotic as that of the Stuarts. In 1830, he is- 
sued three ordinances which kindled the Second French Revolu- 
tion. These were: 1. That the liberty of the press was suspended; 
2. That the Chamber of Deputies was dissolved before it had 
met; 3. That the elections were to be made by the Prefects, mere 
creatures of the government. The people rebelled, and after a few 
brisk fights, were master of the city of Paris. A provisional gov- 
ernment was appointed; and in a few days Louis Philippe, of the 
House of Orleans was elected king of the French. Charles sought 
refuge abroad, and died in Austria six years later. 

The troubles of the new reign soon began. During this period 
'there was a young man who made two attempts at revolution, and 
that was Louis Napoleon, a nephew of the great Napoleon. He 
wished to be like his predecessor, and made several vain attempts 
at conquest, but was at last caught and imprisoned at Ham. 
After six years he escaped in the dress of a workman, and took 
up his residence in England. But events were preparing a new 
place for him. The king had become very unpopular. Reform 
Banquets were instituted all over the country. The working- 
classes adopted for their motto the three words, Libert)'-, Equality 
and Fraternity. The crisis came is 1848, when a Reform Banquet 
appointed to take place on Washington's birthday was forbidden 
by the government; and France became a Republic once more. 

A National Assembly was elected, opening its session, March 
4, 1848. For several months Paris was a scene of anarchy and 
bloodshed, and peace was not restored until about 16,000 
persons were killed or wounded. A new constitution, vesting 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 73 

the executive power in a President of the Republic, who should 
be chosen by the people, and hold his position for four years, was 
adopted by the National Assembly in November, 1848. Louis 
Napoleon was the first president; but he never agreed well with 
the Assembly, and in 1851, by a night massacre he dissolved the 
Assembly and became master of France. On the 14th of January, 
1852, a new constitution placed the government of France in the 
liands of Louis Napoleon for three years. Next he was elevated 
to be emperor on the 2d of December, with the title of Napoleon 
III. The year after his accession there arose a quarrel between 
Russia and Turkey, in which France allied herself with England, 
against Russia. 

In 1859 hostilities broke out between Austria and Sardinia, 
T'he French emperor in person took the field in Northern Italy 
•as an ally of Sardinia. He was completely victorious, but in the 
midst of his successes suddenly stopped short and concluded the 
mysterious Peace of Villafranca. By this he obtained the two 
provinces of Nice and Savoy. 

The last and greatest of his wars was that declared against 
Prussia, 1870. For this act of aggression, he assigned the pro- 
posal of giving the Spanish crown to Leopold, as the cause; the real 
reason was that he was very jealous of the greatness of Prussia, 
and was desirous of establishing his waning popularity in France 
by means of a successful war. The French crossed the German 
frontier, but were driven out in a few days, and then the German 
armies entered France and won a series of brilliant victories. 

Napoleon became a prisoner. Paris was besieged, and surren- 
dered to the Germans. Meanwhile Napoleon was dec^red de- 
posed and a Republic was again established in France. 

But we have omitted the internal history of the country. The 
eighteen years of imperial rule formed a period of marked mate- 
rial prosperity. The development of commerce, the railroad sys- 
tem, and other industries, made France greater than ever before. 
The French are a mighty and a noble people, and have for cen- 
turies upheld the civilization of Europe; but, we must say of 
them, that for twenty years in the middle of the nineteenth cen- 
tury, they allowed themselves to be ruled by a system, little bet- 
ter than Asiatic despotism. The rottenness of the State was ex- 
posed by the German conflict. The struggle was between a mass 
•of proud, brave people, who had had little education in either 
'morals or politics, and one brought up in the public school. 

From 1815 to 1848, historic events in Italy were unimportant. 
"When Pius IX. became pope in 1846, he made beneficial changes 
among the people of the Papal States. The Austrians of the 
country, alarmed at any signs of growing freedom, entered Fer- 
rara in 1847, and all Central Italy rose in arms against the tyrants. 
In the following year, a revolution took place in Lombardy. The 



74 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Austrians were driven from Milan, and Charles Albert of Sardinia, 
took the field against them; but he was soon defeated and was 
then succeeded by his son Victor Emanuel II. In 1849 the Aus- 
trians recovered most of their lost territory and Italy was in the 
same condition as before the uprising. In 1855, Emanuel, by 
the advice of his prime minister, Cavour, entered into the war 
which England and France were carrying on with Russia in the- 
Crimea. In 1859 France and Sardinia declared war against Aus- 
tria, and Napoleon said he would free Italy from the Alps to the- 
Adriatic. At the close of the war, Austria gave Lombardy to 
Sardinia; and in March, 1860, Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Ro- 
magna, by a vote of the people, became subject to the King of 
Sardinia. 

In the meantime, the patriot Joseph Garibaldi, gave freedom 
to Naples and Sicily. He issued from the rocky islet of Caprera,. 
landed in May, 1860, at Marsale in Sicily, proclaiming himself 
dictator for Victor Emanuel. Storming Palermo, and defeating 
the king of Naples at Melazza, he invaded the mainland, and 
forced Reggio to capitulate. Then the king of Naples took refuge 
in Gasta, and Garibaldi entered the capital and nominated a pro- ^ 
vincial government. 

The Sardinians invaded the Papal States, and defeated the ar- 
mies there. Other victories followed, and the kingdom of the 
Two Sicilies became a dependency of Sardinia. By a vote or 
revolution most of the other states were in 1861 united to the 
kingdom of Italy, and the Italian Parliament made Victor Eman- 
uel king of Italy. When the war between Austria and Prussia, 
broke out in 1866, Italy joined Prussia, and Austria was forced to- 
give up Venice and Verona. 

Then, when the war between France and Germany caused the 
French troops to leave Rome, the Eternal City was at last joined 
to the Italian kingdoms. The entrance of Victor Emanuel into 
Rome was the end of the work of deliverance and union. On the 
9th of .January, 1877, this beloved monarch died, and his son^ 
Humbert ascended the throne. 

Through the agency of the Napoleonic wars Germany came to be- 
no longer even nominally a united state, acknowledging a com- 
mon head. After the downfall of Napoleon in 1815, the status 
of the various European nations was settled at the Congress of 
Vienna, the jealousies of the larger German states kept the empire 
from being restored. Instead of this, the German princes united 
in what was called the German Confederation, which lasted 
until quite recent times. But, by this compact, the states were 
very loosely united, and there was a general desire that Germany- 
should become strong by becoming a more united power. An 
important step toward this was taken in 1828, when Prussia be- 
came the center of a commercial union between the states, which* 



uL'Ii GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 7& 

agreed to levy no duties on merchandise passing from one state to 
another, but to levy them only at the common frontier. 

The French Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 had resulted in some 
serious consequences to the peace of Germany. At the time of 
the latter the people resolved to obtain, at whatever cost, their 
chief demands. The uprising all over the country, compelled the 
king of Berlin, Frederick William IV. to grant a new constitu- 
tion. But the hope for union and freedom was once more dis- 
appointed. Soon after this the Hungarians, headed by the orator 
Kossuth, demanded complete independence and set up a republic; 
but quarrels arose among the people of the state itself, and so it 
was easily conquered by Austria. Then the gradual subsidence 
of the republican movement in Germany proper caused the gov- 
ernment to get the upper hand in Austria and Prussia. The pop- 
ular mind whs in a state of confusion all this time, although the- 
desire for national unity still remained. King William IV. of 
Prussia, died in 1861, and was succeeded by his brother, who took 
the title of William I. He appointed Otto von Bismarck, one of 
the ablest of modern statesmen, his prime minister, and minister 
of foreign affairs. 

In February, 186-1, the Premiers of Russia and Austria joined 
against Denmark, over the "Schleswig-Holstein question." 

This war resulted in the annexation of Schleswig-Holstein, and 
Sanenburg to Prussia and Austria. In 1866, Prussia attacked 
Austria, over this same affair. Italy united with Prussia, who 
was finally successful. The final re-ult of the conflict was the- 
union of the states north of the Main in the North German Con- 
federation, excluding Austria from Germany. This partial union 
was a o;reat advance, and the war with France, which we have al- 
ready noticed, completed the union of ail the states. Napoleon 
III. hoped, when he declared war that the South Germans would 
either join him or remain neutral; but he was disappointed and 
France was humiliated. The final treaty of peace between France 
and Germany, called the Treaty of Frankfort, was signed May 
10, 1871. Very severe terms were imposed on France, which 
was obliged to cede to Germany the provinces of Alsace and Lor- 
raine and pay an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs. The unifica- 
tion of Germany was soon after accomplished, and on the 18tb- 
of January, 1871, King William I. of Prussia, was solemnly pro- 
claimed Emperor of Germany. In the month of March the first 
Diet of the Constitution was adopted for the twenty-five states 
forming the empire. Each of these regulates its own affairs, and 
is allowed to send and receive diplomatic representatives. What 
concerns the whole country is left to the Imperial government. 

The duties of legislation rest with the Federal Council; the- 
executive power is wielded by the emperor. The Austro-Prus- 
sian war raised Prussia to the first place in Germany; the Franco- 
Prussian war raised Germany to the first place in Europe. 



7b FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

The next great event in the world's history was the war be- 
tween Russia and Turkey beginning in the year 1877. The chief 
cause of the conflict was: the Christians of Montenegro, Bul- 
garia, and other Turkish provinces were most severely oppressed 
by the Turks, and Russia determined to avenge them and obtain 
their freedom. Turkey made promises of reform provided she 
was left to carry them out herself, but Russia declared it her duty 
to see that the demands for reform were enforced. For two 
years its outbreak had been anxiously looked forward to, because it 
was thought that it might lead to results of more than ordinary 
importance, and might take its place among the more memorable 
wars in the history of the human race. The power of the Turks 
had long been on the wane, and the opinion had been widely spread 
that they would not be able to retain much longer their bold of 
their Christian provinces. The rising in 1875 and 187G of all the 
tribes of the Servian nationality appeared to be fraught with the 
most serious danger to the Turks, and awakened the full measure 
of that sympathy which is accorded to the struggle of any op- 
pressed people for independence. When Russia, in 1877, took 
up arms in support of its Slavic brethren, it was commonly ex- 
pected that the time for a radical change in the territorial divi- 
sion of Eastern Europe was near at hand. A decided defeat of 
the Turks, it was thought, might involve their entire expulsion 
from Europe, and a reconstruction of their European dominions. 

A peculiar interest attaches to this war in its religious aspect. 
The civilized world has fortunately learned to discard religion from 
politics, and the legislation of the United States, which grants 
equal rights and equal protection to persons of all religions, is 
■duly appreciated and more and more adopted by the states of 
Euro-"" and America. The Turks might have received the full 
beneut of this progress of religious toleration, and the fact that 
the Mohammedan religion forms a broad line of distinction be- 
tween them and the civilized world might have been ignored, if 
the government had been just towards its Christian subjects. 
This, however, has not been the case. The shameful oppression 
of the Christian provinces, after having lasted for centuries, had 
not yet ceased. Mohammedan fanaticism had again reflected it- 
self in the horrible Bulgarian atrocities, and the war against Rus- 
sia had hardly begun when the Turkish government manifested 
the design of proclaiming a holy war of all Mohammedans against 
the Christian enemy. Such acts aroused a strong feeling of an- 
tipathy ao-ainst the Mohammedan Turks throughout the Christian 
world. They recalled to the Christian nations the past wars be- 
tween the Cross and the Crescent, and their final result, the com- 
plete victory of progressive Christianity, which is now the religion 
of almost every civilized country, over the decrepit Islam, which 
for centuries has been losing ground wherever it came into con- 




BURNING THE GUTLLOTTNB IN TKE PLACE VOLTAIRB- 




FLYING FISH. 




THE BANYON TREE OF INDIA. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 79 

tact with Christianity. The examples of Spain, of Hungary, of 
large Slavic territories, and of Greece, all of which have fully 
emancipated themselves from Mohammedan rule, and of Servia 
and Roumania, which have at least achieved an actual independ- 
ence, were looked upon as proofs that a Mohammedan govern- 
ment cannot and should not conduct the developing civilization of 
a Christian race, and that the Christian tribes which were still kept 
down by Turkish rule, are fairly and fully entitled to a liberation 
from the shackles which thus far had obstructed their progress. 
The warlike spirit which animated the Crusader against the infidel 
conquerors of the H >ly Land may no longer exist in the present 
generation, but just in proportion as the Turks chose to remind 
the Christians of their triumphs in former religious wars, they 
will revive in millions of minds the sorrow for the Mohammedan 
conquest of the sacred places hallowed by the history of the Old 
and New Testaments and swell the already powerful current of 
an anti-Turkish public sentiment. 

War was declaredbyRussiaApril24,1877. After a terrible con- 
flict extending over a period of 11 months, involving the sacrifice 
of near 200,000 men and untold treasure, Turkey was conquered 
and accepted Russia's terms of peace in February, 1878. All na- 
tions had held a position of neutrality, though England and France 
leaned toward the Turks. With the exception of this war peace 
reigned throughout the world. Spain has gone through revolu- 
tions and civil war, banished its queen, tried republican govern- 
ment, and finally returned to a limited monarchy. Not less mar- 
velous than these changes in Europe, have been those which make 
the history of the last quarter of a century the most remarkable in 
the annals of Asia. The whole of that continent so long shut up 
against the rest of the world, has opened its doors to commerce, 
western civilization, and Christianity, and is being rapidly trans- 
formed into a new world. 

In Africa, the researches of Livingstone and Stanley, and 
others, have brought to the knowledge of the world new races, 
and demonstrated that Central Africa is the home of millions of 
people. The source of the Nile has been discovered, and the 
slave trade has been almost totally destroyed. Australia, com- 
paratively unknown thirty years ago, has risen to the dignity of 
a continent, and through its wonderful gold mines, and other un- 
suspected, but marvelous resources, added largely to the com- 
merce and wealth of the world. 

A republican form of government in France is becoming an 
established fact, and the nation is growing in power and impor- 
tance. 

The United States have become one of the greatest powers of 
the world, and have relations with all nations and countries. The 
government is thoroughly democratic and popular, and the people 
are prosperous and independent. 




THE DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OB 
THE AMERICAN CONTINENT. 




BOUT the end of the tenth century, the Scandinavians, ins 
some of their maritime expeditions, had reached Iceland 
and Greenland, from which latter country they appear to 
have advanced to Vinland, probably Labrador. In 
Greenland some unimportant settlements were made, and the 1 
communication with the transatlantic continent was maintained 
until the beginning of the 15th century, when the fate of these 
colonies was covered as with a cloud ; and although various at- 
tempts have since been made for their discovery, no traces of 
their existence have been obtained. In Southern Europe these 
expeditions were entirely unknown, and therefore the undimin- 
ished glory was left to Columbus of proving the existence of the 
Western World. This celebrated navigator was of Genoese 
origin, though his character had been formed and his skill ac- 
quired in the service of Portugal. His active mind readily fore- 
saw the length and difficulties of a voyage to the Indies by sailing 
to the eastward, even if the route should be discovered ; and it 
appeared to him that by sailing directly west he would more 
readily attain his object. Many circumstances, the importance of 
which is best known to mariners, supported his theories; but 
those to whom he applied for protection and support did not ac- 
knowledge their force. The Genoese Senate regarded him as a 

So 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 8 1 

madman ; in Portugal his confidence was most treacherously- 
abused, and in England his brother Bartholomew obtained the 
consent of Henry VII., only when too late. After many obsta- 
cles, arising from the ignorance and religious scruples of those to 
whom his project was submitted, Columbus sailed with three 
small vessels from Palos in Andalusia, 3d August, 1492. On the 
night of the 12 th October, land was seen after a tedious voyage, 
during which the commander had to contend against the cowardly 
and rebellious spirit of his crew. San Salvador or Guanahani, 
one of the Bahama chain stretching between Florida and St. Do- 
mingo, was the island first discovered. Cuba and Hayti were 
reached soon after. Columbus, now directing his course home- 
ward, returned to the harbor of Palos, seven months and eleven 
days after his departure. He was received with great kindness 
by Ferdinand and Isabella, who ennobled his family, and ratified 
all the privileges of the treaty of Santa Fe. By the articles of 
this treaty, drawn up before Columbus sailed, he was created high 
admiral, with hereditary right in the seas he should discover; 
viceroy also, with hereditary possession of the lands ; he was to 
receive a tithe of the profits of commercial undertakings, and be 
supreme judge in all mercantile disputes in the newly-discovered 
countries 

While Europe was still re-echoing with the news of this voyage, 
the navigator had again sailed towards the west with seventeen 
vessels, having on board numerous settlers eager to reap the 
golden harvest which the descriptions of travelers had placed in 
the Indies. Isabella, in the island of Cuba, was the first city 
founded in the New World. In his third voyage, 1498, Columbus 
reached the continent of America, near the mouth of the Orinoco. 
Columbus died in 1506, after being treated by the Spanish court 
with the greatest ingratitude His body was pompously interred 
in the Cathedral of Seville ; and over it was erected a monument, 
with the simple inscription that Columbus had given a new world 
to Castile and Leon. His remains were afterwards transported to 
the Island of Hayti, and buried in the Cathedral of St. Domingo, in 
J 536, whence, two hundred and sixty years afterwards, they were 
transferred to Havana. 

In 1499, Alonzo de Ojeda sailed to the new continent, accom- 
panied by a Florentine merchant named Amerigo Vespucci, under 
6 



82 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

whose direction the enterprise was chiefly conducted. Returning 
to Europe, he published an account of his adventures, and claimed 
the honor of being the first to discover the mainland of the New 
World. The imposture of Vespucci has long been known, and 
his dishonest narrative has in no degree injured the glory of Co- 
lumbus. As to the honor of first reaching the shores of the new 
continent, it probably belongs to the English mariners, who, under 
Cabot, a Bristol seaman of Venetian parents, sailed along the 
coasts of North America from Labrador to Florida, 1498. 

The oldest town in the United States is St. Augustine, in 
Florida, settled by the Spaniards in 1565 ; but the first permanent 
settlement made by the English was that of Jamestown, in Vir- 
ginia, in 1607. In 1620 a body of emigrants, 101 in number, 
landed at or near Cape Cod, and in honor of their home in the 
Old World named their home in the New, Plymouth ; and they 
are known to history as the Puritan Fathers. They were soon 
followed by others, and thus was laid the broad corner stone of 
civil and religious liberty The young colonies were, of course, 
subject to Great Britain; and as that country, with a policy 
very different from that pursued by her at present, was con- 
stantly engaged in war, its national debt was heavy and its own 
resources were so nearly exhausted as to make it a serious ques- 
tion from whence their money was to come ; and the ministers 
decided to tax the provinces to raise the means to relieve the 
necessities of the parent Kingdom ; and accordingly the notorious 
Stamp Act was passed in 1765 ; but the colonists refused to recog- 
nize or comply with it, on the ground of their having no repre- 
sentation in the Parliament, and the offensive act was repealed ; 
but the right of taxation — denied by Americans — was insisted 
upon by the ministers, and the duty removed from one article 
was doubled upon others ; and the resistance of the people re- 
sulted in the long struggle known as the Revolutionary War. 
When there seemed but two ways of settling grievances and 
wrongs that grew each hour more deep and oppressive — either by 
unconditional submission, or by separation from England — they 
chose the latter, and on the 4th of July, 1776, Congress, on behalf 
of the Colonies, declared their independence of Great Britain, and 
a committee was appointed, consisting of Thomas Jefferson, Ben- 
jamin Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sherman, and John Living- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY 8$ 

ston, to draw up a Declaration of Independence. The Colonists 
were aided by France and Spain, and at length the treaty of 
Versailles, 1783, acknowledged them " free, sovereign, and inde- 
pendent States." The Articles of Confederation, which had 
Heretofore bound the Colonists, were found too incomplete and 
imperfect for a National Government, and a new Constitution, 
drawn up with the greatest care and deliberation, was adopted by 
the States, and George Washington was elected first President of 
the new American Republic, with John Adams Vice President, 
and they were re-elected in 1792. 

GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC. 

In 1782, the Territories of the Confederation extended west- 
ward to the Mississippi, and northward to the great Lakes, giving 
a total area of about 800,000 square miles, but by large acquisi- 
tions since made, it has reached its present size. 

ITS PRESENT AREA HAS BEEN ACQUIRED AS FOLLOWS: 
Territory ceded by England in 1783, - 815,615 Square miles. 

Louisiana, as acquired from France in 1803, - 930,928 

Florida, as acquired from Spain in 1821, - - 59.268 

Texas as admitted to the Union in 1845, - 237,504 

Oregon by treaty in 1846, 280,425 

California taken from Mexico in 1847, - 649,762 

Arizonia from Mexico by treaty in 1854, - 27,500 

Alaska from Russia by treaty in 1867, - - 577,390 

Total present Area, - 3.578,392 Square miles. 

The increase of the population, and the rapid growth and 
development of the country have been truly wonderful. In 
1620 there were but 300 white settlers in New England. Less 
than 250 years ago, New York City was made up of a dozen log- 
cabins, and all the land now comprising the City and County of 
New York, was purchased for the small pittance of $24.00. 

Fifty-five years since, there were less than 5,000 white people 
in the vast region between Lake Michigan and the Pacific Ocean, 
while the population now exceeds 10,000,000. Chicago was then 
a mere trading-post of half a dozen huts. 

Seventy years ago, those immense lakes, Ontario, Michigan, 
Huron, and Superior, were entirely without commerce, and an 
Indian's canoe was about the only craft seen upon them ; but now 
they are crowded thoroughfares, and the value of the traffic upon 
these waters, and navigable rivers, is not much less than one 
billion of dollars per annum. 



FORMATION OF THE ORIGINAL UNION. 



tlfn^. N Monday, the 5th September, 1774, there were assembled 




wTJHy at Carpenter's Hall, in the city of Philadelphia, a number 
of men who had been chosen and appointed by the sev- 
eral colonies in North America to hold a Congress for the purpose 
of discussing certain grievances imputed against the mother-coun- 
try. This Congress resolved, on the next day, that each colony 
should have one vote only. On Tuesday, the 2d July, 1776, the 
Congress resolved, " That these United Colonies are, and of right 
ought to be, Free and Independent States," etc., etc. ; and on 
Thursday, the 4th July, the whole Declaration of Independence 
having been agreed upon, it was publicly read to the people. 
Shortly after, on the 9th September, it was resolved that the words 
" United Colonies" should be no longer used, and that the " United 
States of America " should thenceforward be the style and title 
of the Union. On Saturday, the 15th November, 1777, "Articles 
of Confederation and Perpetual Union of the United States of 
America " were agreed to by the State delegates, subject to the 
ratification of the State legislatures severally. Eight of the States 
ratified these articles on the 9th July, 1778 ; one on the 21st July; 
one on the 24th July; one on the 26th November of the same 
year; one on the 2 2d February, 1779; and the last one on the 
1st of March, 1781. Here was a bond of union between thirteen 
independent States, whose delegates in Congress legislated for the 
general welfare, and executed certain powers, so far as they were 
permitted by the articles aforesaid. The following are the names 
of the Presidents of the Continental Congress from 1774 to 178&: 

Peyton Randolph, Virginia 5th Sept. 1774 

Henry Middleton, South Carolina _22d Oct. 1774 

Peyton Randolph, Virginia __ 10th May, 1775 

John Hancock, Massachusetts 24th May, 1776 

84 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 85 

Henry Laurens, South Carolina _ist Nov. 1777 

John Jay, New York 10th Dec. 1778 

Samuel Huntingdon, Connecticut .28th Sept. 1779 

Thomas McKean, Delaware 10th July, 1781 

John Hanson, Maryland 5th Nov. 1781 

Elias Boudinot, New Jersey 4th Nov. 1782 

Thomas Mifflin, Pennsylvania 3d Nor. 1783 

Richard Henry Lee, Virginia 30th Nov. 1784 

Nathaniel Gorham, Massachusetts 6th Jan. 1786 

Arthur St. Clair, Pennsylvania 2d Feb. 1787 

Cyrus Griffin, Virginia _. 2 2d Jan. 1788 

The seat of government was established as follows : at Philadel- 
phia, Pennsylvania, commencing September 5, 1774, and May 10, 
1775; at Baltimore, Maryland, December 20, 1776; at Philadel- 
phia, Pennsylvania, March 4, 1777 ; at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 
September 27, 1777; at York, Pennsylvania, September 30, 1777 ; 
at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, July 2, 1778; at Princeton, New 
Jersey, June 30, 1783; at Annapolis, Maryland, November 26, 
1783; at Trenton, New Jersey, November 1,1784; and at New 
York City, New York, January n, 1785. 

On the 4th March, 1789, the present Constitution, which had 
been adopted by a convention and ratified by the requisite num- 
ber of States, went into operation 




OUR CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 



THE DISRUPTION WITH ENGLAND. 

The history of the United States as a nation, may be said ta 
begin with the session of the First Colonial Congress. This 
body met at New York City on the 7th of October, 1765,. 
Timothy Ruggles, of Massachusetts, being President. Nine 
Colonies were represented by twenty-eight delegates. The causes- 
which had led to the appointment of these delegates, were the op- 
pressive laws enacted for the Colonies by the British Parliament. 
The royal governors were very arbitrary. There were attempts 
made to take away the charters of Massachusetts, Rhode Island 
and Connecticut. There were suggestions of creating a provin- 
cial peerage, and of giving the established church the precedence 
in all the Colonies. In the army, a " regular " captain, outranked 
a " provincial " colonel. Every effort was made to keep the 
Colonies dependent, and to favor the British manufacturer and 
merchant. Commerce and manufactures were bound hand and 
foot. In 1750, the Americans were forbidden to send pig-iron to 
England, and to make steel or ljar-iron for home use. The 
exportation of hats from one Colony to another was prohibited, 
and no hatter was allowed to have more than two apprentices at one 
time. The importation of sugar, rum and molasses, was burdened 
with exorbitant duties; and the Carolinians were forbidden to cut 
down the pine trees of their vast forests, in order to convert the 
wood into staves, or the juice into turpentine and tar for com- 
mercial purposes. It may be said truthfully that England for- 
bade the use of water-falls, the erection of machinery, looms and 
spindles, and the working of wood and iron ; shut out markets for 
boards and fish; seized sugar and molasses, and the vessels in 
which they were carried ; and attempted to define the limitless 
ocean to be but a narrow pathway to such lands as bore theBr itish 
flag. Such odious laws drove men to their violation. It was the 
only hope of trade. Smuggling became so common that it is said 
of the one and a half million dollars worth of tea used annually 
in the Colonies, scarcely any had paid duty. Not one chest out 
of five-hundred landed in Boston, was regularly entered. The 
home government had incurred heavy expenses during the old 
French and Indian war. George III. was now king. It was 
determined to make the rich and thriving young Colonies con- 

S6 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY, 87 

tribute to the payment of the debt The Colonists were not 
represented in Parliament, and they declared the principle that 
"taxation without representation is tyranny." In 1761, strict 
orders were received by the revenue officers to enforce the 
obnoxious laws against trade; writs of assistance, as they were 
called, were issued, authorizing these persons to search for 
smuggled goods With such a pretext, any petty custom house 
official could ransack a man's house or store at his pleasure. 

The Colonists held the Englishman's maxim, that " every man's 
house is his castle." The royal collectors were accordingly resisted 
from one end of # the country to the other. At the General Court 
in Boston, James Otis without fear or fee, eloquently withstood 
the issuing of such warrants, " To my dying day " said he, " I will 
oppose, with all the powers and faculties God has given me, all 
such instruments of slavery on the one hand, and villany on the 
other." " Then and there," wrote John Adams, "the trumpet 
of the Revolution was sounded." In 1764^ Parliament distinctly 
declared its right to tax America. Colony after Colony entered 
its solemn protest, but in vain. In 1765, the stamp act was 
passed. This ordered that no legal document was valid unless 
it bore a British stamp, costing from three pence to six pounds ; 
that every newspaper and pamphlet should bear a stamp worth 
from a half penny to four pence ; and that each advertisement 
should pay a duty of two shillings. The assembly of Virginia 
was in session when these obnoxious laws were announced. 
Patrick Henry, a young lawyer, the youngest member of the 
house, quickly drew up a series of resolutions, denying the right 
of Parliament to tax America. He supported these in a strain of 
burning patriotism, declaring " Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I. 
his Cromwell, and George III," here pausing till the cry of 
"Treason ! Treason !" from several parts of the house had sub- 
sided, he deliberately added : — "may profit by their examples. 
If this be treason, make the most of it." 

Opposition everywhere ran high, and sometimes overflowed 
the barriers of law and order. The houses of British officials 
were mobbed ; the opponents of the tax met on Boston common 
under a large elm, famous as the "liberty tree." Associations 
were formed which took the name of "Sons of Liberty." The 
people agreed not to use any article of British manufacture. 
Trade with England almost ceased. The women entered heartily 
into the struggle. They formed associations called " Daughters 
of Liberty," and spun and wove with renewed vigor, determined 
to prove themselves independent of the mother country. In 
Newport and Boston the women at their tea drinkings used, in- 
stead of imported tea, the dried leaves of the raspberry which 
they called Hyperion. The feeling spread to every condition of 
life. 



88 FOOTPRINTS OF THE 'AGES. 

In February, 1766, Benjamin Franklin, then in England, was 
called before the bar of the House of Commons and questioned 
concerning the condition of the Colonies. His firm and decisive 
answers greatly impressed the officers of the crown. The 
English government, finding that the stamp act could not be 
executed, except by force of arms, at last repealed it. The news 
was received in America with transports of joy. The debtors 
were released from jail, and what with fireworks, public enter- 
tainments, music and parades, the day was one of the happiest 
ever seen. The "home-feeling" towards England was restored 
and trade resumed. 

But the cloud soon settled again. The Government still de- 
clared its right to inflict taxation on the Colonies. Duties were 
imposed on tea, glass, paper, etc. The assemblies of nearly all 
the Colonies had declared that Parliament had no right to tax 
them without their consent. New events constantly occurred to 
keep up the excitement. The presence of soldiers in Boston was 
a constant aggravation, and the people did their utmost to render 
their stay uncomfortable. Frequent quarrels took place between 
the people and the " red coats." On March 5, 1770, a crowd of 
men and boys, maddened by their presence, insulted the city 
guard. A fight ensued. Several citizens were wounded, and 
three killed. The bells were rung. The country people rushed 
in to the help of the city. Quiet was with difficulty restored. 
But the snow in King street was purple, and " that stain, though 
it melted away in the next day's sun, was never forgotten nor 
forgiven." In the morning Faneuil Hall was filled with an indig- 
nant crowd. The immediate removal of the troops was demanded. 
The Government was forced to yield, and to order the soldiers 
out of the city to Castle William. In North Carolina, the revenue 
was raised by a poll-tax, so that the richest merchant paid no 
more than the poorest laborer. The officers often levied four 
times the lawful tax. The courts refused the distressed people 
their rights. Money was scarce ; wheat brought only one shil- 
ling per bushel, and that after being hauled fifty or a hundred 
miles to market. Under such circumstances, the taxes became 
simply unendurable. At last, as the only means of obtaining 
justice, an association of regulators was formed, for the purpose 
of redressing the grievances of the country. Governor Tryon, 
however, marched against them, defeated them at Alamance 
Creek, May 16, 1771, and left three hundred of their number 
dead on the field. Six were afterward hanged. The Governor 
and his satellites took possession of such of their estates as they 
desired. The English Government was greatly alarmed by the 
steady determination evinced by the Colonies. Finally, all duties 
were rescinded, except that on tea, which was left merely to 
maintain the right of taxation. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 89 

At Charleston, the tea was stored in damp cellars, where it 
soon spoiled. The tea ships at New York and Philadelphia were 
•sent home. The British authorities at Boston refused to let the 
vessels loaded with tea return. Upon this, an immense public 
meeting was held at Faneuil Hall. Speeches were made by 
Quincy, Adams and others. It was resolved that the tea should 
never be landed. That evening, December 16, 1773, memorable 
in American history, a party of men, disguised as Indians, boarded 
the vessels, and emptied three hundred and forty-two chests of 
tea into the water. The dock was crowded with people, who 
looked^on with joy. When the work was done they quietly dis- 
persed. The issue was now fairly made. The country heaved 
like an ocean in a storm. Party lines were sharply drawn. Those 
opposed to the action of the British Government were termed 
Whigs, and those supporting it, Tories. Everywhere were re- 
peated the thrilling words of Patrick Henry in the Virginia House 
of Burgesses : " I know not what course ethers may take, but as 
for me, give me liberty or give me death ! " The second Colonial 
Congress accordingly met at Philadelphia, September, 1774, under 
the name of the Continental Congress. It recommended that 
intercourse between the Colonies and mother conntry should 
cease, and endorsed the spirit of opposition shown in Virginia and 
Massachusetts. Thus supported, these Colonies began to equip 
troops and accumulate supplies, while the Home Government 
hastened to dispatch to America several ships of the line and ten 
thousand troops to reduce the " rebels." 




THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 



The long-foreseen conflict began by an engagement at Lexing- 
ton and Concord, Mass., April 19, 1775, in which the British lost 
280 men. This was the signal for a general uprising of the pro- 
vincial troops. The forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point on Lake 
Champlain were seized, and an army of nearly 20,000 men assem- 
bled around Boston. On June 17, a detachment of these troops 
under Col. Prescott entrenched themselves on Breed's (now Bunker) 
Hill, which commanded the city. Generals Howe and Clinton, 
at the head of about 3,000 British soldiers, attacked them prompt- 
ly, and after a hotly contested struggle forced the provincials to 
retire. But this success cost the victors more than a thousand 
men. 

Meanwhile the Continental Congress had reassembled at Phil- 
adelphia, and organized the higher departments of the army, ap- 
pointing General George Washington Commander-in-chief, and 
voting to raise and support 20,000 troops. With the assistance of 
General Gates, General Washington immediately devoted himself 
to organizing and equipping his men. The only other military 
operation of the year was an expedition against Quebec and Mon- 
treal, under General Montgomery, which resulted in his death and 
in the capture of most of his troops. 

Early in the spring of 1776, Washington, by a masterly move- 
ment, obtained possession of a position commanding the city of 
Boston and compelled its immediate evacuation by the British 
troops under Sir William Howe. They embarked in their fleet 
and sailed southerly. Penetrating their design to land at New 
York, Washington prevented it by the promptness of his move- 
ments. Thus forced to abandon his plans, General Howe at- 
tempted to capture Charleston, but was driven off with severe loss. 

On the first of July, the Declaration of Independence, prepared 
by a committee consisting of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, 
Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingstone 
was submitted to the Continental Congress, and on the fourth was 
ratified by the delegates. Thus was the allegiance of the colonies 
to the British crowji dissolved, and their freedom declared under 
the name of the United States of America. 

At this time (July 2) the British troops, largely reinforced, had 
taken possession of Staten Island, and were preparing to drive 
Washington and his army from New York. After several severe 
engagements and numerous strategic movements, they accom- 

9i 



9 2 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

plished their design, and forced the Continental army to evacuate 
the city in November and take refuge in New Jersey. Promptly 
following up this advantage, Lord Cornwallis actively pursued 
the retreating enemy until they were driven beyond the Delaware 
river. 

This was the gloomiest moment of the war. Death, disease, 
and desertion had reduced the Continental army to less than 3,000 
men, and these were but half-clothed, poorly equipped, and 
often nearly starved. In this desperate strait, Washington deter- 
mined on a daring movement as his only resource. Recrossing 
the Deleware amid floating ice and a driving snow storm, on 
Christmas night, he attacked Trenton, at that time occupied by a 
regiment of Hessians, and captured it with little loss. The British 
troops fell back in haste, and by a series of rapid movements were 
forced to positions near New York Harbor. 

In the summer of 1777 the British forces at New York embark- 
ed in the fleet, sailed up Chesapeake Bay, and landed at the head 
of Elk river, Maryland. Washington hastened to meet them with 
an army better equipped than in the previous year,and numbering 
among his officers the gallant Marquis de Lafayette and Kos- 
ciusko. The opposing troops met on the banks of the Brandywine, 
Sept. it, 1777, when a severe engagement resulted in the defeat of 
the provincial troops. They retired to the Schuylkill, and shortly 
after the British occupied Philadelphia. 

This disaster was, however, more than counterbalanced by the 
capture of a British army under General Burgoyne, in New York. 
This officer, at the head of about 10,000 troops, had moved down 
from Canada and captured Ticonderoga, but was checked by the 
defeat of one of his detachments near Bennington, Vt., Aug, 16. 
After two severe engagements with the Continental troops under 
General Gates, he was surrounded at Saratoga, his supplies cut 
off, and on the 17th of October he was forced to surrender his 
army prisoners of war. This success greatly inspirited the Ameri- 
cans and supplied them with much needed means to continue the 
struggle. Several minor engagements ensued, after which the main 
army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. 

Early in 1778, a treaty of alliance was concluded between the 
United States and France, in consequence of which the latter 
power sent a fleet and a number ot troops to aid the Americans. 
The British during the summer deemed it prudent to concentrate 
at New York, and therefore evacuated Philadelphia: In their re- 
treat across New Jersey the indecisive battle of Monmouth was 
fought. Subsequently they captured Savannah, Georgia, this be- 
ing the only advantage they gained during the campaign. 

In spite of the French allies, the year 1779 did not prove 
favorable to the American arms. The British forces overran and 
plundered Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, and the shores of 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 93 

Connecticut. They incited the Indians to incursions upon the 
defenseless frontier settlements, and the Continental Congress had 
exhausted both its resources and its credit, apparently in vain. 

Nor was the campaign of 1780 more reassuring. In April- of 
that year, Charleston was assaulted and captured by Sir Henry 
Clinton, and South Carolina subjected to his arms. A strong 
force from the North under General Gates was defeated at Sandy 
Creek (Aug. 16); and a body of patriots under Col. Sumter was 
dispersed. In the North, the traitor, Benedict Arnold, covered 
his name with everlasting obloquy by his treacherous attempt to 
surrender West Point to the British Commander for a sum of 
money. Indeed, such was the discouragement and suffering 
which at the close of this year prevailed in the American army, 
that there was imminent danger that it would disband. This 
was prevented by the energetic action of Congress, and especially 
by the efficient labors of Robert Morris, superintendent of the 
treasury. 

In 1 78 1, General Greene took command of the southern army^ 
and without gaining any decisive victory succeeded by a number 
of well-planned movements and attacks in confining the English 
forces at the close of the campaign to the cities of Savannah and 
Charleston. The Marquis de Lafayette, commanding in Virginia, 
manceuvered in opposition to the British troops under Lord Corn- 
wallis, until in August they had retired to Yorktown. When this 
had been achieved, General Washington with the main army at 
once hastened south, and the French fleet proceeded to block up 
the York and James rivers. Cornwallis, seeing escape impossible, 
surrendered on the 19th of October, with 7,000 troops and his 
munitions of war. 

This was the last important action of the war. Tired of the 
ineffectual struggle, the British nation clamored for a termination 
of hostilities. Neither the king nor the ministry was willing to 
acknowledge defeat, but they were at last obliged to yield. Not, 
however, until the last day of November, 1782, were the prelim- 
inary articles of peace signed. 

The war over, the next important step was to decide upon the 
relation to each other of the several states which had shared in 
the conflict. As early as the summer of 1775, Benjamin Frank- 
lin had proposed to Congress articles of confederation ; but at 
that time the step was deemed by the majority premature. In 
November, 1777, however, a plan of federation was adopted, and 
gradually ratified by all the states. Experience soon showed 
how defective it was, and in 1787 delegates from all the states, 
except Rhode Island, met at Philadelphia to prepare a new con- 
stitution. In the following year this was adopted by majorities of 
the people in eleven of the states, though not without strenuous 
opposition 



94 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



AFTER THE REVOLUTION. 

The Confederation was formed in time of war and under very- 
unfavorable circumstances in many respects, hence upon trial, it 
soon became evident that the powers conferred upon the Contin- 
ental Congress were inadequate to the legitimate objects of an 
effective national government. More especially was this mani- 
fested, when it became necessary to legislate upon matters relating 
to commerce and taxes. 

There was a want of, or deficie7icy of coercive power in Congress. 
It had not the exclusive power to regulate commerce, to issue 
paper money, or to enforce the laws made, the rules adopted, or 
the orders given, and even several of the States began to exercise 
the sovereign and absolute right of treating the recommendations 
of Congress with contempt. 

By this political compact, the United States in Congress 
assembled had rights and powers, without being able to enforce 
them. 

Another defect was in the mode of representation, which, 
before the adoption of the Constitution, gave to each State an 
equal share of power, although some were ten times as important 
as others in population and value of property. The States had 
each an equal voice and share in the Union. The small State of 
Delaware, for instance, had an equal vote and an equal influence 
in the National Council with Virginia, although Virginia had to 
pay for the support of the government, by reason of the number 
of its inhabitants and value of its property, nearly twelve times as 
much as Delaware. 

The original articles of confederation were found to be insuffi- 
cient, and ineffectual in many other important particulars. Pub- 
lic credit could not be supported, collection of taxes could not be 
enforced, alliances could not be obtained, nor treaties preserved, 
and what was still more defective, hostilities between the States 
could not be prevented, nor insurrections among citizens. 

In the spring of 1787 the nation seemed to be on the verge of 
bankruptcy. Congress had previously made a requisition upon 
the several States, for money to support and carry on the govern- 
ment, but only a few had responded. New York had paid more 
than her quota, Pennsylvania nearly all of hers, Connecticut and 
Delaware about one-third of their quota, but many had paid 
comparatively nothing. The interest both on the foreign and 
domestic debt was rapidly accumulating. 

The receipts of money paid into the federal treasury from 
Nov. 1st, 1 78 1 to Nov. 1 st, 1784, a period of three years, was 
only $2,025,089.34, or about $642,000 per annum. For three 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 95 

years previous to 1787, tne whole amount in specie paid into the 
federal treasury, did not exceed $1,400,000, being a little more 
than $400,000 per annum. The receipts of the treasury were 
constantly decreasing, while the expenditures were increasing. 

The foreign debt at this time was $7,000,000, and in 1787 
$1,600,000 must be paid, and more than $1,000,000 annualy for 
ten years to come. In addition to this there was a large domes- 
tic debt. 

This was, indeed, a dark hour for the new Republic. Congress 
was powerless ; she could make requisitions on the several States, 
but could not compel the payment of a farthing. " The Great 
Crisis had arrived when the people of these United States, by 
whose will, and for whose benefit, the federal government was 
instituted, had to decide whether they would support their rank 
as a nation by maintaining the Public Faith at home and 
abroad, or whether for want of a timely exertion in establishing a 
General Revenue, and thereby giving strength to the con- 
federacy, they would hazard not only the existence of the Union, 
but of those great and invaluable privileges for which they have 
so arduously and so honorably contended." 

Previous to this, General Washington had addressed his circular 
letter to the Governors of the several States, urging them in the 
strongest language to comply with the requisition of Congress, 
and to preserve the public credit. Many of the States had 
attempted to do this, but they were impoverished by the con- 
tinued drain on the people. The war had been long and expen- 
sive, the entire cost being estimated at one hundred and thirty 
millions of dollars, exclusive of certain losses of forty millions more. 

By reason of this state of affairs, in February, 1787, a resolution 
was offered in Congress, that on the second Monday of May fol- 
lowing, a convention of delegates, who should be appointed by 
the several States, be held at Philadelphia, for the sole purpose 
of revising the Articles of Confederation, and reporting to Con- 
gress, and the several legislatures, such alterations and provisions 
therein as the exigencies of the government required. 

In May, 1787, the delegates from all the States presented 
themselves, excepting from New Hampshire and Rhode Island. 
They were not represented. Washington was chosen president 
of the convention, and for upwards of four months it continued 
with closed doors, and it was not till August 6th, 1787, that the 
committee which had been appointed for that purpose reported a 
rough draft of the constitution, and finally, on the 17th of Sep- 
tember, 1787, after a warm and lengthy debate, and after many 
amendments and revisions, the present Constitution was adopted, 
and went into operation March 4th, 1789. Washington was the 
first President under the Constitution, and took his seat April 
30th, 1789. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

IN CONGRESS THURSDAY, JULY 4, 1 776. 




GREE ABLY to the order of the day, the Congress resolved 
itself into a committee of the whole, to take into their 
further consideration the Declaration ; and after some' 
time the President resumed the chair, and Mr Harrison 
reported that the committee had agreed to a declaration, which 
they desired him to report. (The committee consisted of Jeffer- 
son, Franklin, John Adams, Sherman, and R. R. Livingston). The 
Declaration, being read, was agreed to as follows : 

A DECLARATION 

BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA r 
IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for 
one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected 
them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, 
the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of 
nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of 
mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel 
them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are crea- 
ted equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain 
unalienable rights ; that among these, are life, liberty, and the pur- 
suit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are 
instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent 
of the governed ; that, whenever any form of government becomes 
destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or 
to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its found- 
ation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form 
as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happi- 

96 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY, 



97 



ness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long 
established should not be changed for light and transient causes; 
and, accordingly, all experience hath shown, that mankind are 
more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right 
themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. 
But, when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing inva- 
riably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under 
absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off 
such government, and to provide new guards for their future secu- 
rity. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and 
such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their 
former systems of government. The history of the present King 
of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, 
all having, in direct object, the establishment of an absolute tyr- 
anny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a 
candid world : 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and 
necessary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his 
assent should be obtained ; and when so suspended, he has utterly 
neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of 
large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the 
right of representation in the legislature ; a right inestimable to 
them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, 
uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public 
records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance 
with his measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, 
with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of 
annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exer- 
cise ; the state remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the 
danger of invasion from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; 
for that purpose, obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreign- 
7 



98 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ers ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, 
and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure 
of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither 
swarms of officers to harrass our people, and eat out their sub- 
stance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, with- 
out the consent of our legislature. 

He has affected to render the military, independent of and supe- 
rior to the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction 
foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; 
giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment, for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these 
states ; 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury ; \ 

For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended 
offences; 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarg- 
ing its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit 
instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these col- 
onies ; 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable 
laws, and altering, fundamentally, the powers of our governments ; 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves 
invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his 
protection, and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign merce- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HIST@RY. 99 

naries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, 
already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely 
paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the 
head of a civilized nation 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the 
high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the exe- 
cutioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by 
fheir hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has 
endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the mer- 
ciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undis- 
tinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for 
redress, in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have 
been answered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose charac- 
ter is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit 
to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. 
We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts made by 
their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. 
We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration 
and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice 
and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the ties of our 
common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inev- 
itably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, 
have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We 
must therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our 
separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, ene- 
mies in war — in peace, friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the UNITED STATES 
OF AMERICA, in GENERAL CONGRESS assembled, appeal- 
ing to the Supreme Judge of the World for the rectitude of our 
intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good 
people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these 
United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, Free and Inde- 
pendent States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to 
the British crown, and that all political connection between them 
and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dis- 
solved ; and that, as FREE AND INDEPENDENT STA TES, 



100 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alii* 
ances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things 
which INDEPENDENT STATES may of right do. And, for 
the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the pro- 
tection of DIVINE PROVIDENCE, we mutually pledge to each 
other, our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed* 
and signed by the following members : 

JOHN HANCOCK. 



New Hampshire, 

jcsiah bartlett, 
William Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton 

Rhode Island. 

Stephen Hopkins, 
William Ellery. 

Connecticut, 
Roger Sherman, 
Samuel Huntington, 
William Williams, 
Oliver Wolcott. 

New York, 
William Floyd, 
Philip Livingston, 
Francis Lewis, 
Lewis Morris. 

New Jersey, 

Richard Stockton, 
John Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkinson, 
John Hart, 
Abraham Clark. 

Pennsylvania, 

Robert Morris, 
Benjamin Rush, 
Benjamin Franklin, 
John Morton, 
George Clymer, 
James Smith, 
George Taylor, 
James Wilson, 
George Ross, 



Massachusetts Bay. 
Samuel Adams, 
John Adams, 
Robert Treat Paine, 
Elbridge Gerry, 

Delaware. 
Caesar Rodney, 
George Read, 
Thomas M'Kean. 

Maryland. 
Samuel Chase, 
William Paca, 
Thomas Stone, 
Charles Carroll, of Carrollton. 

Virginia, 
George Wythe, 
Richard Henry Lee, 
Thomas Jefferson, 
Benjamin Harrison, 
Thomas Nelson, Jun. 
Francis Lightfoot Lee 
Carter Braxton, 

North Carolina, 
William Hooper, 
Joseph Hewes, 
John Penn. 

South Carolina, 
Edward Rutledge, 
Thomas Heyward, Jun* 
Thomas Lynch, Jun. 
Arthur Middleton. 

Georgia, 
Button Gwinnett, 
Lyman Hall. 
George Walton^ 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 




)E,the people of the United States, in order to form a 
more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic 
tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote 
the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty 
to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Con- 
stitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I. 

SECTION I. 

All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Con- 
gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

SECTION II. 

i. The House of Representatives shall be composed of mem- 
bers chosen every year by the people of the several States, and 
the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite 
for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have 
attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a 
citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be 
an inhabitant of the State in which he shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
the several States which may be included within this Union, ac- 
cording to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by 
adding to the whole number of free persons, including those 
bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not 
taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration 
.ishall be made within three years after the first meeting of the 
Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term 
of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The 



10 2 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES 

number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty 
thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative ; and 
until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hamp- 
shire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode 
Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New- 
York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, 
Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina 
five, and Georgia three. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any 
State the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election 
to fill such vacancies. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and 
Other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

SECTION III. 

1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for 
six years, and each Senator shall have one vote. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of 
the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into 
three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall 
be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second 
class at the expiration of the fourth year, and the third class 
at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be 
chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation 
or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, 
the executive thereof shall make temporary appointments until 
the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such 
vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to 
the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that 
State for which he shall be chosen. 

4. The Vice President of the United States shall be President 
of the Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally 
divided. 

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a 
President pro tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, or 
when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. IOS 

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation, 
When the President of the United States is tried, the Chier 
Justice shall preside : and no person shall be convicted without 
the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further 
than to removal from office and disqualification to hold and enjoy 
any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States ; but 
the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to 
indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law. 

SECTION IV. 

1 The times, places and manner of holding elections for 
Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by 
the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by 
law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of 
choosing Senators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and 
such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless; 
they shall by law appoint a different day. 

section v. 

1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and. 
qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall 
constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may 
adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the. 
attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such 
penalties as each House may provide. 

2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings^ 
punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the con- 
currence of two-thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and 
from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may 
in their judgment require secresy ; and the yeas and nays of the 
members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of 
one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 

4 Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without 
the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor 
to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be 
sitting. 



104 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

SECTION VI. 

i. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensa- 
tion for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of 
the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except 
treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest 
during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, 
and in going to or returning from the same ; and for any speech 
or debate in either House they shall not be questioned in any 
other place. 

2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for 
which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under 
the authority of the United States, which shall have been 
created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased 
during such time; and no person holding any office under the 
United States shall be a member of either House during his 
continuance in office. 

SECTION VII. 

i. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of 
Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with 
amendments as on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Repre- 
sentatives and the Senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be 
presented to the President of the United States. If he approve, 
he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, 
to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall 
enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to 
reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that 
House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together 
with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise 
be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House, it 
shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both 
Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names 
of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered 
on the journals of each House respectively. If any bill shall 
not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays ex- 
cepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall 
be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Con- 
gress, by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it 
shall not be a law. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. IO5 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of 
the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary 
(except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to 
the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take 
effect, shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, 
shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Rep- 
resentatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in 
the case of a bill. 

SECTION VIII. 

The Congress shall have power — 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay 
the debts and provide for the common defence and general wel- 
fare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises 
shall be uniform throughout the United States ; 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 
several States, and with the Indian tribes ; 

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform 
laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign 
coin, and for the standard of weights and measures ; 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securi- 
ties and current coin of the United States ; 

7. To establish post offices and post roads; 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by se- 
curing, for limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusive 
light to their respective writings and discoveries ; 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on 
the high seas, and offences against the law of nations , 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and 
make rules concerning captures on land and water; 

12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriations of 
money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

13. To provide and maintain a navy; 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the 
land and naval forces 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws 
of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; 



106 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

1 6. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the 
militia, and for governing such parts of them as may be employed 
in the service of the United States, reserving to the States, re- 
spectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of 
training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by 
Congress ; 

17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever,, 
over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by 
cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, be- 
come the seat of the Government of the United States, and to 
exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent 
of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the 
erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other 
needful buildings ; and, 

18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 
vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United 
States, or in any department or officer thereof. 

SECTION IX. 

1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of 
the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not 
be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand 
eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed 
on such importation, not exceeding ten dollar for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus- 
pended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public 
safety may require it. 

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

4. No capitation, or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in 
proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to 
be taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any- 
State. No preference shall be given by any regulation of com- 
merce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; 
nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter,, 
clear, or pay duties in another. 

6. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in conse- 
quence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 107 

and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money- 
shall be published from time to time. 

7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; 
and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, 
shall, without the consent of Congress, accept of any present, 
emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, 
prince, or foreign State. 

section x. 

1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confeder- 
ation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit 
bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender 
in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto 
law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any 
title of nobility. 

2 No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay- 
any imposts, or duties on imports or exports, except what may- 
be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and 
the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on 
imports or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the 
United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision 
and control of the Congress. 

3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any 
duty on tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, 
enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with 
a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or 
in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. 

SECTION I. 

i. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the 
iJnited States of America. He shall hold his office during the 
term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen 
for the same term, be elected as follows : 

2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature 
thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole 
number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may 
be entitled in the Congress; but no Senator or Representative, 
or person holding office of trust or profit under the United 
States, shall be appointed an elector. 



%o8 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

3. (Annulled, see amendments, Article XII.) 

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the 
electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which 
day shall be the same throughout the United States. 

5. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of 
the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitu- 
tion, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any 
person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to 
the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident 
within the United States. 

6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and 
duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice- 
President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of 
Temoval, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President 
and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as 
President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disa- 
bility be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services 
a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished 
during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he 
shall not receive within that period any other emoluments from 
the United States, or any of them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take 
the following oath or affirmation : 

" I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute 
the office of President of the United States, and will to the best 
of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the 
United States." 

SECTION 11. 

1. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the army 
and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several 
States when called into the actual service of the United States ; 
he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer 
in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relat- 
ing to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have 
power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the 
United States, except in cases of impeachment. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 109. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of 
the Senate, to make treaties; provided two-thirds of the Senators 
present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the 
advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other 
public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and 
all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are 
not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established 
by law ; but the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of 
such inferior officers as they may think proper in the President 
alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions; 
which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

SECTION III. 

He shall from time to time give to the Congress information 
of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consider- 
ation such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; 
he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses or 
either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, 
with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to 
such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors 
and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be 
faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the 
United States. 

SECTION IV. 

The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United 
States shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and 
conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misde- 
meanors. 

ARTICLE III. 

SECTION I. 

The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in 
one Supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Con- 
gress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, 
both of the Supreme and Inferior Courts, shall hold their offices 
during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their 
services a compensation, which shall not be diminished during 
their continuance in office. 



110 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

SECTION II. 

i. The judicial power shall extend to all cases inlaw and equity 
arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and 
treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; 
to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls ; all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to con- 
troversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to 
controversies between two or more States ; between a State and 
citizens of another State ; between citizens of different States ; 
between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of 
different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof and 
foreign States, citizens, or subjects. 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme 
Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before 
mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, 
both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such 
regulations as the Congress shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall 
be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the 
said crimes shall have been committed; but when* not committed 
within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the 
Congress may by law have directed. 

SECTION III. 

1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levy- 
ing war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them 
aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless 
on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on con- 
fession in open court. 

2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood 
or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. 

SECTION I. 

Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public 
acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And 
the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. Ill 

such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect 
thereof. 

SECTION II. 

i. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges 
and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other 
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 
shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from 
which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having 
jurisdiction of the crime. 

No person held to service or labor in one State under the laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law 
or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, 
but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such serv- 
ice or labor may be due. 

SECTION III. 

i. New States may be admitted by Congress into this Union; 
but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdic- 
tion of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction 
of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of 
the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Con- 
gress. 

2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all 
needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other 
property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this 
Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of 
the United States, or of any particular State. 

SECTION IV. 

The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union 
a Republican form of Government, and shall protect each of them 
against invasion; and on application of the Legislature or of the 
Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened), against 
-domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. 

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem 
it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or on 
the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several 



112 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

States, shall call a Convention for proposing amendments, which 7 
in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part 
of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three- 
fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three-fourth 
thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be pro- 
posed by the Congress ; provided that no amendment which may 
be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight 
shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth 
section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, 
shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI. 

i. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before 
the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the 
United States under this Constitution, as under the confederation. 

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which. 
shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or 
which shall be made, under the authority of the United States* 
shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the Judges in every 
State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws 
of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 

3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and 
judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several 
States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Con- 
stitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualifi- 
cation to any office or public trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII. 

The ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be suffi- 
cient for the establishment of this Constitution between States sc 
ratifying the same. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 113 

AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 



ARTICLE I. 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of relig- 
ion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the 
freedom of speech or of the press; or the right of the people 
peaceably to assemble and to petition the Government for a redress 
of grievances. 

ARTICLE II. 

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a 
free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not 
be infringed. 

ARTICLE III. 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any noiise 
without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a 
manner to be prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV. 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, 
shall not be violated ; and no warrants shall issue, but upon prob- 
able cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly 
describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to 
be seized. 

ARTICLE V. 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise 
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand 
Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the 
militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger ; 
nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice 
put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall he be compelled in any 
criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of 
life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall 
private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI. 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right 
to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and 



114 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES, 

district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which dis- 
trict shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be 
informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be con- 
fronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory pro- 
cess for obtaining witnesses in his favor ; and to have the assistance 
of counsel for his defence. 

ARTICLE VII. 

In suits at common law, where the value m controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, 
and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any 
court of the United States, than according to the rules of the com- 
mon law. 

ARTICLE VIII. 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, 
nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX. 

The enumeration, in the Constitution, of certain rights shall 
not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the 
people. 

ARTICLE X. 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Consti- 
tution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States 
respectively, or to the people. 

ARTICLE XI. 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed 
to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted 
against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or 
by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. 

ARTICLE XII, 

SECTION I. 

The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote 
by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom at least 
shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. 
They shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 1 15 

and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and 
they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, 
and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number 
of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and 
transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, 
directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the 
Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes for 
President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of 
the whole number of Electors appointed ; and if no persons have 
such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, 
not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, 
the House of Representatives shall choose immediately by ballot, 
the President. But in choosing the President, the vote shall be 
taken by States, the representation from each State having one 
vote. A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or 
members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the 
States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Rep- 
resentatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of 
choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March 
next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as 
in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the 
President. 

SECTION II. 

The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice- 
President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a ma- 
jority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person 
have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, 
the Senate shall choose the Vice-President. A quorum for 
the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of 
Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary 
to a choice. 

SECTION III. 

But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of Presi- 
dent, shall be eligible to that of Vice<-President of the United 
States. 



Il6 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ARTICLE XIII. 

SECTION I. 

Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punish- 
ment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, 
shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their 
jurisdiction. 

SECTION II. 

Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by appro- 
priate Legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV. 

SECTION I. 

All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and sub- 
ject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States 
and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or 
enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities 
of citizens of the United States. Nor shall any State deprive any 
person of life, liberty or property, without due process of law, nor 
deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of 
the laws. 

SECTION II. 

Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States 
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number 
of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But 
whenever the right to vote at any election for electors of Presi- 
dent and Vice-President, or for United States Representatives in 
Congress, executive and judicial officers, or the members of the 
Legislatures thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of 
such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the 
United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in 
rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall 
be reduced in the proportion which the number of male citizens 
shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years 
of age in such State. 

SECTION III. 

No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, 
elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil 
or military, under the United States or under any State, who, 
having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. "9 

an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State 
Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to 
support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged 
in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or com- 
fort to the enemies thereof, but Congress may, by a vote of two- 
thirds of each House remove such disability. 

SECTION IV. 

The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized 
by law, including debts incurred for the payment of pensions and 
bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, 
shall not be questioned ; but neither the United States nor any 
State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid 
of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any 
claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, 
obligations and claims, shall be held illegal and void. 

ARTICLE XV. 

SECTION I. 

The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be 
denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on 
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

% SECTION II. 

The Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by appro- 
priate legislation. 




THE FATHERS OF THE REPUBLIC. 




»E can not believe that man lives upon American soil, 
protected by our laws, and sheltered by the dear old 
flag beneath whose folds the patriots of '76 marched on 
to victory over the armies of the tyrant and oppressor, whose 
heart does not beat quicker with pride and affection as he glances 
back over the heroes who planted the germ of our national 
independence, and watered it with tears, and hallowed the soil 
only too often with their life-blood. We look at their mighty 
works and say, surely, "there were giants in those days." Gigan- 
tic was the task which those brave men performed, and glorious 
have been the results of their efforts. 

From the day when the first blow fell upon the astonished 
believers in the divine right of kings, to the day when, at the 
Court of Versailles, the reluctant lion of the House of Hanover 
was compelled to sign the Act which gave to the colonists a stand- 
ing amongst the nations of the earth, their days and nights were 
given to watching, to fighting and to prayer. They had already 
endured all that men could endure — suffered all that men could 
suffer — borne all that men could bear ; and now, with the fire of 
liberty kindled in their souls, they gathered their forces and con- 
secrated their lives, their property and their all to the cause that 
to them was dearer than all others. 

There are names that we have inscribed high on the roll of 
fame ; there are names which we revere above all other names on 
earth — names that we associate with all that is most sacred to 
freemen, and which will live in the councils of our nation while 
we have a national existence. In the constellation of names which 
succeeding generations delight to remember and honor, none 
are brighter than those of Washington, Jefferson, Hancock, 

120 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 1 21 

Franklin, or John Adams, and we feel a justifiable pride in 
the words and sentiments of that Declaration of Independence 
which made the memory of its framers immortal. Founded upon 
the principles of justice — recognizing the right of all men to 
"life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness," it is not strange that 
the nation uprose to defend a government that declared it derived 
all "power from the consent of the governed;" nor that they 
"bore hardships, privation, suffering and toil as became those who 
defended hearthstone and roof-tree ; and above all, those who 
defended the cradle wherein the young child Liberty slumbered. 

At that time the soldiers were but scantily fed, and more scant- 
ily clothed, but Washington bore with them the heat of the long 
march under a scorching sun and the severities of the winter cam- 
paign; and when the footprints of the worn-out, exhausted 
troopers stained the unsullied snow of Valley Forge, the com- 
mander-in-chief and his subaltern officers were scarcely better 
clad. Yet no man murmured or complained, for the freedom that 
should be the heirloom and birthright of their children's children 
for all generations to come was entrusted to their keeping. 

Such sublime devotion to a cause that seemed almost hopeless — 
such unselfish patriotism and love for their country — such unfal- 
tering courage, even when defeated at every step, finds no parallel 
In history. It was no half-way victory they sought, and no half- 
way concession would satisfy them. They would be untrammeled 
"by foreign power — they would be unrestrained by foreign laws— 
unrestricted by foreign intervention. Their rivers should run 
free to the sea — their ships of commerce should dot every ocean 
* — their flag should be recognized by every government. No 
usurper's foot should press our green sward — no tyrant army 
garrison our forts — no tyrant's navy guard our harbors. Our 
blue skies should bend over no foeman's minions — our fresh, wild 
winds, that swept mountain and lake and boundless prairie, 
should kiss no foeman's cheek. With God for their leader, " Lib- 
erty" for their battle-cry, they were victorious, and to-day, with 
all they gained for us still preserved, our borders extended and 
our wealth increased an hundred fold, we reverently remember to 
whom, under God, we owe all this, and treasure the memory 
of the Fathers of the Republic as a sacred thing. Our gratitude 
is only measurable by our debt to them. 



PRESIDENTIAL ADMINISTRATIONS. 



As the new government made provision for the election of offi- 
cers, George Washington was chosen President of the United 
States, and John Adams, Vice-president. 

Washington's administration. 

April 30, 1789, to March 4, 1797. — During the administration 
of Washington the attention of Congress was chiefly devoted to 
organizing the government on a firm basis. A national judiciary 
was established ; the departments of state, of the treasury and of 
war were constituted ; provisions for levying duties and for internal 
taxation were framed ; a United States Bank was organized ; arid a 
Federal loan negotiated in Europe. These measures were not all 
received with equal approval by the people. Especially that 
of levying a duty on domestic distilled spirits was unpopular with 
the inhabitants of western Pennsylvania, with whom whisky was 
a staple manufacture. They opposed the collection of the tax 
with arms in their hands, and not until a large military force was 
sent against them did they submit. This is known as the " Whis- 
ky Insurrection " (1794). It was not the only service the military 
were called upon to perform under this administration. The 
Indians of the Ohio valley attacked the frontier settlements in 1790^ 
and defeated the regular troops under General Harmar, 1790,. 
and General St. Clair, in 1 791. At length, in 1794, in a decisive bat- 
tle on the Maumee river, General Wayne completely routed them 
and broke their power. During this period the country constantly 
increased in prosperity, and the states of North Carolina, Vermont, 
Tennessee and Kentucky were admitted to the Union. 

JOHN ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION (1797 TO l8oi). 

Washington had been elected by the unanimous voice 
of the people. But when he retired from office, the two 
great parties, the Federalists, who were conservative, attached to 
the views of Washington, and. opposed to the sentiments of the 
French Revolution, and Anti-federalists, radical Democrats, each 
struggled for the mastery, John Adams, the Federal candidate 
was elected President, and Thomas Jefferson, Vice-president, 
Early in this administration, war with France was threatened. 
Provoked because they could not embroil the United States in a 
war with England, the French Directory insulted the American 
Envoy at Paris, authorized the capture of American Vessels by 

122 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. I23 

French cruisers, and sent vessels of war to the American coast. 
Congress took active measures of defense. An army and navy 
were organized, but fortunately, before actual hostilities broke 
out, the French Directory made overtures of peace. Washington, 
who had been appointed as commander of the small standing 
army which had been raised, did not live to witness the restora- 
tion of peace. On the 14th of December, 1799? ne died at his 
residence at Mt. Vernon, Va., after a short illness, at the age of 
sixty-eight years. During the following summer the seat of gov- 
ernment was removed from Philadelphia to the city which had 
been named after him, and the site of which he had assisted in 
choosing. His death, together with the unpopularity of the 
" alien and sedition laws," aimed at rebel aliens and Government 
libeles, prepared the way for the defeat of the Federalists at the 
next presidential campaign. 

jefferson's administration (1801 to 1809). 

After a close contest Thomas Jefferson was elected President, 
Aaron Burr, Vice-president, both belonging to the Anti-federal or 
Democratic party. The internal revenue system was at once 
abolished, and other laws, distasteful to the party now in power 
abolished. In 1802 Ohio was admitted as a state, and in the next 
year Louisiana was purchased from France, for $15,000,000. 
The same year Commodore Preble was sent against pirates of the 
Barbary coast. After two years of desultory conflict, favorable 
terms of peace were offered by the bashaw and accepted by the 
United States. In 1807, the celebrated trial of Aaron Burr, Vice- 
president under the previous administration, took place. He 
was arrested on the charge of treason, but not convicted. 

The wars of France and England, and especially the unjust 
claims put forward by the latter, constantly increased the resent- 
ment felt toward the latter power by the Americans. An unpro- 
voked attack on the American frigate Chesapeake, in 1807: the 
seizure of American sailors by press-gangs ; the injustice of the 
British "orders in council," which exposed neutral vessels trading 
with France to capture ; and the inciting of the western Indians 
by British emissaries, combined to convince the people that their 
only mode of redress was a declaration of war. This alternative, 
however, was postponed to the last, and was not adopted until 

madison's administration (1809 to 1817). 

James Madison belonged to the same party as his predecessor, 
and continued his policy. After an ineffectual attempt to obtain 
justice from Great Britain, the President, in accordance with the 
action of Congress, issued a proclamation of war, June 19, 181 2. 



124 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

THE WAR OF 1812-1814. 

In the fall of the previous year (Nov., 1811), Gen. William 
Henry Harrison succeeded in crushing the power of the hostile 
Indians of the West, at the bloody and obstinately-contested bat- 
tle of Tippecanoe, in Indiana. But the campaign of 181 2 did 
not continue such success. The Americans lost t*he posts of 
Mackinaw and Detroit, and were defeated at Queenstown, on the 
Niagara river. Fortunately, the navy more than counterbalanced 
these reverses. Within seven months from the declaration of war, 
five hundred British vessels and three frigates were captured by the 
Americans, with an average loss of but one sailor to eight of the 
enemy. Captain Isaac Hull, and Commodores Decatur and Bain- 
bridge especially distinguished themselves in these engagements ; 
but the large majority of prizes were taken by " privateers," fitted 
out by citizens. 

In the beginning of 181 3, the American forces were ranged in 
three divisions, one under General Harrison, on Lake Erie, the 
second under General Dearborn, on Lake Ontario, the third under 
General Wade, on Lake Champlain. Commodore Perry com- 
manded the American squadron on Lake Erie, which distinguished 
itself, on Sep. 10th, by a brilliant victory over the British fleet. 
The troops of Harrison immediately embarked, crossed the lake, 
and gained a complete victory over the English soldiery, undei 
General Proctor, at the battle of the Thames (Oct. 5). In this 
engagement the renowned Indian warrior, Tecumseh, was slain. 
His death destroyed the power of the Indians of the north, while 
in the decisive battle of Horse Shoe Bend, in Georgia, the follow- 
ing March, General Jackson humbled the southern tribes. 

Gen. Dearborn, in the meanwhile, attacked and captured York 
in Canada, and the English in return made a descent on Sackett's 
Harbor. Several other engagements occurred on the northern 
frontier, but none of a decisive character. 

At sea, the fortunes of war were not so much in favor of the 
Americans as previously. In February the Hornet under Captain 
Lawrence, destroyed the British brig Peacock, but in the follow- 
ing June that brave officer was killed and his ship captured in an 
engagement with the frigate Shannon. His last words were : 
" Don't give up the ship," which has become the motto of our 
navy. The British commerce, however, suffered severely by the 
numerous privateers which scoured the seas capturing British 
merchantmen. 

In the following year, 18 14, Generals Winfidd Scott and Ripley 
crossed Niagara River at the head of about 3,000 men, seized 
Fort Erie, and on the 25th of July engaged the British forces un- 
der General Drummond at Lundy's Lane. This was the most 
obstinate battle of the war. It resulted favorably for the Ameri- 
can forces, but at a loss of nearly one-third their number. Still 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 125 

more disastrous to the British was the battle of Plattsburg, on Lake 
Champlain, which took place Sept. n, 1814. Their land forces 
attacked the United States troops under General Macomb, while 
their fleet engaged that of Commodore MacDonough, lying in the 
harbor. They signally failed in both attempts, losing most of their 
vessels and about 2,500 men. 

Meanwhile the British fleet on the Atlantic coast carried on a 
series of depredation on the defenseless seaport towns. Hampton, 
on the Chesapeake, was burned; a force of 5,000 marines pro- 
ceeded to Washington, and having burned the Capitol, President's 
House, and other public buildings, hastily retreated (Aug. 24). 
Alexandria was plundered, and Baltimore attacked, but unsuccess- 
fully. 

General Andrew Jackson, commanding at the south, having 
driven the English' troops from Pensacola, repaired to New 
Orleans to repel a large force under General Packenham. This 
he did most victoriously at the battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8, 181 5,, 
in which 12,000 British troops were repulsed, with a loss of nearly 
2,000 dead and wounded, by 6,000 American militia, whose dead 
and wounded amounted to only thirteen. This was the last im- 
portant action of the war. Indeed, before it took place a treaty 
of peace had been signed at Ghent by commissioners of the 
two powers (Dec. 24, 1814). The objects for which the United 
States has been fighting were virtually conceded. 

In the following year (181 5) Commodore Decatur still further 
established the reputation of the American navy by the reduction 
of Tunis and Tripoli, whose piratical inhabitants had been plun- 
dering our merchantmen. 

The war left the country in debt $75,000,000, and to aid in re- 
storing the finances, early in 181 6 a second national bank was 
established, with a capital of $35,000,000, and a charter to con- 
tinue in force 20 years. 

ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MONROE (1817 tO 1825). 

The next administration shared the political views of that which 
preceded it, but was marked by less bitterness and more general 
good feeling. The only warlike event was an invasion of Florida, 
then a Spanish colony, by General Jackson, in pursuit of hostile 
Indians. This might have given rise to serious trouble, but in 
1 82 1 Spain ceded east and west Florida to the United States, for 
$5,000,000. The slavery question at this time began to assume 
threatening proportions. In Aug., 182 1, the " Missouri Compro- 
mise " was passed, by which slavery was to be excluded from all 
territory west of the Mississippi, north of 360 30 , except in Mis- 
souri. This pacified the opposing parties for a time. President 
Monroe is, perhaps, best remembered for his maintenance of the 
" Monroe doctrine. " This is expressed in his message of Dec. 2, 



126 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

1823, and is as follows: " We owe it to candor and to the amicable 
relations existing between the United States and European 
powers, to declare that we should consider any attempt on their 
part to extend their system of government to any portion of this 
hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. " 

JOHNQ. ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION (1825 tO 1829). 

Freed from external foes, and not yet divided by party strife, 
the country now enjoyed remarkable prosperity. Internal im- 
provements on a large scale commenced, and the first railroad (at 
Quincy, Mass.,) was constructed. The Erie Canal was finished 
by the state of New York, and the commerce and manufactures of 
the country rapidly increased. The President pursued the same 
policy as his father, John Adams, which was " Whig " or " Repub- 
lican." It is mentioned as a remarkable coincidence that on the 
fiftieth anniversary of American Independence, which occurred 
July 4, 1826, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, so long the heads 
ot the opposing political parties, both died. 

JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1829 to 1837.) 

After an exciting political campaign General Andrew Jackson 
was elected president by the Democratic party. His first action 
was to remove numerous office-holders and appoint in their place 
his political friends. In 1832, John C. Calhoun, who had been 
elected Vice-president, resigned that office, and representing 
South Carolina in Senate, declared the protective tariff (originally 
introduced by the south, but grown unpalatable to it) null and 
void, and threatened secession if the general government attempted 
to execute it in South Carolina. The President at once order- 
ed a vessel of war and troops to Charleston to collect the revenue 
by force, if necessary. Fortunately this resort was avoided and 
Henry Clay introduced a compromise measure" by which the 
strife was adjusted. In the same year the President vetoed the 
extension of the charter of the United States Bank, which he 
termed " the scourge of the people," and in 1833 removed the 
government funds deposited in that institution — actions which 
excited the bitterest animadversion. 

Hostilities with the Indians constantly occupied the regular 
troops. On the western frontier, in Illinois and Wisconsin, the 
tribes assembled under the chief, Black Hawk, in 1832, but were 
dispersed and their leader captured. In 1835 and 1838, the 
Cherokees were after some difficulty removed west of the Missis- 
sippi; while the Creeks and Seminoles, in Florida, refusing to 
emigrate, collected under Osceola, and for seven years success- 
fully resisted the troops sent against them. At length Colonel 
Zachary Taylor compelled their submission. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 1 29 

VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION (1837 tO 1841). 

The successor of Jackson was Martin Van Buren, of New York, 
also a Democrat. Early in his administration (1837) the country- 
was overwhelmed by a disastrous and general mercantile failure, 
amounting to hundreds of millions of dollars. This was the direct 
consequence of land speculations and long credits. All the banks 
suspended specie payment, and Mississippi and Florida repudiat- 
ed the debts of their commonwealths. An independent United 
States treasury, with sub-treasury offices in New York and other 
ports of collection, was organized in 1839. Treasury notes to the 
amount of $10,000,000 were authorized to be issued. These 
measures, however, did not succeed in restoring health to trade; 
and as the disasters of the country were attributed to the action of 
the Democratic party, the result in the next presidential election 
was the success of the Whigs by a majority much larger than was 
expected by any one. 

HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATIONS (184I to 1845). 

General Harrison, the "hero of the Thames and Tippecanoe," 
lived but a month after his inauguration, and Mr.Tyler, the Vice- 
president, became acting President. The sub-treasury bill was 
repealed, and a general bankrupt act declared, but as Mr. Tyler 
vetoed iwo separate bills chartering a U. S. bank, he was denounced 
in the strongest terms by the party which had elected him, and 
his entire cabinet resigned except Daniel Webster, Secretary of 
State. Nevertheless, the finances of the country rapidly improved. 
In 1842 a treaty was negotiated with Great Britain, relating to 
the N. W. boundary of the United States, or the Oregon line. 
Late in this administration, Texas, a province of Mexico, settled 
chiefly by emigrants from the United States, which had declared 
its independence, applied for admission into the Union. This 
was strongly resisted by the Whig party, but early in 1845 Con- 
gress authorized the President to negotiate with Texas terms of 
annexation. 

POLK'S ADMINISTRATION (1845 to l8 49)« 

The contest of 1844 was between Henry Clay, the Whig candi- 
date, and James K. Polk, who was elected by the Democrats. 
The action of Congress with reference to Texas necessarily led 
to a rupture with Mexico, and that her troops might not move 
upon that state in an unprepared condition, General Taylor was 
ordered to lead his forces to the Rio Grande, and a naval squad- 
dron was dispatched to the Gulf of Mexico to support him. 

THE MEXICAN WAR. 

Hostilities began by an attack on a body of United States 
dragoons, April 27, 1846, on the east bank of the Rio Grande, 
above Matamoras. On the 8th and 9th of May, General Taylor 



130 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

fought the successful battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, 
which drove the Mexicans beyond the river. When the news of 
these engagements reached Washington, the President was 
authorized to call out 50,000 volunteers, and a warlike enthu- 
siasm was displayed in all the states. The army was not ready 
for action until the fall of 1846. It was then divided into three 
columns, the main body under General Taylor to march upon 
Monterey, while a second division under General Wool was to 
attack Chihuahua, and the third, under General Kearney, was to 
direct its course to Santa Fe. These objects were promptly ac- 
complished, Monterey surrendering on the 24th Sept., Santa Fe 
shortly previous, and Chihuahua on the 28th of Feb., 1847. Mean- 
while Captain J. C. Fremont, of the typographical engineers, with 
several other officers, had possessed himself of San Francisco, and 
gained the entire control of Upper California. 

As in Feb., 1847, General Taylor's forces had become reduced 
to less than 5,000 men by detachments sent elsewhere, Mexican 
General Santa Anna considered this a favorable moment to attack 
him, and on the 23d of that month assaulted his works on the 
heights of Buena Vista, three miles south of Saltillo, with an army 
of 20,000 men. In spite of this numerical superiority he was 
driven in disorder from the field, with a loss of more than 1,500 men. 
A few days after this event, General Scott at the head of 12,000 
men landed near Vera Cruz (March 9, 1847), and began to invest 
the city. It yielded after a vigorous resistance on the 29th, and 
shortly afterward the troops were put in motion for the Mexican 
capital. Santa Anna resisted them on the heights of Cerro Gordo, 
but was routed with heavy loss (April 18). The cities of Jalapa 
and Puebla fell, and on the 18th of August the entire army, num- 
bering 9,000 men reached a position ten miles from the city of 
Mexico. Here they were opposed by over 30,000 Mexicans un- 
der Santa Anna. With desperate bravery they carried by assault 
the batteries on the heights of Contreras, the fortified post of 
Cherubusco, and the fortress of Chapultapec, which had been 
deemed impregnable. Terrified by these losses, Santa Anna and 
the civil officers of the government fled from the city by night, 
the army dissolved, and on the 14th of September the American 
flag floated over the national palace of Mexico. This ended the 
war and oh February 2, 1848, a treaty of peace was concluded 
between the two powers. The United States obtained New Mexico 
and California, and agreed to pay to and for Mexico about $18,- 
000,000. 

TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATIONS (1849 to 1 85 3). 

The next presidential canvass resulted in the election of Gen- 
eral Zachary Taylor, the Whig nominee, but of moderate views. 
The central political question of the day was whether slavery 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. £31 

should be carried into the new territories. This was strenuously- 
opposed by the majority in the north, and as earnestly advo- 
cated by the south. The " compromise " measures, finally passed 
by Congress, which excluded slavery from California, left it 
optional with the people of Utah and New Mexico, and allowed 
owners to capture fugitive slaves in free states, were equally dis- 
liked by each party. Secession conventions were held in South 
Carolina and Mississippi, and armed resistance to the Fugitive 
Slave Law advocated in the north. 

Pending this discussion, President Taylor died, July 9, 1850, 
and the Vice-president, Millard Fillmore, was installed as acting 
President. 

The discovery of the rich gold deposits of California at this time 
attracted general attention throughout the world, and led to a vast 
emigration to that territory. 

pierce's administration (1853 to 1857). 

In 1852 Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, Democratic candi- 
date for President, was elected over General Winfield Scott, the 
candidate of the Whig party. The Missouri Compromise was 
abrogated in 1854. Violent collisions occurred in Kansas between 
the Free-Soil and Pro-Slavery parties. In March of same year a 
commercial treaty was effected with Japan. The discussions which 
sought to give new efficacy to the Fugitive Slave Law, and which 
culminated on March 6th, 1857, in the famous Dred Scott decision, 
delivered by Chkf Justice Taney, greatly increased party excite- 
ment, and intensified the struggle between the friends and oppo- 
nents of slavery. Under such circumstances the campaign of 1856 
took place, the Democratic candidate being James Buchanan and 
the Free-Soil candidate, General John C. Fremont. The former 
was elected. 

Buchanan's administration (1857 to 1861). 

Party lines became more closely drawn upon the right of extend- 
ing slavery into the territories, and the capture of fugitives on free 
soil. In Kansas and Nebraska bloody collisions between the ex- 
ponents of free and slave ideas were not infrequent. Mr. Buchanan 
had great trouble with his territorial governors, especially of 
Kansas. August 24, 1857, began the great commercial panic, 
which, by December 25, of same year, resulted in 5,123 failures, 
with an aggregate loss of $291,757,000. The Utah expedition was 
the only army movement of importance during 1857-58. October 
17, 1859, occured the affair at Harper's Ferry, which resulted in 
the hanging of John Brown. The presidential canvass of i860 
found the Democratic party divided, one faction claiming that 
slavery existed by constitutional right in all the territories, the 
other that the question of its existence depended on the will of 



132 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

the people thereof. Of the former, John C. Breckenridge became 
the candidate for the presidency ; of the latter, Stephen A. Douglas, 
while Abraham Lincoln became the candidate ot the new Repub- 
lican party, and John Bell of the conservative or compromise 
elements of both parties. Mr. Lincoln was chosen (November 6, 
i860) by a large majority. His election was the signal for a 
movement on the part of the southern states in favor of a separate 
government. On November 7, on receipt of the news of the elec- 
tion, the "Palmetto Flag" was hoisted on the shipping in Charles- 
ton Harbor. November 10, the Legislature of South Carolina 
introduced a bill to raise and equip 10,000 men, and one ordering 
a convention to consider the question of secession. Her Senators 
both resigned. November 1 8, the Georgia Legislature appropriated 
$1,000,000 to arm the state. Major Anderson was sent to Fort 
Moultrie to relieve Colonel Gardner. December 1, Florida Legis- 
lature ordered a secession convention. December 3, Congress 
met, and Mr. Buchanan, in his message, announced the doctrine 
that while no state had the right to secede, the Federal government 
was powerless to prevent secession. December 10, Howell Cobb, 
Secretary of the Treasury, and Senator Clay, of Alabama, resigned. 

December 13, the President refused to reinforce the forts in 
Charleston Harbor. December 14, General Cass, Secretary of 
State, resigned. December 20, South Carolina seceded. Decem- 
ber 22, the Crittenden compromise voted down in the Senate. 
December 24, South Carolina members of Congress resigned. 
December 26, Major Anderson took possession ot Fort Sumter. 
The President refused to see the South Carolina commissioners. 
December 28, South Carolina seized the government property 
in Charleston, including Castle Pickney and Fort Moultrie. Decem- 
ber 29, John B. Floyd, Secretary of War, resigned. January 2, 
1861, Governor Ellis, of North Carolina, seized Fort Macon, and 
Georgia troops seized Forts Pulaski and Jackson and the United 
States Arsenal at Savannah. January 4, Governor Moore, of 
Alabama, seized Fort Morgan and the United States Arsenal 
at Mobile. January 8, Jacob Thompson, Secretary of the 
Interior, resigned. January 9, steamer Star of the West fired on 
by Confederates in Charleston Harbor. Mississippi seceded. Jan- 
uary 10, Florida seceded. The state seized Fort McRae. Jan- 
uary 11, Alabama seceded. January 13, Florida troops seized 
Pensacola Navy Yard and Fort Barancas. January 18, Virginia 
appropriated $1,000,000 for state defense. January 19, Georgia 
seceded. January 21, Alabama members of Congress resigned 

January 23, Georgia members of Congress resigned. January 
24, Confederates seized United States Arsenal at Augusta. Jan- 
uary 26, Louisiana seceded. January 30, North Carolina Legis- 
lature submitted the secession question to the people, and on Feb- 
ruary 1, the Texas Convention passed an ordinance of secession 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 133 

and submitted it to the people. The Mint and Custom House 
seized in New Orleans. February 4, delegates met at Montgom- 
ery, Alabama, to form a Confederate Government. Peace Congress 
met in Washington, and after a stormy session adjourned without 
results. February 9, Jefferson Davis and Alexander H. Stephens 
elected provisional President and Vice-president of Southern 
Confederacy. February 19, Confederates seized Fort Kearney 
in Kansas. February 23, General Twiggs surrendered government 
property in Texas, valued at $1,200,000. 

Lincoln's administration — the war of the rebellion. 

March 4, 1861, Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated. Texas seceded, 
the people having so voted. 5 th, Beauregard took command of the 
Confederate forces. April 12, Fort Sumpterwasbombarded. 15th 
the President issued proclamation commanding all persons in arms 
-against the government to disperse in twenty days, and calling for 
75,000 volunteers. 16th, the Governors of Kentucky, Virginia, 
Tennessee and Missouri refused to furnish troops under the 
President's call. The Confederate government called for 32,000 
men. 17th, Virginia seceded and sent troops to take Harper's 
Ferry and Gosport Navy Yard. Jefferson Davis offered letters of 
marque and reprisal to privateers. 18th, Colonel Cake, with 400 
of Penna. 25th Regt., arrived in Washington. 19th, Mass. 6th 
Regt. attacked by a mob in Baltimore. The ports of the Southern 
states declared in a state of blockade. 

May 1st, Mr. Lincoln called for 42,000 three year volunteers; 
22,000 troops- for the regular army, and 18,000 seamen. May 4th, 
General McClellan placed in command of Department of Ohio, 
Indiana and Illinois. May 18th, Department of Virginia created 
and placed under command of General Butler. 20th, North Car- 
olina seceded. 21st, Tennessee seceded. 24th, 13,000 Federal 
troops crossed the Potomac, occupying Arlington and Alexandria. 
Colonel Ellsworth killed. June 10th, battle of Big Bethel. 17th, 
West Virginia declared independent of eastern portion by Wheel- 
ing Convention. Defeat of the Confederates at Boonville, Missouri. 
20th, McClellan assumed command in West Virgnia. July 1st, 
First war loan of the United States government $250,000,000. 
5th, Battle of Carthage, Missouri ; defeat of Federal troops under 
Col. Sigel. 6th, Fremont took charge of Western Department, 
nth, Expulsion, of southern Senators from United States Senate. 
12th, Federal victory at Rich Mt. under Rosencrans. 13th, Con- 
federates, under Gen. Garnett, defeated at Garrick's Ford, Virginia. 
1 6th, President Lincoln authorized to call for 500,000 men. 18th, 
Gen. Dix took charge of Department of Maryland. 20th, Con- 
federate Congress met at Richmond. 21st, Gen. McDowell 
defeated at Bull Run. 2 2d, McClellan took command of the Army 
of the Potomac. August 10th, Battle of Wilson Creek, Missouri; 



134 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

death of Gen. Lyon. 16th, All commercial relations with Con- 
federate States interdicted. 29th, Forts Hatteras and Clark, 
North Carolina, captured by Federals. September 6th, Grant 
took possession of Paducah, Kentucky. 10th, Rosencrans defeated 
Floyd near Carnifax Ferry, Virginia. October 21st, Col. Baker 
defeated at Ball's Bluff and Gen. Zollicoffer at Camp Wild Cat,, 
Kentucky. 25th, Defeat of Confederates at Romney, Virginia. 
November 1st , Resignation of Gen. Scott and appointment of 
Gen. McClellan. 2d, Gen. Hunter succeeded Fremont, in the 
West, nth, Gen. Halleck succeeded Gen. Hunter. 30th, Eng- 
land demanded the liberation of Mason and Slidell; Jefferson 
Davis elected President of the Confederate States. December 17 th, 
Drawn battle at Munfordsville, Kentucky. 18th, Capture of 1,300. 
Confederates at Milford, Missouri, by Gen. Pope. 20th, Confed- 
erate defeat at Drainsville, by Gen. McCall. 

January 7th, 1862, second Confederate defeat at Romney. 
nth, Stanton appointed Secretary of War; defeat of Confeder- 
ate gun-boats at Columbus. 19th, Defeat of Confederates at Mill 
Springs, Kentucky; Gen. ZollicorTer killed. 29th, French and 
English troops land at Vera Cruz and march towards Mexico.. 
February 6th, Fort Henry, on Mississippi River surrendered to 
Federal Fleet under Commodore Foote. 8th, Gen. Burnside cap- 
tured six forts on Roanoke Island. 10th, Destruction of confed- 
erate gun-boats on Tennessee River. 15th, Fort Donelson attacked 
by 40,000 Federal troops under Gen. Grant. 16th, Fort Donelson 
surrendered 15,000 prisoners, 40 cannon, and munitions. 2 2d, 
Inauguration of President and Vice-president of Southern Con- 
federacy. March 8th, Confederates defeated at Pea Ridge ; 
destruction of Cumberland and Congress at Hampton Roads 
by confederate iron-clad Merrimac. 9th, Battle between Merri- 
mac and Monitor ; the former compelled to retire. The first 
contest between iron-clads : reaction against wooden vessels. 
13th, Confederates evacuated New Madrid, Missouri. 14th, Fed- 
eral victory at Newbern, North Carolina, under Burnside. 16th, 
Com. Foote began attack on Island No. 10; Confederates defeated 
at Cumberland Mountain, Kentucky. 1 8th, Confederates defeated 
at Salem, Arkansas. 23d, Battle of Winchester; Confederates 
defeated. April 6th, 7th, Battle of Pittsburgh Landing or Shiloh ; 
Grant, assisted by Buell, drove Confederates to their fortifications 
at Corinth ; Federal loss, 13,100. Confederate Gen. Johnson killed. 
8th, Com. Foote captured Island No. 10 with 5,000 prisoners, 100 
siege guns, 24 field pieces and 5,000 small arms, nth, Slavery 
abolished in District of Columbia. 28th, Com. Farragut took pos- 
session of New Orleans. May 5th, Gens. Hancock and Hooker 
defeated the Confederates at Williamsburgh, Virginia. 7 th, Battle 
of West Point, Virginia, in which the Confederates under Lee 
suffered defeat at the hands of Gens. Franklin and Sedgwick. 9th,, 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 135 

Confederates evacuated Pensacola. ioth, Federal forces took 
possession of Norfolk, Virginia, nth, Iron-clad Merrimac blown 
up to prevent her capture. 12th, Natchez surrendered to Com. 
Farragut. 1 6th, Union gun-boats repulsed at Fort Darling. May 
25th, Defeat of Gen. Banks at Winchester, Virginia. 31st, Union 
defeat at Fair Oaks. June 1st, Battle of Fair Oaks renewed ; Con- 
federates defeated. 6th, Memphis surrendered to Union troops. 
8th, Stonewall Jackson defeated at Cross Keys, Virginia. 26th, 
Concentration of Federal troops about Richmond and commence- 
ment of six days' fight. Undecisive battle of Mechanicsville. 
Pope took command of Army of Virginia. 27th, Bombardment 
of Vicksburg commenced. Fremont relieved of his command. 
Federal troops driven back at Richmond. White House evacuated. 
28th, Confederates repulsed on the Chickahominy. Retreat of 
Federal troops at night. 29th, Confederates defeated at Peach 
Orchard ; Federals defeated at Savage Station and retreated. 30th, 
Heavy Battle of White Oak Swamp. July 1st, Battle of Malvern 
Hill. Last of the six days' fight. The President called for 
300,000 volunteers, nth, Gen. Halleck appointed commander of 
the United States forces. July 13th, 17th, Emancipation and 
confiscation acts sanctioned by the President. August 4th, A 
draft of 300,000 men ordered. 9th Battle of Cedar Mountain. 
1 6th, Gen. McClellan evacuated Harrison's Landing. 26th, Gen. 
Ewell drove Union troops from Manassas. 30th, Union 
Lroops defeated at Richmond, Kentucky. Confederates 
defeated at Bolivar, Tennessee. Second battle of Bull 
Run. Union forces under General Pope defeated. September 
1st, Union victory at Chantilla, Virginia. 2d, General 
McClellan took command of Army of Washington. 5th, 
Confederate army began to cross the Potomac into Maryland. 
September 14th, Battle of South Mountain. The Confederates 
retreated toward the Potomac. 15th, Surrender of Harper's 
Ferry to Confederates after two days' fighting. 17th, Battle of 
Antietam; retreat of Confederates with a loss of 14,000 men. 
1 8th, Confederates re-crossed the Potomac into Virginia. 19th,. 
Confederate defeat at Iuka, Mississippi. 2 2d, Emancipation 
Proclamation by the President. 25th, Suspension of Habeas 
Corpus. October 4th, Defeat of Confederates at Corinth, Missis- 
sippi. 8th, Battle of Perryville, Kentucky. Confederates re- 
treated during the night. 30th, Gen. Rosencrans assumed com- 
mand of the Army of the Cumberland. November 5th, Gen. 
McClellan succeeded in command of the Army of the Potomac 
by Gen. Burnside. 28th, Defeat of Confederates at Cane Hill, 
Arkansas. December 13th, Battle of Fredericksburgh, Virginia, 
and repulse of Union troops under Sumner, Hooker and Frank- 
lin. 14th, Banks succeeded Butler in command of New Orleans. 
28th, Second attack on Vicksburg by army and gun-boats. Fed- 



~L^6 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

eral line established within 2% nils, of the city. 31st, Heavy 
battle of Murfreesborough or Stone River. Federal troops driven 
back, but were reinforced and repulsed the Confederates. 

January 1st, 1863, Re-publication of the emancipation proclam- 
ation. 3d, Confederate army retreated from Murfreesborough. 
Federal army withdrawn from Vicksburgh. 10th, Capture of the 
Arkansas Post with 7,000 prisoners, by Union gun-boats and army. 
22d, Third attack on Vicksburgh. 28th, Gen. Hooker succeeded 
Burnside in command of Army of Potomac. 31st, Repulse of 
Confederates at Blackwater, Virginia. April 7th, Attack upon 
Charleston and withdrawal of Federal fleet. 17th, Banks moved 
on his Red River expedition. May 3d, Second defeat of Federals 
at'Fredericksburgh, and their retreat on the 5th. Stonewall Jack- 
son mortally wounded. 13th, Defeat of Gen. Johnston at Jack- 
son, Mississippi, by Grant, and capture of the place. 15th, Grant 
defeated Pemberton at Baker's Creek, Mississippi. 17th, Second 
defeat of same by same at Big Black River. 18th, Vicksburgh 
invested by Federal troops under Grant and Admiral Porter. 
June 17th, Ram Atlanta captured by Weehawken off South Car- 
olina coast. 23d, Second defeat of Confederates at Big Black 
River, Mississippi. 29th, Gen. Meade succeeded Hooker in com- 
mand of Army of Potomac. July 1st, 2d and 3d, Defeat of Con- 
federates at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, under Lee, by Gen. Meade. 
4th, Surrender of Vicksburgh by Pemberton, with 27,000 prison- 
ers, 132 cannon and 50,000 small arms. 8th, Surrender of Port 
Hudson to Gen. Banks, 7,000 men, 60 cannon and 10,000 arms. 
17th, Johnston defeated at Jackson, Mississippi, by Sherman. 
Natchez captured by Gen. Ransom. Confederate troops driven 
t>ack from Kentucky and Tennessee ; concentrated at Chicamauga, 
where, under Bragg, they were attacked. September 19th, Union 
army repulsed and driven to Chattanooga. October 20th, De- 
partments of Cumberland and Mississippi consolidated and placed 
under command of Gen. Grant. Thomas succeeded Rosencrans. 
November 25 th, Confederate army under Bragg badly defeated 
at Chattanooga. 29th, Repulse of Confederates at Knoxville. 
December 4th, Longstreet compelled to retire from Siege of 
Knoxville. 

February 1st, 1864, A draft for 500,000 men ordered. 15th, 
Gen. Sherman carried his raid to Meridian, Mississippi. March 
8th, Gen. Grant commissioned Lieutenant-General. 1 2th, Assigned 
to command of United States army. 25th, Capture and destruc- 
tion of Paducah by Forrest. April 12th, massacre at Fort Pillow 
by confederate Gen. Forrest. May 6th, Grant crossed the Rapi- 
tlan. Battle of the Wilderness. Retreat of Lee toward Rich- 
mond. 9th, Further defeat and retreat of Lee's forces. 12th, 
Union victory at Spottsylvania; capture of 4,000 prisoners and 
25 cannon. 13th, Sheridan reached the rear of confederate army at 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 139. 

Hanover Junction and destroyed 1,000,000 rations. 15th, Johnston 
forced to evacuate Resaca. 23d, Confederate army flanked at 
Spottsylvania Court House and forced to evacuate. June 3d, 
Rout of Confederates at Coal Harbor. 5th, Sherman flanked 
Johnston and captured Ackworth. 28th, Grant's army took pos- 
session of Weldon Railroad and invested Richmond and Peters- 
burg. July 2 2d, Confederate defeat at Atlanta. September 2d, 
Federal troops took possession of Atlanta. 19th, Victory of 
Sheridan over Confederates in Shenandoah Valley. November 
8th, The presidential election, Lincoln and Johnson received 212 
and McClellan arid Pendleton 21 electoral votes. McClellan re- 
signed his army command. 16th, Sherman began his march to 
the Atlantic. December 16th, Thomas Defeated the Confederate 
forces at Nashville, capturing a large number of guns and prison- 
ers. 20th, Breckinridge defeated, in West Virginia. 21st, Savan- 
nah captured by Sherman. 24th, Union troops and gun-boats 
make an unsuccessful attack on Fort Fisher. 29th, Hood's army 
crossed the Tennessee River, ending the campaign in Tennessee. 

January 8th, 1865, Butler succeeded by Ord in command of 
Army of the James River. 16th, Fort Fisher captured by Fed- 
erals. 20th, Corinth evacuated by Confederates. February 17th, 
Columbia, South Carolina, taken by Sherman. 18th, Charleston, 
South Carolina, occupied by Federal forces. 22d, Wilmington, 
North Carolina, taken by Gen. Schofield. March 2d, Early and 
forces captured by Sheridan, near Staunton, Virginia. 4th, Inau- 
guration of Lincoln and Johnson. 17th, Confederate Congress 
adjourned sine die. April 2d, Lee's Lines at Petersburg, carried. 
3d, Richmond captured by Federal forces. 9th, Surrender of 
Confederate army at Appomattox and end of the war. 14th, 
President Lincoln shot by J. Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theatre^ 
Washington. 15th, Death of President Lincoln. Johnson sworn 
in as President. 26th, Surrender of Confederate Gen. Johnston. 
May 10th, Capture of Jefferson Davis at Irwin ville, Georgia. 

Johnson's administration (1865-1869). 

President Johnson developed a policy at variance with the 
wishes of those who had supported him for Vice-president. So 
unsatisfactory did his administration become to the majority, that 
proceedings in impeachment were begun, but they failed. His 
antagonism with Congress and the consequent failure to settle 
many of the pressing questions of state and finance evolved by 
the war, paved the way for an easy election of General Grant and 
Schuyler Colfax, the nominees of the Republican party. 

grant's first administration (1869 to 1873). 

All the departments of the government being now in harmony, 
this administration became effectual in applying the various laws 



I40 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

looking to reconstruction, providing for the civil privileges of the 
colored race, giving fixity to the national currency, credit to the 
securities and for the reduction of the debt. The President's 
announcement to secure for the country rest and peace after the 
excitement and turmoil of war, was received on every hand wiih 
approbation. A partially successful attempt was made to convert 
the higher interest-bearing loans into bonds bearing a lower rate 
of interest. A new and humanized Indian policy was de- 
vised and put in practice. The Alabama claims were adjudicated 
and the vexatious question of the N. W. boundary settled. The 
country responded to the new condition of affairs and the guar- 
antees of quiet, by a greatly increased development of natural 
resources, improved industries, large public improvements, and 
fresh commercial activity. Repetition of such an administration 
was deemed desirable by the majority, and President Grant was 
re-elected, with Henry Wilson for Vice-president, after a bitter 
and unique canvass against Horace Greely, as the candidate of the 
opposition. 

grant's second administration (1873 to 1877) 

This administration, in the main, continues the policy of the 
former one, except in the particular of a desire to obtain for 
the government a footing in the West Indies, and for trans- 
continental and other railroad enterprises, donations of public 
lands and government credit. The country was threatened for a 
time with serious complications with Spain, but these were averted 
by a wise statesmanship. The speculatve idea which grew up 
under a redundant currency, and the daring activities subsequent 
to the war, resulted in financial disaster at the close of 1873. In 
addition to its usual labors, the administration therefore found 
itself in the midst of problems for the restoration of credit, the 
adjustment of the currency to the wants of the people and the 
return of business to an economical and steadfast basis, whose 
successful solution will be numbered among the most worthy 
achievements. 

Vice-President Henry Wilson, died at Washington November 22, 
1875, an d his place was filled by Senator Ferry, of Michigan. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. I4I 



it. 




GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES. 



)TS HISTORY is one of peculiar interest, and therefore we 
feel warranted in giving more details of its design and history 
than can be allotted to the Seals of the several States. 
Soon after the Declaration of Independence, Benjamin Franklin, 
John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson were appointed a committee 
to prepare a great seal for the infant republic ; and they employed 
a French West Indian, named Du Simitiere, not only to furnish 
designs, but also to sketch such devices as were suggested by 
themselves. In one of his designs, the artist displayed on a shield 
the armorial ensigns of the several nations from whence America 
had been peopled — embracing those of England, Scotland, Ireland,. 
France, Germany, and Holland. On one side was placed Liberty 
with her cap, and on the other was a rifleman in uniform, with 
his rifle in one hand and a tomahawk in the other — the dress 
and weapons being peculiar to America. 

Franklin proposed, for the device, Moses lifting his wand, and 
dividing the Red Sea, and Pharaoh and his hosts overwhelmed 
with the waters. For a motto, the words of Cromwell, " Rebellion 
to tyrants is obedience to God." 

Adams proposed the Choice of Hercules ; the hero resting on a 
club, Virtue pointing to her rugged mountain on one hand, and 



142 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

persuading him to ascend; and Sloth, glancing at her flowery 
paths of pleasure, wantonly reclining on the ground, displaying 
the charms, both of her eloquence and person, to seduce him into 
vice. 

Jefferson proposed the Children of Israel in the Wilderness, led 
by a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night; and, on the 
reverse, Hengist and Horsa, the Saxon chiefs, from whom we 
claim the honor of being descended, and whose political princi- 
ples and form of government we have assumed. 

Franklin and Adams then requested Jefferson to combine their 
ideas in a compact description of the proposed great seal, which 
he did, and that paper, in his handwriting, is now in the office of 
the Secretary of State at Washington. This design consisted of 
a shield with six quarterings, parti one, coupi two, in heraldic 
phrase. The first gold, and an enameled rose, red and white, for 
England ; the second white, with a thistle, in its proper colors, for 
Scotland ; the third green, with a harp of gold, for Ireland ; the 
fourth blue, with a golden lily-flower, for France ; the fifth gold, 
with the imperial black eagle, for Germany; and the sixth gold, 
with the Belgic crowned red lion, for Holland. These denoted 
the countries from which America had been peopled. He pro- 
posed to place the shield within a red border, on which there should 
be thirteen white escutcheons, linked together by a gold chain, 
each bearing appropriate initials, in black, of the confederated 
States. Supporters, the Goddess of Liberty on the right side, in 
a corslet of armor, in allusion to the then state of war, and hold- 
ing the spear and cap in her right hand, while her left supported 
the shield. On the left, the Goddess of Justice, leaning on a 
sword in her right hand, and in her left a balance. The crest, the 
eye of Providence in a radiant triangle, whose glory should extend 
over the shield and beyond the figures. Motto : E Pluribus 
Unitm — "Many in one." Around the whole, "Seal of the 
United States of America, MDCCLXXVI." For the reverse, 
he proposed the device of Pharaoh sitting in an open chariot, a 
crown on his head and a sword in his hand, passing through the 
divided waters of the Red Sea in pursuit of the Israelites. Rays 
from a pillar of fire in a cloud, expressive of the Divine presence 
and command, beaming on Moses, who stands on the shore, and, 
extending his hand over the sea, causes it to overwhelm Pharaoh 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. I43 

and his followers. Motto : " Rebellion to tyrants is obedience to 
God." 

Jefferson's device was highly approved by his coadjutors, and the 
committee reported on the ioth of August, 1776; but, for some 
unaccountable reason, their report was neglected, not having been 
even placed on record ; and the affair was allowed to slumber 
until the 24th of March, 1779, when Messrs. Lovell, of Massachu- 
setts, Scott, of Virginia, and Houston, of Georgia, were appointed 
a committee to make another device. 

On the ioth of May following they reported in favor of a seal 
four inches in diameter, one side of which should be composed of 
a shield with thirteen diagonal stripes, alternate red and white. 
Supporters, a warrior, holding a sword, on one side, and on the 
other the figure of Peace, bearing an olive branch. The crest, a 
radiant constellation of thirteen stars. Motto : Bello vel Pace — 
u For War or Peace," and the legend, " Seal of the United States." 
On the reverse, the figure of Liberty, seated in a chair, holding 
the staff and cap. Motto : Semper — " Forever" — and underneath, 
MDCCLXXVI. This report was re-committed, and again sub- 
mitted with some slight modifications (substituting the figure of 
an Indian with bow and arrows in his right hand for that of a 
warrior) just a year afterward ; but it was not accepted, and the 
matter rested until April, 1782, when Henry Middleton, Elias 
Boudinot, and Edward Rutledge were appointed a third commit- 
tee to prepare a seal. They reported on the 9th of May following, 
substantially the same as the committee of 1779 and 1780; but, 
this not being satisfactory to Congress, on the 13th of June the 
whole matter was referred to Charles Thomson, its secretary. 

He in turn procured several devices, among which was one by 
William Barton, of Philadelphia, consisting of an escutcheon, with 
a blue border, spangled with thirteen stars, and divided in the 
centre, perpendicularly, by a gold bar. On each side of this divis- 
ion, within the blue border, thirteen bars or stripes, alternate red 
and white, like the American flag adopted on the 14th of June, 
1777. Over the gold bar an eye surrounded with a glory, and in 
the gold bar a Doric column resting on the base of the escutcheon, 
having a displayed eagle on its summit. The crest, a helmet of 
burnished gold, damasked, grated with six bars, and surmounted 
by a red cap of dignity, such as dukes wear, with a black lining, 



144 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

and a cock armed with gaffs. Supporters, on one- side the Genius 
of America, with loose Auburn tresses, having on her head a radi- 
ant crown of gold, encircled with a sky-blue fillet, spangled with 
silver stars, and clothed in a long, loose, white garment, bordered 
with green. From the right shoulder to the left side, a blue scarf 
with stars, the cinctures being the same as in the border. Around 
her waist a purple girdle, fringed with gold, and the word Virtue 
embroidered in white. Her interior hand rested on the escutch- 
eon, and the other held the American standard, on the top of 
which a white dove was perched. The supporter on the other 
side was a man in complete armor; his sword-belt blue, fringed 
with gold ; his helmet encircled with a wreath of laurel, and crested 
with one white and two blue plumes ; his left hand supporting the. 
escutcheon, and his right holding a lance with a bloody point 
Upon an unfurled green banner was a golden harp with silver 
strings, a brilliant star, and two lily-flowers, with two crossed 
swords below. The two figures stood upon a scroll, on which was 
the motto Deo Favente — " With God's Favor" — in allusion to the 
eye of Providence in the arms. On the crest, in a scroll, was the 
motto Virtus sola Invicta — "Virtue alone is Invincible." 

After vainly striving to perfect a seal which should meet the 
approval of Congress, Thomson finally received from John Adams, 
then in London, an exceedingly simple and appropriate device, 
suggested by Sir John Prestwitch, a baronet of the West of Eng- 
land, who was a warm friend of America, and an accomplished 
antiquarian. It consisted of an escutcheon bearing thirteen per- 
pendicular stripes, white and red, with the chief blue, and 
spangled with thirteen stars; and, to give it greater consequence, 
he proposed to place it on the breast of an American eagle, dis- 
played, without supporters, as emblematic of self-reliance. It 
met with general approbation, in and out of Congress, and was 
adopted in June, 1782 ; so it is manifest, although the fact is not 
extensively known, that we are indebted for our national arms to 
a titled aristocrat of the country with which we were then at war. 
Eschewing all heraldic technicalities, it may be thus described in 
plain English : Thirteen perpendicular pieces, white and red ; a 
blue field ; the escutcheon on the breast of the American eagle 
displayed, proper, holding in his right talon an olive-branch, and 
in his left a bundle of thirteen arrows, all proper, and in his.. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



*45 



beak a scroll, inscribed with the motto E Pluribus Unum. For 
the crest, over the head of the eagle, which appears above the 
escutcheon, a golden glory breaking through a cloud, proper, and 
surrounding thirteen stars, forming a constellation of white stars 
on a blue field. 

Reverse. — A pyramid unfinished. In the zenith, an eye in a tri- 
angle, surrounded with a glory, proper. Over the eye, the words 
Annuit Cczptis — " God has favored the undertaking." On the base 
of the pyramid, are the numeral Roman letters MDCCLXXVI ; 
and underneath the motto, Novus Ordo Seclorum — " A New Series 
of Ages" — denoting that a new order of things had commenced 
in the Western hemisphere. Thus, after many fruitless efforts, 
for nearly six years, a very simple seal was adopted, and yet 
r^jowuns the arms of the United States. 




SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES. 



TO 



ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF GOVERNMENT. 




LEARNED and skillful writer traces the origin of 
political government to parental government, in which 
we will agree with him if he will carry that back to our 
Creator, who, when He placed in the garden of Eden the 
children whom He had created, instituted a government by laying 
down certain laws, and attaching to the non-observance of them 
punishment or penalties. Man sinned, and the penalty was in- 
flicted upon him, and other laws were added to suit his fallen 
nature. It is probable that, when the children of Adam became 
old enough to understand right from wrong, looking back over his 
own fatal mistake, and forward to the consequences of that rash 
act, he strove to teach his descendants the Divine law, as given to 
him from the lips of God ; and thus became a law giver to, and 
ruler over them, in a certain sense. The children of men multi- 
plied and teeming millions covered the earth, and each descending 
generation gave itself up more and more to the indulgence of 
every forbidden sin and pleasure, until the world reeked with cor- 
ruption; then again the Omnipotent Ruler of the universe inter- 
posed, and the wrath which they had kindled against themselves 
was let loose, and all, save righteous Noah and his family, were 
swept from existence. In turn, Noah became the Parent and the 
Ruler, and government was established over his descendants, and 
from time to time God gave such laws as He saw were needed. 
The most ancient of our modern governments were exceedingly 
arbitrary, in many cases were simply unlimited power and unre- 
strained tyranny. 

During the Old Testament age, usually called the Mosaic dis- 
pensation, the parent had control of his child, even to the inflic- 
tion of capital punishment, and in China the same law or custom 

146 




TOMB OF COLUMBUS— CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. I49 

still prevails. It was also practiced by the ancient Romans, and 
by the Grecians ; and was most probably common over all the 
world, since it was found in all our savage tribes when the Amer- 
ican Continent was discovered. In ancient times every tribe and 
every city had its King, and the kingdom was often so small in 
extent that in order to obtain the necessary territory, war was 
resorted to, and the weaker fled before, or was destroyed by the 
stronger party. 

Observation taught the rulers, at an early period of the world's 
existence, that certain restraints and laws were necessary for the 
preservation of order, and though the art of governing was not 
carried to that perfection which marks it now, yet the Mosaic laws 
are the foundation of the laws of our own, and indeed of every 
civilized, christian country. As the population of the world in- 
creased, and the cares of state pressed too heavily upon him, 
Moses appointed assistants, or district judges who were to hear all 
-complaints and settle small matters as seemed best to them ; but 
Moses, still at the head of the tribes of Israel, as temporal and 
spiritual leader, decided all matters of importance. In order that 
-every family should be provided with certain means of support, 
it has been the custom from time immemorial to set apart a tract 
of land for their use, and it was deeded or secured to them in such 
a way that except by actual sale, or transfer, or by confiscation for 
crime, it could not be taken from them, and they were required to 
place stationary landmarks to define their boundaries, and the 
heaviest penalties were inflicted upon any man who was known to 
Le guilty 01 altering the position of those marks. 

Three points of law, always prominent, were established as 
early in history as there was society to govern, — " the punishment 
of crime," " the institution of marriage," and "regulations con- 
cerning property;" and we infer from this that laws of some sort 
have always governed mankind. As the world advanced from the 
gloom of barbarism, the laws relaxed somewhat of their severity, 
and each progressive step adds to our liberty ; but entire freedom 
from all law would plunge society into the most terrible state that 
ever existed ; and never, until man becomes something better than 
humanity is capable of, can this be; nay, never, since even in 
Heaven, he will be subject to law. All just laws are enacted with 
a view to preserving and defending the rights and liberties of those 



1.50 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

who are subject to them, but often laws that are selfish and unjust 
impose upon the people wrongs that are too oppressive to be borne. 

In countries where the Republican form of government exists, 
this cannot be, or if laws are found to be unwise, and injudicious, 
it is in the power of the people to repeal or modify them. In 
olden times the power of the sovereign was unlimited — absolute,, 
but gradually mind asserted its superiority over matter ; the voice 
of the people began to be heard, and their influence felt, and the 
low mutteringsof discontent from the masses have shaken the 
firmest thrones to their foundation. To-day there is scarcely a 
civilized government in existence where, in some way the people 
do not have representation and a voice in making the laws that 
govern them. 

The patriarchial form of government seems to have assumed 
the monarchial, and to have held sway even down to the present 
time ; but in latter years, under the influence of Christianity and 
civilization, it has abated its rigors, and become more limited in 
its power. With every circle of the whirling years, man's experi- 
ence teaches him wisdom, and nations learn in the same hard, sad 
school, and profit by the lesson they conned through years that 
were clouded by their errors, ignorance or folly. There is no 
form of government in the world so well adapted to the human 
race, and so well calculated to develop the noblest sentiments of 
patriotism and love of country, as the Republican ; no other gov- 
ernment which calls into being, and stimulates into action so 
strong a feeling of personal interest and responsibility, and com- 
pels a man to study its principles. No injustice can be complained 
of — no arbitrary or cruel oppression — no laws that are an outrage 
upon his manhood — for the voice of the people enacted these stat- 
utes, and framed those laws. For the liberty of thought and 
speech that has blessed us above all other lands — for the freedom 
from thrall of church that has blessed us above all other nations — 
for the patriotism that has defended our cherished institutions — for 
the Republican government which has elevated us into the high- 
est position held by the nations of the world, we reverently thank 
God, as we worship him according to the dictates of our own con* 
science. 



BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE UNITED 
STATES. 



M^7/HIS great Republic, truly great and glorious, lies between 
IwL * at - 2 4 ^ e S- 3° mm - an d 49 deg. N., and between long. 66 
deg. 50 min. and 124 deg. 30 min. W. Its boundaries, 
with the exception of British America west of Lake Superior, are 
water ; the Atlantic on the east, the Gulf of Mexico on the 
south, the Pacific on the west ; on the north, from the St. Law- 
rence River to Lake Superior, lie Huron, St. Clair, Erie, and 
Ontario, a silver chain that encircles our treasure. America has 
added to her territory the Russian Possessions, lying to the far 
north. Whether, in adding to her broad acres over half a million 
of square miles she has added materially to her wealth, is a 
problem which only a century in advance of ours can solve. 
Either in a domestic or political sense, it is at present only a 
Castle in Spain to us. We may dream of its future development 
— we may fondly imagine that it will some day be a storehouse of 
countless and boundless wealth — but we shall never see that 
snow-shrouded desert " blossom as a rose," as at the touch of 
labor, and industry, and art, and skill, it shall wake from the 
winter sleep that has held it prisoned forever, and with the 
blushes sweeping over her still white face, go forth at their 
command to meet the incoming civilization. With an area of 
3,878,245 square miles, three-fourths, or perhaps four-fifths of 
which is tillable, most of it surpassing rich in vegetable and 
mineral products, there appear no natural, or possible bounds to 
our prosperity. 

Every good thing seems to have been gathered here Our land 

IS* 



S52 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

floweth with milk and honey, and its corn and wine make glad the 
hearts of her children. Standing between the impoverished 
nations of the East and the West, she opens her arms to the poor 
and needy, the wronged and oppressed, of all lands and climes ; 
gives them shelter and refuge in her bosom, and homes and for- 
tunes in her broad domains. It is not strange, under these 
orcumstances, that the tide of emigration should turn to our 
shores, and, bringing with them habits of industry and economy, 
and obedience to law, should add to our own, as well as their 
wealth. Neither is it strange that, in the fulness of their gratitude, 
they love the land of their adoption, and the Government which 
has made their interests identical with its own. During the last 
twenty years nearly five million have arrived at the port of New 
York alone, who have come under emigrant regulations, solely for 
the purpose of settling and making homes in the New World. 

The political divisions are too well understood to need an 
explanation, and consist of thirty-seven States and eleven Terri- 
tories. The Mississippi is our most important river, and, together 
with the Missouri, the longest in the world. In reality, the upper 
Mississippi, by the usual rules of measurement, is the branch, and 
the Missouri is the main stream — being more than a thousand 
miles longer, from its head to its mouth, or junction with the Mis- 
sisippi. The total length from its source in Lake Itasca to the 
Gulf of Mexico, is 2,986 miles, but from the source of the Mis- 
souri to the Gulf of Mexico, is nearly 5,000 miles. 

The principal lakes are Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, 
Ontario and Champlain, all of which lie along our northern 
boundary, and the Great Salt Lake, in Utah Territory. This lake, 
so called, is more properly an inland sea. Lake Superior is a mag- 
nificent body of water, and the largest body of fresh water in the 
world. The bluffy shores on the north side of the lake are grand ; 
no words perhaps can do them justice, but so desolate — oh, so 
wild, and dreary, and desolate, A feeling of sadness comes over 
you, you cannot tell how or why, as you stand upon the deck of a 
steamer and pass mile after mile of unbroken forest, without a 
sign of civilization, without a sign of life, save where at long inter- 
vals the blue smoke rises from an Indian s bark hut, or a solitary 
red man stands on a crag to watch the passing boat, or a group of 
their beautiful, fleet-footed ponies tells of their proximity. The 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 153 

dense, dark, low evergreens cover the land closely, interspersed 
with clumps or groves of oak, beech, birch and hickory trees. 
On the south side of the lake the shore is bold, but less steep and 
mountainous. The old Fort of Mackinaw still stands in good 
order, and the new fort is a fine building. The Pictured Rocks are 
very beautiful, and well worthy of a visit from the passing tourist. 
At sunrise they appear more like some fancy painting than any 
earthly reality. Rising boldly to a height of from three to five 
hundred feet, covered with trees that are century crowned, perfor- 
ated with caves, worn and broken into fantastic shapes by the 
storms of ages, stained with every imaginable shade of coloring 
from the dripping of the springs in the rock upon mineral sub- 
stances, it is impossible to fancy any thing more picturesque or 
sublime. The water at their base is very deep and transparently 
clear ; at a depth of two or three hundred feet below the surface 
you can plainly discern the wreck of a steamer lying where it went 
down one fatal night some years ago. The richest copper mines 
in the world are those of the Superior. The ore is taken out in 
immense bodies, often too large to be transported in any manner, 
and nearly pure. The region of the upper Superior is but sparsely 
settled, but since the location of the Northern Pacific Railroad is 
rapidly improving. 

/The mountain ranges most worthy of note are the Alleghany 
in the east, and the Rocky Mountains on the western side of the 
continent. The length of the Alleghanies is about 1500 miles. 
The Rocky Mountains are broken ranges, and although running 
from north to south, cover a district of a thousand miles in 
width. Between these ranges lie some of the most beautiful 
prairies, table lands or plateaus, in the world. The mountain 
passes, defiles and canons are awfully grand and sublime, and it is 
said by those who have visited both — even by Europeans them- 
selves — that the Alps present nothing more wild and grand than 
the Sierra Nevadas, with their hoary, snow covered heads, 
piercing the clouds. 

The soil of the United States presents every variety known 
upon the globe, from the soft, rich mould of the tropics, to the 
sterile sands of the desert, but with the exception of the dry 
plains or desert in the vicinity of Salt Lake, nearly the entire 
surface of our country is productive, and from the Atlantic 



154 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

shores to the Pacific coast, verdure, beauty and wealth spread out 
in every direction. 

The climate is as varied as the soil. Lying, as the Republic 
does, between such extremes of longitude and latitude, it is impos- 
sible but that our climate would embrace every variety which it is 
possible to produce. In the northern of the Middle States the 
temperature varies from one extreme to the other, and the changes 
are so rapid as to leave one wholly unprepared to meet them. In 
the East, we have longer winters, and steady cold or heat. In 
Florida the temperature is even, scarcely varying from January to 
January again; while in Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina, 
Texas, California and New Mexico, the climate is very like that 
of Italy. 

The mineral productions are extensive and varied. There is 
scarcely a mineral or precious stone known in the world, but is 
produced in America. Coal and iron are abundant in nearly 
every State in the Union. Nitrate of soda and potassa are found 
in quantities to supply the ages to come, in the caves of Virginia^ 
Kentucky and Arkansas ; while the very desert of the Salt Lak& 
country is a mine of inexhaustible wealth for its nitrate and car- 
bonate of soda. Maine, Maryland, Texas and Arizona produce 
gypsum, while marble of every variety, for building or statuary, is 
found everywhere. Iron is found in every State and Territory, 
and Illinois alone is capable of furnishing all the lead required 
by the manufactories of the world. The richest copper 
mines are found in the Superior region, yet almost every State 
produces it in greater or less quantities. Zinc is found in Penn- 
sylvania and New Jersey, and tin in Maine and California. Gold 
is found in all the States bordering on the Atlantic coast, and pre- 
vious to the discovery of the rich mines of the Western States, 
Virginia furnished nearly all the gold of the United States. 
These mines are all abandoned, however, since the discovery of 
the immense deposits in California, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, 
Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado and Dakota. California also 
yields a limited quantity of platinum, and mercury in immense 
quantities, sufficient, indeed, to meet the great demand created 
by the gold mines for it. Osmium and iridium have been dis- 
covered in Oregon. Cobalt is produced by North Carolina and 
Missouri, and Pennsylvania yields nickel in abundance. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY 155 

The people of the United States are from every land and every 
clime under the sun. In a few of the States you can trace, through 
the established habits and customs of the people, the origin of the 
first settlers; but in most places, the emigration from foreign lands 
constantly changes the characteristics of the inhabitants. The 
New England States, settled by the Puritans, retain something of 
their prim severity of manners. Maryland was settled by the 
Catholics, and they have always been, and still are, the strongest 
religious denomination in the State. Pennsylvania was settled by 
Quakers and Germans, Louisiana by the French, and Texas and 
California by Spanish. An immense number of Chinese have 
found homes on the western slopes of the continent, and promise 
to become useful citizens. 

The agricultural interests of the Republic, already stupendous, 
are constantly increasing, and one looks over the statistics of pro- 
duce of farm and garden in a bewildered way as he fails to grasp 
or comprehend the figures that testify truthfully of our national 
wealth, industry and prosperity. Indian corn is and always will 
be a staple product. In 1862, the number of bushels raised by 
seven of the Middle States, amounted to 482,250,800. Illinois 
alone produced 125,500,000. In the scale of importance, wheat 
stands next to corn, and the yield of 1862 counts up' 264,146,950. 

American wheat received the prize medal at the London exhibi- 
tion. There is no question but ours is the best grown in the world. 
Rye, barley and oats are grown in all the States, also buckwheat, 
peas and beans, and as a field crop the two latter grow in import- 
ance every year. Rice is produced in all the Southern States, 
and has been grown in the Middle States, though it can never be 
made a profitable crop there, since the soil is too dry. The yield 
in i860 was 187,140,173 pounds. In this, South Carolina leads 
off, having produced that year 119,100,528. The potato ranks 
next to corn and wheat. In 1869 the number of bushels grown of 
this favorite vegetable was 133,886,000. Hay, also is a valuable 
crop, and hops, as the demand increases, are receiving favorable 
notice. Tobacco is raised in almost every State in the Union, 
flourishing upon every soil and giving profitable returns for little 
labor. The crop of i860 amounted to 429,390,771 pounds. 

Sugar cane is raised in all of the Southern States, and the 
manufacture of sugar and molasses has long been a leading 



156 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

branch of industry in that part of the Union. Of late years, 
with improved machinery and better facilities for performing the 
labor, the amount of sugar had increased steadily each year, until 
the war checked it, but it is again prosperous, and the latest 
xeturns credit Louisiana with the production of 297,816 hogs- 
neads, and 15,535,157 gallons of molasses, for that year. 

Sorghum is raised to considerable extent in the North, but it 
will not make sugar, and seems not to be really popular. In 1869 
.the yield of molasses in the Middle States, from sorghum, was 
7,235,884 gallons, and the same year produced 40,863,884 pounds 
of maple sugar, and 1,944,594 gallons of maple molasses. The 
prairie lands of the United States furnish unlimited pasturage 
and hay, and stock raising and dairy-farming seem to follow as 
naturally as effect follows cause. The total amount of butter 
produced for market in the year 1869, was 470,536,468 pounds, 
and the same year also produced for market 114,154,211 pounds 
of cheese ; and enormous as the amount seems, it was not a year 
remarkable for the quantity, which has steadily increased since. 
The cultivation of grapes for the purpose of manufacturing wine 
is becoming one of the leading enterprises of the country ; and 
California has a prospect, at no distant day, of eclipsing the vine- 
yards of France or Italy. Ohio also produces a large quantity of 
very fine quality of flax and hemp, which have been raised to a con- 
siderable extent, both for seed and material for the manufacture of 
linen and hemp goods; and the growing of wool, always a 
profitable and popular business, has received a great deal of 
encouragement for a few years past. Statistics prove that the 
growth of cotton in the United States is not as great as formerly, 
but has decreased in quantity for several years ; 1869 produced 
5,198,077 bales. 

The commerce of the United States with foreign countries is 
very heavy. In 1869 the exports of the United- States to foreign 
countries amounted to $373,189,274; while her imports amounted 
to $463,461,427. When we consider that America is made inde- 
pendent of every other country by her ability to produce every- 
thing in her own fields and factories which comfort or luxury 
demand, this excess of imports over exports would appear to be 
unnecessary. 

In internal improvements the Republic of America ranks 




POCAHONTAS, 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 159 

*econd to no power in the world. In river and harbor improve- 
ment, in canals and railroads, nothing that industry and enter- 
prise, united to almost limitless capital could accomplish, has been 
left undone. Continuous lines of railroad span the continent from 
the " rock bound coast " of the Atlantic to the blue waters of the 
Pacific, and from the lakes of the north to the gulf that breaks 
upon our southern coast, and forty thousand miles of iron track 
girdle the States in every possible direction ; while high over 
wood and prairie, over stream and hill, over mountain and valley 
the dark wires of the telegraph stretch out, bearing with an unseen, 
unheard and mysterious power, words of peace or tidings of war — 
joy and gladness to one hearth, sorrow and desolation to another. 
With all his wisdom and far-seeing sagacity, Franklin never 
prophesied how great results would follow the experiments which 
to common minds seemed but the vague vision of an idealist. 
Later, Morse brought the art to what seems to us a glorious per- 
fection, but in the unborn years before us, other master minds, 
profiting by what philosophy has already proven, will carry on the 
well begun work. 

To our public or common schools America owes her greatness, 
since to strength of developed muscles is added strength of 
developed and cultivated intellect, and ample and generous pro- 
vision for the education of every child has been made. Our 
system of to-day is the system which was established by the Pil- 
grim Fathers, who, fleeing from the ignorance and superstition of 
the old world, kindled the flame of general knowledge, and set the 
light on a hill where it cannot be hid ; and succeeding generations 
have fed the sacred fire until to-day it lights the world. Fellow 
laborer with the free school is the free press. Thank God for the 
free, unfettered press, whose voice is potent to break the chains 
of tyranny and thunder its denunciations at abuse and wrong, and 
demand the execution of justice, even while it advocates mercy. 

With that commendable prudence and wisdom which marked 
the course pursued by the " Fathers of the Republic," every 
citizen is left free and untrammeled by bigotry or prejudice, " to 
worship God after the dictates of his own heart," and in doing 
this, that man must be callous indeed who cannot, in some 
religious denomination, find a home till such time as he is called 
to "come up higher." 



l6o FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



OUR COUNTRY. 



Our country ! — 'tis a glorious land ! 

With broad arms stretch'd from shore to shorq 
The proud Pacific chafes her strand, 

She hears the dark Atlantic roar ; 

And, nurtur'd on her ample breast, 

How many a goodly prospect lies, 
In Nature's wildest grandeur dressed, 

Enamel'd with her loveliest dyes. 

Rich prairies deck'd with flowers of gold. 

Like sunlit oceans roll afar ; 
Broad lakes her azure heavens behold, 

Reflecting clear each trembling star, 

And mighty rivers, mountain-born, 
Go sweeping onward, dark and deep, 

Through forests where the bounding faw* 
Beneath their sheltering branches leap. 

And cradled 'mid her clustering hills, 
Sweet vales in dreamlike beauty hide, 

"Where love the air with music fills, 
And calm content and peace abide ; 

For plenty here her fullness pours 

In rich profusion o'er the land, 
And sent to seize her generous store, 

There prowls no tyrant's hireling band. 



THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED 

STATES. 



The United States is a federation of republican commonwealths, 
resting upon the broad basis of democratic institutions. The 
government of the United States was erected by the joint will of 
the people ot the original thirteen colonies. In May, 1775, a 
congress assembled in Philadelphia, and on the 4th of July of 
the following year issued the memorable Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, followed by a war with Great Britain, at the end of 
which the colonies were absolved from all allegiance to the British 
crown and became free and independent states. After protracted 
deliberations, Congress on the 15th of November, 1777, agreed 
to the articles of confederation, but it was not until the 1st of 
March, 17 81, that these articles received the unanimous ap- 
proval of all the states. The fundamental defect in this confed- 
eration was, that the decrees of the federal council were held 
subject to the states in their sovereign capacity. The council 
framed laws for political communities and not for private individ- 
uals, and was clothed with no power to enforce its laws upon 
these political communities of the states. The only correction 
for disobedience was military force, instead of the decree and 
tne arm of the civil magistrate. In May, 1786, delegates of all 
the states, except Rhode Island, assembled in general convention 
at Philadelphia, for the purpose of revising and amending the 
articles of confederation ; and after several months of peaceful 
deliberation agreed upon the plan of government which now forms 
the Constitution of the United States. It was submitted in each 
state to a convention of delegates chosen for the purpose, but 
over a year elapsed before it received the ratification of a suf- 
ficient number of states to give it a political existence, and nearly 
three years before it received the unanimous ratification of all the 
states and thus became the supreme law of the land. 

The Constitution as originally framed consists of seven articles. 
It determines the legal relations between the federal government, 
on the one hand, and the state governments, on the other, and 

11 i6x 



1 62 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

makes but little reference to the rights of individual citizens. 
With the progress of time fifteen supplementary articles or 
" amendments " have been added, and nearly all of these define 
personal rights of individuals. 

The government, according to the Constitution, is composed of 
three distinct branches; the legislative, the executive, and the 
judicial. 

THE LEGISLATIVE POWER 
Is vested in Congress. The Constitution defines it to be " the 
power to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying into 
execution all powers vested in the government or in any depart- 
ment or officer thereof. 

The principal powers of Congress are' : to lay and collect taxes 
and duties uniformly throughout the United States; to borrow 
money on the credit of the United States ; to regulate commerce 
with foreign nations and between the several states ; to establish a 
uniform rule of naturalization and uniform laws of bankruptcy ; to 
coin money and fix the standard of weights and measures; to 
establish post-offices and post-roads ; to declare war and grant 
letters of marque ; to raise and maintain armies and a navy, and 
to make rules for their government; to provide for organizing, 
arming and disciplining the militia, and to govern such as may be 
employed in the service of the United States; to exercise execu- 
tive legislation over the district in which is placed the seat of gov- 
ernment of the United States, and over all places purchased for 
the erection of forts, arsenals and dock-yards. 

The Constitution prescribes the following restrictions upon the 
power of Congress : The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall 
not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, 
the public safety may require it ; no bill of attainder or ex post facto 
law shall be passed ; no capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, 
unless in proportion to the official census enumeration ; no pre- 
ference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue 
to the ports of one state over those of another, nor shall vessels 
bound to or from one state pay duties in another; no money shall 
be drawn from the treasury except in consequence of appropria- 
tions made by law ; nor shall any law be enacted respecting an 
establishment of religion, or prohibiting the exercise thereof, or 
abridging the freedom of speech or of the press, or the right of 
the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and 
petition the government for redress of grievances ; nor shall the 
validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized bylaw, 
including debts incured for payment of pensions and bounties, be 
questioned ; and neither the United States nor any state shall pay 
any debt incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the 
United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any 
slave. , 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 163 

Congress consists of two branches : the Senate and the House of 
Representatives. 

THE SENATE 

is composed of two Senators from each state, chosen by the 
legislature thereof, for a term of six years. No person can be 
elected Senator who is under thirty years of age, and who has 
not been a citizen of the United States for nine years, and who is 
not, when elected, a citizen of the state for which he is chosen. 
The Senate has sole power to try impeachments, and when sitting 
for that purpose is under oath like courts of justice. If the Presi- 
dent be tried, the Chief Justice of the United States is to preside. 
The Senate has power to ratify or reject treaties with foreign 
powers, and it requires the concurrence of two-thirds of the sena- 
tors present to authorize the President to make a treaty. The 
advice and consent of the Senate is necessary to confirm appoint- 
ments made by the President. The Senate cannot originate any 
bill for raising revenue, but may propose amendments or concur 
in such bill. The Vice-president of the United States is ex officio 
president of the Senate. In his absence the Senate elects a pre- 
sident por tempore. It further elects a secretary to record its pro- 
ceedings, a sergeant-at-arms to attend and to arrest offenders, and 
a door-keeper to guard the entrance to the Senate Chamber. 

THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 

is composed of members chosen every second year by the peo- 
ple of the several states. The representatives are apportioned 
among the several states according to their respective number of 
inhabitants. After each decennial census, Congress re-adjusts 
the proportion of population entitled to a representative, and fixes 
anew the whole number of representatives, leaving the manner and 
time of state apportionment to the states themselves. Under the 
apportionment fixed subsequent to the census of 1870, the states 
became entitled to the following number of representatives re- 
spectively : Ala. 8; Ark. 4; Cal. 4 ; Conn. 4; Del. 1 ; Fla. 2 ; Ga. 
9 ; 111. 19 ; Ind. 13 ; Iowa, 9 ; Kan. 3 ; Ky. 10 ; La. 6 ; Me. 5 ; 
Md. 6; Mass. 11 ; Mich. 9; Min. 3; Miss. 6; Mo. 13; Neb. 1; 
Nev. 1 ; N. H. 3 ; N. J. 7 ; N. Y. 33 ; N. C. 8 ; Ohio 20 ; Oreg. 1 ; 
Pa. 27 ; R. I. 2 ; S. C. 5 ; Tenn. 10 ; Texas 8 ; Vt. 3 ; Va. 9 ; W. 
Va. 3; Wis. 8. Total, 292. A representative must have attained 
the age of 25 years, and must be a citizen and an inhabitant of 
the state for which he is chosen. The House chooses its own 
speaker, clerk, sergeant-at-arms, door-keeper, and other officers. 
It has exclusive power to originate bills for raising revenue. 

In ordinary legislative matters the powers and duties of both 
houses of Congress are legislative and advisory, but not judicial 
and executive. 



164 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

THE EXECUTIVE POWER 

is vested in the President, who is chosen by electors, each state 
being entitled to as many as it has senators and representatives in 
Congress. His term of office is four years. The Vice-president, 
who is ex-officio president of the Senate, is chosen at the same time 
and in the same manner as the President. The Constitutions re- 
quires that both these officers shall be native-born citizens of the 
United States, and that they shall have attained the age of 35 
years, and have been 14 years residents of the United States. 

The President is Commander-in-chief of the army and navy 
and of the militia of the several states when called into the ser- 
vice of the United States. He has power to grant reprieves and 
pardons for the offenses against the United States, except in cases 
of impeachment. He has also the power, by and with the advice 
of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the sena- 
tors present concur. The President nominates, and with the 
advice and consent of the Senate, appoints the officers of govern- 
ment; as ambassadors or public ministers and consuls, judges of 
the Supreme Court, and all executive officers of the government, 
except those whose appointment is otherwise provided for by the 
Constitution. The President receives foreign ministers and 
grants the exequatur to foreign consuls. He communicates to 
Congress by message at the opening of every session the condition 
of the country, and recommends such measures as he deems ex- 
pedient. 

Every order, vote, or bill which requires the action of both 
Houses (except the resolution to adjourn) must be presented to 
the President for his signature and approval. It becomes a law 
if he appends his signature. The President has the power to 
veto any bill or resolution passed by both Houses. He does this 
by returning it to the House where it originated, with a written 
message, stating his objections or reasons why be believes it ought 
not to become a law. If, however, Congress then passes the bill 
by a majority of two-thirds of the members, it becomes a law not- 
withstanding the President's veto. The Constitution directs that 
the President shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed. 
In the discharge of his duties he is assisted by the highest execu- 
tive officers, each of whom presides over one of the departments 
of government. These are collectively called the Cabinet, consist- 
ing of : 1, Secretary of State; 2, the Secretary of the Treasury ; 
3, the Secretary of War; 4, the Secretary of the Navy; 5, the Sec- 
retary of the Interior; 6, the Postmaster-General, and 7, the 
Attorney-General. They are the President's constitutional 
advisers, and twice a week attend a meeting at his office for con- 
sultation upon the executive duties of the Federal Government, 
or upon questions of policy. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. I*>5 

THE JUDICIAL POWER 

of the United States in vested in one Supreme Court, and in such 
inferior courts as Congress may from time to time ordain and 
establish. The judicial power extends over all cases in law and 
equity arising under the Constitution, the laws of the United 
States, and treaties made under their authority ; to all cases affect- 
ing ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases 
of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which 
the United States may be a party ; to controversies between two 
or more states, between citizens of different states, between citizens 
of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, 
and between a state and citizen thereof, or of a foreign state. 

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls, and those in which a state may be a party, the Supreme 
Court has original jurisdiction. In all other cases before men- 
tioned, the Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction, both as to 
law and fact, with such exceptions as Congress may make. 

The Supreme Court is the highest judicial tribunal in the United 
States. It is composed of a chief justice and eight associate 
justices. The former presides in the court, regulates the order 
of business, controls the docket, and assigns to his associates 
the cases in which they are to prepare opinions. The chief 
and the associates hold their places for lite, or during good be- 
havior. 

The United States is divided into nine judicial circuits, in each 
of which a circuit court is held twice every year, for each state 
within the circuit, by a justice of the Supreme Court assigned to 
the circuit, and by the district judge of the state or district in 
which the court sits. 

The circuit courts have both original and appellate jurisdiction 
They have concurrent jurisdiction with the state courts, where 
the matter in dispute exceeds the sum of $500, and the United 
States are plaintiff or where an alien is a party, or where the 
controversy is between citizens of different states. They have 
exclusive jurisdiction in all crimes against the laws of the United 
States, except where the law especially confers the power upon 
other courts. The district courts have original jurisdiction in all 
admiralty cases, and in most of the cases arising in custom-houses, 
and those growing out of bankruptcies. 

The Court of Claims was established in 1856. Before this time, 
persons who had claims against the government, which the de- 
partments refused to pay, had no remedy except by petition to 
Congress. This remedy, however, was in many cases unavailing 
or altogether delusive. Since the establishment of this court, a 
citizen may enforce his claims against the government, as against 



*66 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

another citizen, by legal process. The court consists of five 
judges, who are appointed by the President, and hold their places 
during good behavior. In all matters and suits the government 
is represented by the Attorney-General, the Solicitor-General, and 
two Assistant Attorneys-General. The court has jurisdiction of 
claims founded upon a law of Congress, the regulation of an ex- 
ecutive department, or of contracts express or implied, and of 
counter claims by the government. 

In each of the States, the government, as in the case of the 
United States, is distributed among three departments, the Legis- 
lative, Executive and Judicial. Experience has demonstrated this 
separation to be vital to the existence of healthful government, 
and, consequently, especial care is taken to prevent, as far as may 
be, each from trenching upon the peculiar functions of the other. 

The legislative powers of each State, are lodged in a Legislature 
consisting of two branches ; the common title of the higher being 
"The Senate," that of the lower, "House of Representatives," 
"Assembly," or the like. 

The principal differences existing between these branches, are 
to be found in the number of members — that of the higher branch 
being much less than that of the lower ; in the age of their mem- 
bers — a more advanced period being requisite in the former case ; 
in the extent of their constituency — a greater number of inhabi- 
tants uniting to elect to the upper ; in the tenure of their office — 
a longer term being generally assigned to the Senate ; and in the 
requirement, in vogue in some States, that the terms of but a por- 
tion of the Senators shall expire at any one time, the object being 
to secure greater stability and certainty in legislation. 

In most of the States, comparatively slight, if any, requirements 
as to property qualifications exist, either in the case of members 
or those who elect them. 

In the earlier history of the country the sessions of the various 
Legislatures were held annually ; of late years, however, especially 
in the States more recently admitted into the Confederacy, the 
practice has obtained of having biennial sessions. The compen- 
sation of members of the Legislature differs greatly, both in 
amount and in the principles upon which it is based ; some being 
paid a per diem allowance and mileage, irrespective of the length 
of the session ; others having a per diem only for a specific number 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 1 69 

of days ; while yet others are paid an aggregate sum instead of 
daily compensation. 

The approval of the chief executive officer of the State is requisite 
to ensure validity to the acts of the Legislature, saving in those cases 
wherein, by constitutional provisions, acts may be repassed by the 
necessary majorities over the vote of the Executive. In some of 
the States, the Legislatures are prevented, by constitutional inter- 
dicts, from imposing taxes beyond a specific amount, or creating 
a larger amount of debt than is thereby allowed ; while in others, 
both of these important subjects are left wholly within the control 
of the law-making body. 

The chief magistrate of each State is styled "Governor," and is 
vested with powers more or less extensive, as the particular Con- 
stitution prescribes. In some of the States he has authority, with 
the approval of the Senate, or Executive Council, to appoint 
Judges and various minor judicial officers, to grant pardons, 
reprieves, etc. He is commander-in-chief of the militia of the 
various States, and even in those where the large majority of civil 
officers are elective, is the only authority to commission all such 
officers. The length of the gubernatorial term varies much in 
the different States, a few still clinging to the old system of an 
annual election, while the larger number have lengthened it to 
two or three years. 

Governors are elected by the people of the several States, except- 
ing in South Carolina, where the Legislature elects ; and, in most 
of the States there are slight, if any, property qualifications 
requisite. 

Subordinate officers, generally elected by the people, whose 
duties are both advisory and executory as to the details of the 
administration of the government, are to be found in every State, 
corresponding in some degree to Heads of Departments under the 
United States government. 

Formerly, all judges were appointed by the Executive, with the 
consent of the advising Board. As a general rule, they are now 
elective, mostly by the people, though in some States by the Leg- 
islature. Their tenure of office, too, is now, as a general thing, 
for a specific term of years, instead of for life, as formerly. 

Each State has established a Court for the interpretation of 
Constitutional Law and the adjudication of weightier matters of 



170 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

dispute between its inhabitants, called a Supreme Court, Superior 
Court, Court of Errors, Court of Appeals, or the like. A few of 
the States have separate tribunals for disposal of cases in equity. 

Next below the highest court are courts adapted to the partic- 
ular wants of ordinary litigants in the various counties or other 
subdivisions. These are called Courts of Common Pleas, Circuit 
Courts, District Courts, Police Courts, Recorder's Courts, etc. The 
lowest class of judicial officers is styled Justices of the Peace, or 
Aldermen, having jurisdiction in trivial suits and over petty 
offenses. Besides these Courts there are, in some States, specific 
tribunals for the trial of criminal cases, as Courts of Quarter Ses- 
sions of the Peace, Oyer and Terminer, etc. ; and for settlement 
of estates of deceased persons, as Register's Courts, Probate 
Courts, Orphans' Courts, etc. Indeed, in no State can the citizens 
complain of a lack of opportunity afforded them for gratifying 
whatever litigious propensities they may possess. 

From this brief glance at the structure of our governments, both 
National and State, it will readily be seen with what scrupulous 
care and jealous anxiety the illustrious men who have gone before 
us laid the foundation of our Union in that noble Constitution 
which has served as the model by which the individual States, as 
a whole, have elaborated their own governments. With the minute 
details of that Constitution, it is the first duty of every American 
citizen to familiarize himself. If the intentions of its framers are 
truly and faithfully carried out ; if the National Government is 
cautious to avoid all infringements upon the reserved rights of 
the individual States ; if tfee several States are reciprocally deter- 
mined to fulfill every obligation imposed upon them by the 
common compact ; in short, if a spirit of concession, forbearance, 
and love for the whole country pervades the bosom of every citi- 
zen of every State, then, indeed, we may feel proudly confident 
that the fond hopes of the most sanguine of the early friends of 
the Federal Union shall be more than realized — then shall each 
day's rising sun, while time endures, smile upon a free, enlightened, 
independent, and united people, and our glory as a nation reach 
its culmination in the wise exercise of a power which none may 
safely resist, in the cultivation of a genuine rational liberty, which, 
recognizing the dignity of the individual man, shall afford ample 
room and scope for its development. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 171 

THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 

was created by a law passed in July, 1789, and is presided over 
by the Secretary of State, who is, next to the President, the high- 
est executive officer of the government. This department cor- 
responds to the foreign office in European states, and the office of 
Secretary of State, to that of their ministers for foreign affairs. 
The duties of the Secretary are the following : He holds inter- 
course with the ambassadors and ministers of foreign governments 
accredited to ours, and conducts correspondence with them ; he 
prepares and issues instructions to our ministers and consuls 
abroad, and prescribes regulations for keeping their books and 
records, and receives their reports. He also collects and com- 
municates to Congress all commercial information obtained 
through our ministers and consuls abroad, or from other sources. 
He receives the enrolled acts passed by Congress, that have be- 
come laws, and promulgates them. He causes the seal of the 
United States to be affixed to all civil commissions after they have 
oeen signed by the President. He has two Assistant Secretaries 
who perform such duties as may be prescribed by him or provided 
for by law. The other officers of the department are the Disbursing 
Agent, who has charge of its funds and accounts ; the Translator, 
who furnishes translations of documents as required by the de- 
partment ; the Clerk of Appointments and Commissions, who 
makes out and records commissions, nominations to the Senate, ex- 
equaturs, etc., and has charge of the department library ; the Clerk 
of Rolls and Archives, who has charge of the enrolled acts of 
Congress as they are received from the President, prepares copies 
thereof, superintends their publication and that of treaties, and 
lias charge of all Indian treaties ; and the Clerk of Authentica- 
tions, who has charge of the seals of the United States and 
of the department, certifies to and authenticates documents, re- 
ceives and accounts for fees, and records all letters other than 
diplomatic and consular. 

The diplomatic agents representing our government abroad re- 
ceive their instruction from and report to the Secretary of State. 
The highest in rank are the Envoys Extraordinary and Ministers 
Plenipotentiary to England, Germany, France, Russia, Spain, 
Austria, Italy, China, Mexico, Brazil, Chili, and Peru. Ministers 
Resident represent the United States in Denmark, Sweden and 
Norway, Netherland, Belgium, Portugal, Switzerland, Hawaiian 
Islands, Hayti, Turkey, Greece, Japan, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, 
Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, New Granada, Venezuela, Ec- 
uador, the Argentine Republic, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and 
Liberia. Secretaries of Legation are authorized in each country 
where there is a Minister Plenipotentiary or a Minister Resident. 
Assistant secretaries are authorized for London and Paris. 



172 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Consuls are public agents, residing in foreign countries, usually 
at important commercial cities and seaports, to watch over the 
commercial interests of our citizens. The United States main- 
tains about 75 consuls in the various parts of the world. 

THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT 

is presided over by the Secretary, who is charged with supervi- 
sion of the fiscal transactions and finances of the government, and 
execution of laws concerning commerce and navigation, the sur- 
vey of the coast, the light-house establishment, the marine hospi- 
tals of the United States, and the construction of public buildings 
for custom-houses and other purposes. The business of the de- 
partment is distributed among several bureaus, each of which has 
its specific duties and is under the direction of a responsible 
chief. 

The First Controller prescribes the mode of keeping and ren- 
dering accounts for the civil and diplomatic service, and the pub- 
lic lands. 

The Second Controller keeps and renders accounts for the army 
and navy departments and the Indian bureau. 

There are six auditors in the department, who examine and 
adjust the accounts of the United States with individuals. 

The First Aiiditor adjusts the accounts of the customs, the 
revenue, and the appropriations and expenditures of the civil list, 
and reports the balances to the First Controller and the Commis- 
sioner of Customs. 

The Second Auditor adjusts all accounts relating to pay, cloth- 
ing, and recruiting of the army, and those relating to the Indian 
Department, and reports the balances to the Second Controller. 

The Third Auditor adjusts all accounts for subsistance of the 
army, for fortifications, the military academy, military roads, the 
quarter-master's department, pensions, claims arising from military 
services prior to 1861, for horses and other property lost in the 
military service, and reports the balances to the Second Con- 
troller 

The Fourth Auditor adjusts all accounts for the service of the 
Navy Department, and reports the balances to the Second Con- 
troller. 

The Fifth Auditor adjusts all accounts for the diplomatic and. 
consular services under the direction of the State Department,, 
and reports the balances to the First Controller. 

The Sixth Auditor adjusts all accounts arising from the service 
of the Post-office Department. His decisions are final, unless an 
appeal is taken within 12 months to the First Controller. He also 
directs writs and legal proceedings to enforce the prompt pay- 
ment of moneys due to the department. He has charge of all 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 173 

lands and property assigned to the United States in payment of 
debts to the Post-office Department. 

The Commissioner of Customs prescribes the mode of keeping 
and rendering the accounts of customs, revenue, and disburse- 
ment, and for the building and repairing of custom-houses. 

The Treasurer receives and keeps the moneys of the United 
States in his office, and disburses the same upon warrants drawn 
by the Secretary of the Treasury, countersigned by the First 
Controller, and upon warrants drawn by the Postmaster-General, 
countersigned by the Sixth Auditor. 

The Register keeps the accounts of public receipts and expen- 
ditures ; receives the returns of commerce and navigation ; and 
receives from the First Controller and Commissioner of Customs 
all accounts and vouchers adjusted by them. 

The Solicitor superintends all cival writs commenced by the 
United States (except those arising in the Post Office Depart- 
ment). He receives returns from each term of the United States 
courts, showing the progress of such suits, has charge of all land 
and property assigned in the United States in payment of debts 
(except those assigned for debts due the Post-office Department), 
and has power to sell and dispose of the same for the benefit of 
the United States. 

The Commissioner of Internal Revenue has charge of all matters 
connected with the tax laws and the collection of the direct taxes. 
The number of officers of the Treasury Department employed in 
Washington exceeds three thousand. 

The LighUHouse Board is under the direction of the Secretary 
of the Treasury, who is ex-officio president thereof. The Board 
directs the building and repairing of light-houses, light-vessels, 
buoys, and beacons. The coast is divided into thirteen light- 
house districts. 

The United States Coast Survey is under the administration of 
the Treasury Department. It was established in 1832, for the 
purpose of surveying the coasts and harbors, and preparing accu- 
rate maps and charts thereof. The scientific work and operations 
are carried on by a superintendent and a corps of assistants, con- 
sisting of civilians and officers of the army and navy. 

Collectors. — The seaboard frontiers of the* United States are 
divided into 62 collection districts, for each of which there is a 
collector of customs appointed by the President, with the consent 
of the Senate. The collectors issue clearances, or permits to leave, 
to all vessels sailing from the United States ; certify to the cor- 
rectness of manifests or bills of lading; keep account of vessels 
built within their districts, and make returns to the Register of 
the Treasury of imports and exports. Vessels arriving from 
foreign ports hand to the collector manifests of their cargoes, on 
which the duties are computed, and before the goods can be 



174 ' FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

landed these duties must be paid. The collectors are aided in 
the performance of their various duties by a number of clerks, 
appraisers, weighers, gaugers, and inspectors. The importance of 
these officers will be understood when it is known that during the 
fiscal year ending June 30, 1872, there were collected $216,370,- 
286 in import duties, which passed through the hands of the collec- 
tors. 

For the larger ports, so-called naval officers are appointed who 
countersign all permits, clearances, certificates, and other docu- 
ments to be granted by the collectors; they also examine the 
collectors accounts of receipts and expenditures, and certify to 
them. The surveyors are stationed at the larger ports only, and 
superintend the inspectors, weighers, and gaugers, and report to 
the collectors those who fail in the performance of their duties. 

The United States is divided into a large number of internal 
revenue districts, in each of which there is a collector, making 
assessments and collecting the direct taxes. 

THE MINT AND COINAGE. 

The principal mint is at Philadelphia, and branches are at San 
Francisco and Denver City. In the city of New York there is an 
assay-office, where gold and silver bullion, gold dust, and foreign 
coins are refined and assayed. The coining of all moneys is per- 
formed under regulations prepared by the Secretary of the 
Treasury. Fifteen pounds of silver are declared to be equal to 
one pound of gold. In coining, one-tenth of alloy is added to the 
gold and silver bullion (silver and copper in equal proportions to 
the former, copper alone to the latter). 

The Superintendent of the Coast Survey is ex-officio Superin- 
tendent of Weights and Measures. Avoirdupois weight is used 
in weighing all articles except gold, silver, and precious stones.. 
The pound of this weight is divided into 16 ounces, and one 
ounce into 16 drachms. One hundred pounds constitute a hun- 
dred weight, and 20 hundred-weight, or 2,000 pounds, a ton. Troy 
weight is used in weighing gold, silver, and precious stones. One 
pound troy weight is divided into 12 ounces; one ounce into 20 
pennyweights, and one pennyweight into 24 grains. 

The unit of liquid measure is the gallon. One gallon consists 
of four quarts ; one quart of 2 pints ; and one pint .of 4 gills. 
The unit of dry measure is the bushel, which is 18 ^ inches in 
diameter by 8 inches deep, and contains 2,150 2-5 cubic inches. 
One bushel dry measure contains 4 pecks ; one peck, 8 quarts ; 
one quart, 2 pints. 

A brass scale of 82 inches length, made by Troughton, of Lon- 
don, and sent to the Coast Survey office in Washington, where it 
is still preserved, was made the United States standard for long 
measure. This scale, though intended to be identical with the 
English Imperial standard, was found, upon careful comparison 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 175 

with eleven carefully made meter-etalons, to differ slightly from 
the English scale. One meter was found to be equal to 39.- 
36850535 United States inches, or 3.28070878 American feet; 
while it is, according to comparisons made in England} equal to 
3.2808992 English Imperial feei. 

This difference is so slight that it becomes perceptible only in 
measurements of considerable length ; yet it is large enough to 
justify the use of the term American measure, as distinct from 
English measure. 

The following tables gives the values adopted in the United 
States Coast Survey. 

American Measure. English Measure. 

1 Foot=o.3048i2i8 meters. 0.304794494 meters. 

I Yard=3 feet=o.9i443654 meters. 0.91438348 " 

1 Fathom=6 feet=i. 82887308 meters. 1.82876696 
1 Pole, Perch, or Rod=6)^ yards=5.02g4055 meters. 5.029109 " 

I Furlong=220 yards=20i. 1760388 meters. 201.164366 " 
I Statute mile=8 furlongs==i. 760 yards=i6o94o83 met. 1609.3 149 " 

One square mile contains 640 acres, one section of land ; and 
26 sections make one township. 

Since 1865 Congress has authorized the use of the French 
metric system. 

THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

was established in 1849. To the secretary of this department is 
assigned the general supervision and management of the follow- 
ing bureaus, or branches of the public service : the General Land 
Office ; the Pension Bureau ; the Indian Office ; the Bureau of 
Education ; the Patent Office ; and the Department of Agricul- 
ture. The secretary has besides the supervision of the United 
States marshals and attorneys, and the clerks of the United States 
courts. He has also the duty of taking and returning the census 
of the United States. 

The General Land Office is under the management of a Com- 
missioner, who is charged with the surveys and sale of the public 
domain. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1872, public 
lands were disposed of as follows: 

Cash sales 1,370,320 acres. Grants to railroads 3,554,887 acres. 

Located with military land ' Grants to wagon roads 465,347 ' 

warrants 389,406 " Approved to the states as 

Taken for homesteads 4, 6 7 I -33 2 " swamps 7 I 4, 2I 5 " 

Located with college scrip, 693,613 " Indian scrip locations 5,760 

Total 11,864,934 

This amount is greater by 1,099,270 acres than was disposed of 
during the preceding year. The cash receipts under the various 
heads amounted to $3,218,100. There were surveyed during the 
same period 22,016,608 acres, which, added to the quantity sur- 



176 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

veyed before this year, amounted to 583,664,780 acres ; leaving 
unsurveyed an area of 1,251,633,620 acres. 

There are eighty-two land districts in the states and territories, 
in which there are still public lands for sale. viz. ; In Ohio, Indi- 
ana, and Illinois, one in each ; in Missouri, three ; in Alabama, 
three; in Mississippi, one; in Louisiana, two; in Michigan, five; 
in Arkansas, four; in Florida, one ; in Iowa, four ; in Montana, 
Arizona, and Utah, one in each ; in Wisconsin six ; in California, 
nine; in Nevada, four; in Minnesota, seven; in Oregon, three ; in 
Kansas, five ; in New Mexico, one ; in Dakota, three ; in Col- 
arado, four ; in Idaho, two ; and in Wyoming, one. 

The Commissioner of Pensions is charged with examination 
and adjudication of all claims arising under the various laws of 
Congress, granting bounty land or pensions for military or naval 
services in the revolutionary and subsequent wars. There were 
on the rolls (on June 30, 1872), the names of 95,405 military in- 
valid pensioners, and of 113,518 widows, orphans, and dependent 
relatives of soldiers, who receive a total of annual pensions of 
$23,142,633. On the same day there were on the rolls the names 
of 3,179 naval pensioners, and widows, orphans, and relatives, who 
receive annually $405,537. 

The Commisioner of the Indian Office superintends and directs 
all the public business relating to the Indians. He represents 
the government in the treaties made with them, causes to be dis- 
tributed the annuities and presents, and carries out the policy 
adopted towards them by the government. He is aided by four- 
teen superintendents stationed in different places in the West. A 
number of agents are appointed by the President, who reside 
among the Indians and look after their interests and rights. 

The Patent Office is under the direction of a commissioner, who 
is charged with the performance of " all acts touching the grant- 
ing and issuing of letters patent for new inventions, discoveries, 
and improvements." He is assisted by a corps of examiners and 
assistant examiners, who ascertain whether an invention for which 
a patent is applied for, is new and useful or not and report to 
him their opinion in writing. The Commissioner issues the Pat- 
ent Office Official Gazette, a monthly publication, which contains 
his decisions, the decisions of the Supreme Court, and the Cir- 
cuit Courts, in patent cases, all changes in the rules of practice 
in the Office, notices of all applications for extension of patents, 
a brief of the specifications, and a full claim of all patents issued, 
together with illustrations. The number of applications for pat- 
ents, re-issues and designs for the year ending June 30, 1872, was 
T 9>587; the number of applications for extension of patents was 
284; the number of applications for the registering of trade-marks 
was 589. During the same year there were granted 13,626 pat- 
ents ; 233 extensions; 556, certificates of registry for trade-marks ; 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 1 79 

and there were filed 3,100 caveats. The fees were $700,954.86, 
and the expenditures $323,556.90. 

The Department of Agriculture is under the direction of a com- 
missioner, whose general duties are to obtain and diffuse among 
the people of the United States useful information on subjects 
connected with agriculture, and to procure, propagate, and dis- 
tribute new and valuable seeds and plants. He employs bota- 
nists, entomologists, and other persons to assist him in the perform- 
ance of his various duties. 

The Bureau of Education consists of a commissioner and three 
clerks. His duties are to collect such statistics and facts as shall 
show the condition and progress of education in the states and* 
territories, and to diffuse such information respecting the organi- 
zation and management of schools and respecting school systems 
and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United 
States in the establishment and maintenance of efficient school 
systems, and otherwise to promote the cause of education through- 
out the country. 

THE DEPARTMENT OF WAR 

was created in 1789, Aug. 7, in order to enable the President to 
carry out the provision of the Constitution relating to military 
affairs, and is in charge of the Secretary of War, who issues com- 
missions, directs the movement of troops, superintends their pay- 
ment, stores, clothing, arms, equipments, and ordnance, and con- 
ducts the works of military engineering. The bureaus among, 
which these multifarious duties are distributed are under the di- 
rection of army officers. 

The office of the Commanding General is ordinarily called the 
Headquarters of the Army, and is situated in Washington. The 
General has charge of the discipline ol the army, the distribution 
of troops, and the superintendence of recruiting. 

In the Office of the Adjutant-General are kept all the 'records 
relating to the personnel of the army, the muster rolls of the 
troops, and the correspondence with the administrative depart- 
ments. All orders emanating from either the Secretary of War or 
the Commanding General are transmitted and published through 
this office, and the annual returns of the army are received 
by it. 

The Quartermaster-Genera? s Office provides quarters and trans- 
portation for the troops, storage and transportation for all army 
supplies, army clothing, cavalry and artillery horses, forage, etc. 
It has charge of the barracks and the national cemeteries. 

The Commissary-General 's Office provides subsistance, stores- 
constituting the rations for the troops and garrison. 



l8o FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

The Payinaster-GeneraV s Office has charge of the disbursement 
of the pay to officers, men, and employees in the army. It re- 
ceives and examines the accounts of the paymasters connected 
with the various commands. 

The Ordnance Bureau has charge of the ordnance stores and 
the numerous armories and arsenals situated in different parts of 
the country. 

The Engineer s Office has charge of the military defences of the 
country, the forts along the seaboard, the improvements of rivers 
and harbors, and the care of the Military Academy at West Point. 
This office is under the direction of the Chief of Engineers, who 
commands the engineer corps of the army. 

The Surg eon- Gener aV s Office has control of all the sanitary 
affairs of the army, the management of the sick and wounded, 
and the military hospitals. The surgeons of the army receive 
their orders and assignments from, and report to, the Surgeon- 
General. 

The Bureau of Military Justice was established in 1864, and 
consists of one judge advocate-general, holding the rank and pay 
of a brigadier-general, and an assistant judge advocate, with the 
rank and pay of a colonel of cavalry. The bureau receives, re- 
vises, and records the proceedings of court-marshals and courts 
of inquiry. 

The Signal Office, under the direction of the commander of the 
signal corps, receives from the numerous signal stations estab- 
lished in various localities, reports on the meteoric state of the at- 
mosphere, as temperature, winds, moisture, and pressure of the 
atmosphere. From these reports, tri-daily forecasts, or " proabil- 
ities," are deduced and telegraphed throughout the country. Over 
seventy-eight per cent, of the probabilities issued during the last 
year have been verified, and no great storm has occurred within 
the United States, or along the seaboard, without due premoni- 
tion being given to the points thereby threatened. The labors ot 
this office have been highly successful, and very frequently have 
been instrumental in the preservation of life and property. 

Army. — By act of Congress the army of the United States is 
30,000 enlisted men. The term of service is three years. The 
army, as now organized, is composed of 16 regiments of cavalry, 
each of 12 companies ; 25 regiments of infantry, each of 10 com- 
panies ; 5 regiments of artillery, and one engineer battalion, be- 
sides the cadets of the Military Academy at West Point. In 
June, 1871, the army was commanded by 1 general, 1 lieutenant- 
general, 4 major generals, 16 brigadier-generals, 6& colonels, 83 
lieutenant-colonels, 273 majors, 533 captains, and 1,136 first and 
second-lieutenants. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. l8l 

THE NAVY DEPARTMENT 

is in charge of the secretary, whose duties are : to procure naval 
stores and materials, to direct the construction, arrangement, and 
equipment of vessels of war, and to execute all orders of the 
President relating to the naval establishment. The Secretary 
issues the orders to commanders of squadrons or vessels, and to 
the officers of the navy and marine corps. Under his authority 
are performed the duties of the different bureaus of the department 
and their orders are considered as emanating from him. He is 
aided by an Assistant Secretary whose duties are not specified by 
statute, but are assigned by the Secretary. 

The Bureau of Navy Yards and Docks has charge of every- 
thing connected with the various navy yards, docks, wharves, and 
naval buildings, and also of the Naval Asylum 

The Bureau of Navigation has charge of the Astronomical Ob- 
servatory, situated near Washington, and also of the Hydrographic 
Office. It furnishes vessels of war with charts, maps, books, and 
chronometers, and has the general superintendence of the Naval 
Academy and the publication of the Nautical Almanac. 

The Bureau of Ordnance has the charge of all ordnance and 
ordnance stores, the manufacture or purchase of cannon, guns, 
powder and shot, and everything connected with the armament 
of ships. 

The Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting is charged with pro- 
viding vessels of war with sails, anchors, and other articles of 
equipment, and also with the enlistment of sailors and the recruit- 
ing service. 

The Bureau of Construction and Repair has charge of the build- 
ing and repairs of all vessels of war and the purchase of the 
necessary materials. 

The Bureau of Steam Engineering is under the direction of the 
chief engineer, who superintends the construction of the marine 
steam-engines and decides upon plans of construction. 

The Bureau of Provisions and Clothing contracts for and pur- 
Chases all provisions and clothing used in the naval service. 

The Bureau of Medicine and Surgery directs the purchase and 
distribution of medical stores, and has charge of the treatment of 
the sick and wounded and the marine hospitals. 

In November, 1872, the navy numbered 178 vessels carrying 
1,378 guns; which included 68 steamers, with 929 guns; 31 sail- 
ing vessels, with 322 guns; 51 iron-clads, with 127 guns; and 28 
tugs. There were forty-five vesels in commission for sea service, 
carrying 462 guns, which were distributed at different cruising 
stations, as follows : 



l82 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

North Atlantic Station. — Eleven vessels, 77 guns. 

South Atlantic Station. — Three vessels, $$ guns. 

European Station. — Six vessels, no guns. 

Asiatic Station. — Eleven vessels, 116 guns. 

North Pacific Station. — Five vessels, 65 guns. 

South Pacific Station. — Five vessels, 5 1 guns. 

Special Service. — One vessel, with 10 guns, and two store ships, 

THE POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT 

is under the direction of the Postmaster-General, who is aided 
toy three assistant postmasters. 

The First Assistant Postmaster -General is at the head of the 
Appointment Office. He attends to the establishment or discontin- 
uance of post-offices, the changes of sites and names of such offi- 
ces, the appointment and removal of postmasters and local agents 
and to the instructions given to postmasters. This office further 
provides for the marking and rating stamps and letter balance for 
postmasters, and blanks and stationery for the use of the depart- 
ment, and has the supervision of the ocean mail-steamship lines, 
and the international postal arrangements with foreign govern- 
ments. 

There were, in 1872, 31,863 post-offices in the country, 2,452 of 
which were money-order post-offices, or 1,818 more offices than 
in the preceding year; and there were issued 655,380,820 letter 
and newspaper postage stamps, which number may be assumed to 
be nearly identical with the number of letters and parcels sent 
through the mails. The handling of this immense amount of mail 
matter required, besides the 31,863 postmasters, 5,544 contractors, 
3,754 clerks, 1,442 carriers, 764 route agents, 642 railway postal 
clerks, 146 mail route messengers, 95 local agents, and 59 special 
agents. There were thus in the employ of the Post-office Depart- 
ment, 44,655 Officials, including the Post-master General and his 
345 assistants a-nd clerks, in the General Post-Office in Washing- 
ton. During the same year 12,774,064 letters were sent to for- 
eign countries, and 11.588,436 letters were received from foreign 
countries. 

The Second Assistant Postmaster-General is at the head of the 
Contract Office. It is his duty to arrange the mail service, to en- 
ter into contracts for carrying the mails, to fix the departures and 
arrivals on all the routes, the points of distribution, and to make 
regulations for the government of the domestic mail service. 
This office reports weekly to the Auditor all contracts executed, 
and all orders affecting accounts for mail transportation. To the 
Inspection Division of the Contract Office is assigned the duty 
of receiving and examining the registers of the arrivals and de- 
partures of the mails, and reports of mail failures ; of noting the 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 183 

delinquencies of contractors, and reporting thereon to the Post- 
master-General; of providing mail bags, and of securing the mail 
against depredations. 

During the year 1872 the country had 7,259 mail routes repre- 
senting a total of 251,398 miles; of which 57,911 miles were by 
railroad,. 18,860 by steamboat, and 174,627 by horse power. The 
annual mail transportation passed over 664,984,322 miles, i. e. } 
a distance 4,600 times as large as the circumference of the globe. 

Ti»e Third Assistant Postmaster-General \% at the head of the 
Finance Office, and supervises the financial business of the de- 
partment not assigned by law to the Auditor, embracing accounts 
with the draft offices and other depositories of the department, 
the issuing of warrants and drafts inpayment of balances reported 
by the Auditor to be due to mail contractors and other persons. 
He has supervision of the accounts of officers under order to 
deposit their quarterly returns of postage. He has also charge 
of the dead-letter office and of the issuing ot postage stamps. 

The Postmaster-General estimates the total expenditures for the 
mail service of the year ending June 30, 1873, to be $30,853,167, 
and the revenue from the sale of postage stamps, the money order 
business, etc., to be $24,552,505, leaving a deficit to be supplied 
by congressional appropriation, of §6,310,592. 

THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S OFFICE. 

The duty of the Attorney-General is to prosecute and conduct 
all suits in the Supreme Court, in which the United States is a 
party, and to give his advice and opinion upon questions of law, 
when required by the President, or when requested by the head 
of any department. He is also charged with the general superin- 
tendence and direction of all United States attorneys and mar- 
shals, as to the manner of discharging their respective duties. 
He is aided in the performance of his duties by a solicitor-general 
and two assistant attorneys-general. He further examines the 
titles of all land to be purchased by the United States as the sites 
of arsenals, light-houses, custom-houses, and other public works ; 
receives all applications for the appointment of judges, district 
attorneys, and marshals, and prepares statements to the President 
on applications for pardons, and the remission of imprisonment 
of public debtors. 

REPRESENTATIVES IN FOREIGN LANDS. 

These are Embassadors, Envoys Extraordinary and Ministers 
Plenipotentiary, Resident Ministers, Charge dAffaires and 
Consuls. Some of them are officials sent on special occasions 
and for special and exceptional services. The three first named 



184 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

are of the highest rank and are sent to the Great Powers. Resi- 
dent Ministers are sent to less important nations, but 
like those of higher rank are clothed with large powers to 
represent our interests. Commissioners, Charge d 'Affaires, 
Secretaries of Legation and Consuls are of still lower rank. 
All these officers are appointed by the President, by and with the 
advice and consent of the Senate. The powers and duties of 
these officers are very different in different cases, and can hardly 
be stated in general terms. They represent the general interests 
of our government abroad. Consuls, however, have well defined 
duties, which are as follows : 

i. Whenever a vessel belonging to a citizen of the United 
States arrives at the port where he is stationed, it is his duty to 
receive the ship's papers, and to see if they are all correct. 

2. It is his duty to provide for sick, disabled, and destitute 
American seamen, and to send them home by some vessel going 
to the United States. 

3. He must hear the complaints of seamen, and settle disputes 
between the captain and men ; and for good cause he may dis- 
charge the whole ship's crew. 

4. It is made his duty to receive and take charge of the per- 
sonal property of any citizen of the United States who has died 
within his Consulate, and to send any balance which may be left 
after paying his debts and necessary expenses, to the treasury of 
the United States, to be held in trust for the legal claimants. 
He must also give notice to the Secretary of State of the death 
of such person. 

5. For the purpose of carrying out and executing certain 
treaties made between the United States and China, Japan, Siam, 
and Turkey, Consuls to those countries have been empowered 
with judicial functions. They were allowed to act as judges, and 
to try and punish citizens of the United States who had committed 
crimes there. These, however, were extraordinary powers in 
special cases, and by no means common to the consular office. 

6. In the absence of a minister or diplomatic agent of the 
United States, the President may authorize a Consul to perform 
the duties of such foreign minister; but these powers are rarely 
conferred on them. Their ordinary duties relate to commercial 
affairs, and to such as are before stated. 

7. A Vice-Consul, or deputy Consul, is one appointed to act 
temporarily in case of sickness or absence of the Consul. His 
powers, while acting, are the same as those of the Consul, in whose 
place he acts. Every Consul is required to give bonds for the 
faithful performance of his duties. 

8. Our commerce has been extended to almost every part of 
the globe, and for this reason we need a great number of these 
officials. Their services are required at all great seaports, and at 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 1 85 

many smaller ones. The compensation varies according to the 
amount of business to be transacted by them, from $7,500 down 
to $500. Some do not receive any salary, but are allowed the 
fees they are authorized to charge for their services. 

9. It is his duty to give his government and countrymen all 
such information as he possesses in relation to the laws and prac- 
tices of the country to which he is sent, which it would be impor- 
tant for them to know ; and especially is it his duty to look after 
the interests and welfare of his countrymen when they are within 
his Consulate and to see that no wrong or injustice is done to 
them by the people or government where he resides. 

THE MILITARY ACADEMY. 

This institution was established by act of Congress, in 1802, 
and is located at West Point, on the Hudson river. 

It was established and has been continued at a great expense, 
for the purpose of teaching and training up young men in the 
science and art of war, that, in any emergency the country might 
have a sufficient number of men, educated and skilled in all such 
arts and sciences as appertain to war. Hence, mathematics, 
engineering, gunnery, drawing, natural and experimental philoso- 
phy and military tactics, are among the principal branches taught. 

Every State and Territory is entitled to send as many cadets 
as it has Senators and Representatives in Congress. The District 
of Columbia is^allowed one. To give every part of the country 
an equal chance, it was enacted that each Congressional district 
in each State and Territory should be allowed to send one cadet, 
to be educated at West Point. These are generally nominated for 
appointment by the Congressmen from their respective districts, 
and the President appoints. The cadet must be an actual resident 
of the district for which he is appointed. 

In addition to these, it is provided by the same act, that ten 
more cadets may be appointed at large : /. <?., without regard to 
Congressional districts. In order to be admitted as a cadet, the 
candidate must be well versed in reading, writing, and arithmetic ;, 
must not be under t 4 nor over 21 years of age; and must sign 
articles, agreeing to serve the United States eight years. After he 
has finished his studies and has graduated, he is considered as a 
candidate for a commission in the army, according to the duties 
he may be competent to perform. 

DEPOTS OF WAR MATERIAL. 

As early as 1794, Congress enacted that three or four arsenals 
and magazines, with an armory attached to each, should be es- 
tablished for the safe keeping of military stores. An arsenal is a 



1 86 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGE5. 

place where arms and military stores are kept. An armory is a 
place where arms are made or repaired. The armories where 
arms are manufactured are at Springfield, in Massachusetts, and 
at Harpers' Ferry, in Virginia. But there are many others where 
they are repaired. 

In 1808, the President was authorized to purchase sites and to 
erect as manv more arsenals and manufactories of arms as he 
might deem expedient. Each of these establishments is placed 
under the direction of the Ordnance Department. In each 
armory there is employed a master armorer, who superintends the 
workmen. In addition to those already named there are arsenals 
and armories at Pittsburgh and Bridesburgh, in Pennsylvania; at 
Washington City; at Watervliet, in New York; Watertown, Mass.; 
Columbus, Ohio ; at Indianapolis, Ind., and at Rock Island, 111. 

MILITARY HOSPITALS AND ASYLUMS. 

In 1851, Congress passed an act for the establishment of military 
asylums, for the purpose of making the same provision for wounded 
and disabled soldiers as had already been made for that class of 
seamen. These institutions are located in different sections of 
the country where deemed most eligible and convenient for those 
who need such a place of refuge. They are placed under the 
government of a board of commissioners, consisting of the general 
in chief, and eight other military officers of high rank, who submit 
their acts to the Secretary of War for his approval.. 

The officers of these asylums must be taken from the army, and 
consist of a governor, a deputy governor, and secretary, who is 
.also treasurer. The funds for their support are raised by a tax of 
twenty-five cents per month on the soldiers, to which are added 
the fines and penalties adjudged against soldiers by courts martial, 
with forfeitures for desertion, &c. 

Persons receiving pensions from the government may be ad- 
mitted into these asylums upon condition that they surrender 
their pensions to the use of the institution while they remain in it. 

The commissioners are authorized to buy sites and buildings 
for these institutions, and to receive donations of them. They also 
furnish them with whatever is necessary for the comfort of the in- 
mates, and make such laws and regulations for their government 
as they deem proper. 

Deserters, mutineers, and habitual drunkards, are excluded from 
the benefits of these asylums. 

INSANE ASYLUM. 

Among these benevolent institutions provided by a generous 
government for the support of those who have faithfully served 
their country, the insane asylum ought to be noticed. The title 



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OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 1 89 

of this establishment is "the government hospital for the insane." 
Its objects are the cure and kind treatment of the insane of the 
army and navy, and of the District of Columbia. It is under the 
control of a board of nine visitors, all of whom must be citizens of 
the said District. They are appointed by the President, and 
annually report to the Secretary of the Interior the condition of 
the asylum and its inmates. They serve without compensation. 

The superintendent must be a physician. There is a farm 
attached to the asylum, which is under the direction of the super- 
intendent, who receives patients upon the order of the Secretary 
the War or the Navy, and upon the order of the Secretary of 
the Interior. He may receive indigent insane persons residing in 
the District of Columbia. If other than indigent persons are ad- 
mitted, they must pay for the privilege a sum not less than the 
cost of their support. 

The military hospitals in time of war are for temporary purposes, 
and are established wherever the army happens to be, and especi- 
ally near where the great battles have been fought, that immediate 
relief may be given to the sick and wounded. These are estab- 
lished by the commanders of the army, and are under their con- 
trol. 

NAVY AND MARINE HOSPITALS. 

In t8ii an act was passed to establish navy hospitals, for the 
exclusive use of such seamen as belonged to the navy. This new 
institution was at first placed under the management of a board of 
commissioners known as the commissioners of navy hospitals. 
This commission consisted of the Secretaries of the Navy, Treasury, 
and War. But in 1832 this was changed, and the Secretary of the 
Navy was made sole trustee of the navy hospital fund, which was 
made up of $50,000 appropriated by Congress for that purpose, to- 
gether with twenty cents per month collected from seamen 
belonging to the navy, and the fines imposed on navy officers, sea- 
men, and marines. 

The commissioners were authorized to purchase or erect suitable 
buildings for navy hospitals. 

THE MARINE HOSPITALS 

are located near important seaports. At these places seamen 
depart for, and arrive from their voyages, and are found in the 
greatest numbers ; and here the funds for the support of the marine 
hospitals are collected, as is the tonnage on ships, viz.: by the col- 
lectors of the ports. For this purpose the law authorizes the col- 
lectors of customs to demand and receive the sum of twenty cents 
per month from the wages of every sailor ; and every master of a 
vessel is obliged to render to the collector an accurate account 



190 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

of the number of seamen on board his vessel, and of the time tney 
have been employed by him, since his last entry into any port of the 
United States. These twenty cents the captain must pay the col- 
lector, but he is allowed to deduct it from each seaman's wages. 
In this manner the funds for the building, furnishing, and support 
of the marine hospitals are raised. The collectors of the 
ports pay them into the UnitedStates Treasury, and the Treasurer 
disburses them to the directors of the hospitals as they are needed. 
The directors are appointed by the President. They appropriate 
the funds, and have the general direction and management of the 
institutions. 

The money thus collected from seamen is called " hospital 
money," and the fund is denominated " the marine hospital fund." 
In 1864 there were 24 marine hospitals in the United States. 

NAVY YARDS. 

Here are gathered such stores and materials as are required for 
the construction or repairs of vessels, and hundreds of skilled 
workmen are constantly employed in rendering the navy effective,, 
replacing vessels that have become unseaworthy, repairing dam- 
ages, or building such vessels of special construction as the vary- 
ing demands of the service may require. 

These are established at different places along the coast, most 
convenient for the purpose. There is one at Philadelphia, Pa., at 
Brooklyn, N. Y., at Portsmouth, Va., at Pensacola, Fla. Here 
vessels are laid up when not in ll commission " or active service, 
or are sent for repairs, or to obtain their stores before departing to 
their distant stations. All the officers necessary for keeping all 
these matters in order are stationed at these yards ; and the Navy 
Department, by these means, preserves the same perfect system of 
organization and efficiency as we have seen to characterize other 
branches of the executive administration. 

THE NAVAL ACADEMY. 

This school is now established at Annapolis, in the State of 
Maryland, near Washington. The pupils are called midshipmen. 
They are taught navigation and such other branches of science as 
are necessary to make them good seamen and naval officers. 
Each Congressional District in every State and Territory is en- 
titled to send two students to be educated at the Academy. The 
District of Columbia is also entitled to send two. Besides which, 
the President is allowed to appoint ten additional ones at large, 
and three more from the boys enlisted in the navy. 

After their graduating examination, if they pass, they are com- 
missioned as ensigns in the navy, and rank according to merit. 
Before admission, they are examined according to the regulations 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 191 

fna.de by the Secretary of the Navy, and must be between the ages 
of fourteen and seventeen years, sound, robust, and of good con- 
stitution. 

THE NAVAL OBSERVATORY. 

Nautical Science and Astronomy have advanced hand in hand 5 
and to perfect the former as much as possible the United States 
Government established the Naval Observatory. This institution 
is located in Washington, and was originated by act of Congress 
in 1842, and put in operation in 1844. 

The observatory was built and furnished with various astronom- 
ical and philosophical instruments, and a corps of professors 
were appointed to watch the movements of the heavenly bodies, 
and to make such observations and experiments as would enable 
them to determine many unsettled questions which relate to the 
science of navigation ; and incidentally to another great govern- 
ment work, having especial reference to the same object ; that is, 
the coast survey. 

The professors are assiduous in their labors, and publish the 
results of their observations and the facts they have determined 
These are not only of use to our own seamen, but to those of all 
nations who are doingbusiness on the great deep. Here the charts 
made by the coast survey are deposited, and from hence all our 
national vessels are furnished with them, and with all the nautical 
instruments they require. 

The charts, instruments and books relating to astronomy and 
navigation, found here, make it the headquarters and depot of 
nautical science in the United States. 

THE COAST SURVEY. 

The Coast Survey is an organization employed in a thorough 
and scientific study of the shores of our country for a sufficient 
distance out from the land to ascertain all the features concealed 
by the water that may have a bearing on the safety of our navy and 
commerce. 

This work, like that relating to light houses, is under the man- 
agement of aboard, consisting of a superintendent, two principal 
assistants, two naval officers, and four officers of the army. These 
nine constitute the board. Then there areas many officers of the 
army and navy employed in the execution of the work as are 
deemed necessary. And the public vessels, by direction of the 
President, may be used in order to facilitate the work, for much 
of it must be done at sea. The survey extends 20 leagues from the 
shore. The surveyors must make accurate charts of the whole 
coast, in which are laid down all the islands, shoals, roads or 
anchorage grounds within twenty leagues of any part of the shore 



192 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

of the United States. The courses or distances between the prin- 
cipal capes or headlands must be laid down, together with the 
soundings (depths of water) and everything else necessary to make 
a complete and accurate chart of every part of our coasts. 

An annual report of this work must be made to Congress in Decem- 
ber of each year, accompanied with charts, showing the progress of 
the work, the number of persons employed, the expenses incurred, 
the amount of work finished, and what is unfinished. These re- 
ports and charts are carefully preserved, and copies of them may 
be had at Washington for the use of our naval and merchant ships, 
to which they are of great service, as guides, whenever they are on 
or near the coast 

LIGHT HOUSES. 

These, with Buoys, and Beacons, are a necessary practical sup- 
plement to the labors of the Coast Survey. Buoys and Beacons 
indicate the shoals, or dangerous rocks and reefs beneath the sur- 
face of the water, in the daytime ; while light houses indicate the 
same, and show the mariner the bearings of the land, in the night ; 
and by studying, in connection with these, the charts of the coast 
supplied by the Coast Survey, he may make his way as securely in 
the night or day through the concealed dangers of the treacherous 
waters as a landsman along a beaten highway. 

Keepers are appointed by the government to keep them in re- 
pair, and to see that they are properly lighted every night. They 
are located at prominent points, and at dangerous places, all long 
the extensive lines of coast and shores. 

To the end that light houses should be constructed and kept in 
repair, and that competent men might have the whole matter in 
charge, a law of 1852 authorized the President to appoint two 
officers of the navy, of high rank, one officer of the corps of en- 
gineers of the army, one officer of the topographical engineers, and 
two civilians of high scientific attainments, to form a light house 
board for the United States. This board is attached to the 
Treasury Department, and the Secretary of the Treasury superin- 
tends its operations. The board has in charge the building, 
illumination, and inspection of light houses, light vessels, buoys, 
beacons, sea marks, and their appendages. 

Congress has imposed a tax, or laid a duty of 50 cents per ton 
on all foreign vessels entering any ports of the United States. This 
is called " light money. " It is collected in the same way as 
tonnage duties are, i. e., by the collector of the port where the ship 
arrives. 

LETTERS OF MARQUE AND REPRISAL. 
A letter of Marque and Reprisal is a formal commission given 
to the commander of a private armed vessel, called a privateer, 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 193 

authorizing him to capture the ships and goods of the subjects of a 
nation with which we are at war. When such letters are issued by 
the United States they are signed by the President and sealed with 
the great seal. Without such commission, thus signed and sealed, 
any capture made by the commander of a private vessel would be 
piracy. If a capture is made, it must be made according to the 
laws of war, as recognized by civilized nations, and according to 
the instructions given by the President Any conduct on the 
part of a privateer, contrary to these rules, would vitiate his pro- 
ceedings, and he would not be entitled to the property he had 
captured. 

The captured vessel is called a prize, and must be taken into 
some port of the United States, or into some port of a country in 
amity with the United States, where legal proceedings are taken 
before some court of competent jurisdiction ; and the capture and 
all the circumstances of it inquired into ; and if all is found to have 
been done according to the laws of civilized nations, the captured 
vessel and cargo is condemned as a prize. But if not condemned, 
the captors lose her. When adjudged to be a lawful prize, the 
ship and cargo are sold, and the money is divided between the 
officers and men, according to rank, and according to the laws of 
Congress on this subject. These laws give the whole to the cap- 
tors, when the ship taken is of equal or superior force to the ship 
making the capture ; but if of inferior force, then the United States 
takes one-half. 

PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORS. 



An Elector, in the sense of the Constitution, is one who has 
been appointed to choose or elect the President of the United 
States. The people, by law of Congress, assemble on the first Tues- 
day after the first Monday in November preceding the close of a 
presidential term, and vote for the electors. The electors in each 
State are called its Electoral College. They meet on the first 
Wednesday in December following their election, in their respec- 
tive States, and vote by ballot for a President and Vice-President. 
These cannot both, according to the Constitution, be citizens of 
the same State. They count, certify, and seal these votes and send 
the sealed package by a messenger, appointed for that express pur- 
pose, to the President of the United States Senate. On the second 
Wednesday in February following, the members of the Senate and 
House of Representatives assemble together, the packages are 
opened and the votes counted in their presence, and the result is 
officially proclaimed. 

Note.— Each State has as many electors as it has senators and representatives in Con- 
gress. The person having the greatest number of votes for President is duly elected, if such a 
number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed. If no person has such a 
majority, then the House of Representatives, from the persons having the highest number not 
exceeding three, shall by ballot select the President. 

13 



194 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

SUFFRAGE AND CITIZENSHIP. 

The right pertaining to citizenship, to vote for such officers as 
are elected by the people, is called suffrage. When that right is 
acquired with respect to one class of officers it always extends to 
the whole, from petty town or city officials, to high officers of the 
State or United States government — all, in short, who obtain of- 
fice directly from the people. 

The Constitution defines who shall be regarded as citizens of 
the United States, and all such are declared by it to be also cit- 
izens of the State in which they reside. It declares " all persons, 
born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to its juris- 
diction " to be citizens. Indian tribes are mostly regarded as 
foreign nations, and have such rights as treaties give them, but 
are not taxed and do not vote ; therefore they are not regarded 
as citizens. 

Suffrage does not belong to all citizens. The special regulation 
of the voting prerogative was not assumed by the Constitution, 
nor delegated to Congress, and it is generally conceded that it 
belongs to the State governments. The regulations in the States 
are not uniform, but in no state do women or minors vote. (Wo- 
men vote in Wyoming Territory.) Minors are supposed, however, 
to be represented, as to their interests, by their guardians, and 
females by husbands or brothers. Some of the states make minor 
restrictions as to length of residence in the state, and require a 
certain amount of property to constitute a voter, and in some 
naturalization is not required— so that the range of the right of 
suffrage varies within small limits, in different states. Whatever 
rule is adopted by the states has been accepted as the basis of 
suffrage for that state by the general government, when members 
of Congress and President and Vice-President are voted ior. 

The 15 th amendment to the Constitution gives the colored men 
the same rights to suffrage and citizenship as white men. 

CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICTS— CONGRESSMEN. 

Each state is entitled to a number of Representatives in Con- 
gress proportioned to its inhabitants ; but, instead of counting 
the whole number together, and leaving all the people in the 
state to vote for all the representatives of their state, it is divided 
into districts, each containing the prescribed number entitled to 
representation. The voters, then, in each district, select or nom- 
inate the men they wish to vote for — and thus they find it easy to 
send men they know and on whom they can rely to secure their 
interests. Each Member of Congress, therefore, is chosen by a 
single district. The districting of states is done by their State 
Legislatures. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 195 

Sometimes a state is admitted into theUnion before it has as many 
inhabitants as the law requires to one Congressman, in which case 
the law is relaxed, and they are permitted at least one Represen- 
tative. Contiguous counties or towns are set apart in this way and 
numbered as ist, 2d, 3d, &c, Congressional District. In large 
cities as many wards, lying together, as include the requisite num- 
ber, are erected into districts. In case the number of Congress- 
men allotted to a state is larger than the number of districts, those 
in excess are voted for by the state at large. They are arranged 
as soon as possible after the census, so that this does not often 
occur. In the Western States the number continually increases, 
and changes must be made after each census. 

The term Congressman properly applies to the members of both 
Houses; it is, by common usage, confined to members of the 
lower House, those of the upper House being distinguished as 
Senators ; the abbreviation M. C. Member of Congress, means a 
Representative. 

These are the only members of any branch of the government 
who are chosen and elected directly by the people. Any citizen, 
whether native or foreign born, may become a Member of Con- 
gress, if he can obtain the consent of the voters in his district ; 
but he must have been a citizen during the previous seven years. 

The members of the House of Representatives are elected for 
two years, the members of the Senate for six. The Senate is 
composed of two persons, chosen by the legislature of each state, 
to represent it as a whole. The first Congress under the Consti- 
tution met in New York City, where two sessions were held, when 
it was removed to Philadelphia. It remained there until 1800, 
when Washington became the capital. In 1874 there were 37 
states and therefore 74 Senators. The number of Representatives 
was fixed by a law of March, 1873, at 292, at which number it 
will remain until the next census in 1880. 

COPYRIGHTS. 

A Copyright is an exclusive privilege given to any citizen, or 
resident in the United States, to print, publish, or sell any book, 
map, chart, engraving, or musical composition of which he or she 
is the author or proprietor. This right is given by the laws of 
Congress. A copyright conveys all the rights of ownership, and 
may be bought and sold like other property. 

DIRECTIONS FOR SECURING COPYRIGHTS UNDER THE REVISED ACT 
OF CONGRESS, WHICH TOOK EFFECT JULY 8, 1870. 

i. A printed copy of the .title of the book, map, chart, dra- 
matic or musical composition, engraving, cut, print, photo- 
graph, or a description of the painting, drawing, chromo, statue, 
statuary, or model or design for a work of the fine arts, for which 



196 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

copyright is desired, must be sent by mail, prepaid, address, '* Li- 
brarian of Congress, Washington, D. C." This must be done 
before publication. 

2. A fee of 50 cents, for recording the title of each book or 
other article, must be inclosed, and 50 cents in addition for each 
certificate of copyright. 

3. Within ten days after publication of each book or other 
article, two complete copies ol the best edition issued must be 
sent to perfect the copyright, with the address 

Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C. 
The charges to be prepaid. Without the deposit of copies above 
required, the copyright is void, and a penalty of $25 is incurred. 

4. No copyright hereafter issued is valid unless notice is given 
by inserting in every copy published, on the title page or the page 
following, if it be a book ; or, if a map, chart, musical composi- 
tion, print, cut, engraving, photograph, painting, drawing, chromo, 
statue, statuary, or model or design intended to be perfected as a 
work of the fine arts, by inscribing upon some portion of the face 
or front thereof, or on the face of the, substance on which the 
same is mounted, the following words, viz. : Entered according to 

act of Congress, in the year , by , in the office of the 

Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 

The law imposes a penalty of $100 upon any person who has 
not obtained copyright who shall insert the notice ''''Entered ac- 
cording to act of Congress" etc., or words to the same import, in or 
upon any book or other article. 

5. Any author may reserve the right to translate or dramatize 
his own work. In this case notice should be given by printing 
the words. Right of translation reserved, or All rights reserved, be- 
low the notice of copyright entry, and notifying the Librarian of 
Congress of such reservation. 

6. Each copyright secures the exclusive right of publishing 
the book or article copyrighted for a term of twenty-eight years. 
At the end of that time, the author or designer, or his widow or 
children may secure a renewal for the further term of fourteen 
years, making forty-two years in all. Applications for renewal 
must be accompanied by explicit statement of ownership in the 
case of the author, or of relationship in the case of his heirs, and 
must state definitely the date and place of entry of the original 
copyright. 

7. Any copyrig 1 ^ is assignable in law by any instrument of 
writing, but such as^ O amoiat must be recorded in the office of the 
Librarian of Congress within sixty days from its date. The fee 
for this record is fifteen cents for every 100 words, and ten cents 
for every 100 words for a copy of the record of assignment. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 1 99 

8. To secure a copyright for a painting, statue, or model or 
design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, so as 
to prevent infringement by copying, engraving, or vending such 
design, a definite description must accompany the application 
for copyright, and a photograph of the same, at least as large as 
" cabinet size," must be mailed to the Librarian of Congress with- 
in ten days from the completion of the work. 

9. Every applicant for a copyright must state distinctly the 
name and residence of the claimant, and whether the right is 
claimed as author, designer or proprietor. 

REPORTS. 

The President's Messages are of the nature of reports made by 
the Chief Executive to the legislative body for its information and 
guidance. So it is enacted that the Secretaries of State, Treasury, 
War, Navy, Interior, and Postmaster General, together with the 
commissioners of the different bureaus and boards attached to these 
departments, shall annually report to Congress. Heads of de- 
partments report directly to Congress. So do many of the com- 
missioners who are at the head of bureaus. Boards report to the 
heads of departments to which they are attached. 

The reports not only furnish the law-making power with such 
information as it needs, but serve as a check of any official mis- 
conduct. The annual reports of Secretaries of the Treasury, 
War, and Navy, together with that of the Postmaster General, are 
state papers which rank in importance next to the annual message 
of the President. 

After each Congress has convened and organized, the President 
of the Senate and the Speaker of the House appoint what are 
denominated the standing committees of each of these bodies. 

When bills are presented to be passed into laws, or petitions are 
sent in, they are always referred to the appropriate committee, 
which examines them and reports to the body (of the Senate or 
House) their conclusions upon the merits or demerits, propriety 
or impropriety, of granting the petition, or of passing the bill under 
consideration. 

PASSPORTS. 

These are documents issued by the Secretary of State, or 
our representatives abroad, authorized by him, informing whom 
it may concern that the bearer is a citizen of the United States, 
that he travels under its protection and tfiat satisfaction will be 
demanded of any one who does him wrong. Passports sometimes 
authorize persons to go where those not having them are forbid- 
den to go. These documents are also issued to foreigners as well 



200 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

as our own citizens, who wish to visit the Indian Territory. Ships 
leaving our ports are required to take papers of the nature of pass- 
ports. 

THE CENSUS. 

The Constitution provides that the census shall be taken, or 
the people counted, once every ten years. The first census 
was taken in 1790, and this has been repeated every tenth year 
since. The work is done by the United States Marshals and their 
assistants, the result returned to the Department of the Interior. 
A report of it is laid before Congress by the Secretary of the In- 
terior and from its facts and figures the number of Representa- 
tives apportioned to the several states. The census reports are 
published in book form and contain, in addition to the popula- 
tion, the number of acres of land under cultivation, the number 
of bushels of grain produced, the number of horses, cattle, etc., 
and statistics of every kind. 

THE CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY. 

This library was established in 1800 and contains works sup- 
posed to be useful to legislation, e. g., all the laws enacted by 
Congress, the records of its proceedings, the laws of the States 
and of many foreign countries, together with many books on 
miscellaneous subjects relating to government and political 
economy. No document can be taken out of the library 
except by the President, Vice-president, and the members of 
Congress. Judges of the Supreme Court, however, the heads of 
departments, the Attorney-General, the members of the diploma- 
tic corps, the Secretary of the Senate, the Clerk of the House, the 
Chaplain of Congress, all the Ex-Presidents, the Solicitor of the 
Treasury, and others properly authorized, have access to the 
library to consult its books and documents. 

THE PUBLIC PRINTING. 

This is done by the government printing office under the 
direction of a superintendent, who is required to make a report 
to* Congress at the commencement of every session. The 
public printing includes all the proceedings of both Houses of 
Congress, all the laws enacted, all the bills proposed, the Presi- 
dent's Messages, the reports of the heads of departments and 
the reports and commissions of army and navy officers, of inves- 
tigating committees, of various superintendents, agents and gov- 
ernment employes. These and other things are printed, sometimes 
only for the use of Congress and sometimes for circulation among 
the people. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 201 

IMPEACHMENT. 

In the second article, section four, of the Constitution, these 
words are found: " The President, Vice-President, and all civil 
officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on im- 
peachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high 
crimes and misdemeanors." 

Impeachment is a procedure against office holders only, for the 
purpose of removing them from office. It inflicts no other pun- 
ishment. 

The House of Representatives alone can present charges look- 
ing to the trial of an officer of the government by impeachment. 
It appoints a committee to conduct the prosecution before the 
Senate, to which these charges are presented. 

The Senate alone has the power to try the accused party. 
When trying a case of impeachment it acts as a court, and from 
its decision there is no appeal. When the President of the United 
States is tried, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides, 
but in no other case. No person can be convicted in a trial of 
impeachment, unless two-thirds of the Senate concur in finding 
the accused guilty of the alleged offense. 

A bailiff, a clerk, a crier and messenger, all of whom are ap- 
pointed by the court, make up the remaining officials. 

The claimants stand in the relation of plaintiffs, and the gov- 
ernment in that of defendant. 

DISTRICT ATTORNEYS. 

These officers are next in rank to the Judges of the Circuit and 
District Courts with which their duties are connected. Their re- 
lation to the government, in the class of cases that come before 
those courts, is the same as that of the Attorney General in the 
Supreme Court. They are its official legal counselors in all cases 
involving the interests of the General Government before the 
Circuit and District Courts in their several districts. They are 
appointed in the same manner ; that is, nominated by the Presi- 
dent, and confirmed by the Senate. It is their duty " to prose- 
cute in such district all delinquents for crimes and offences 
•cognizable under the authority of the United States, and all civil 
actions in which the United States shall be concerned." They 
are his clients, and he must enforce their rights, and defend 
them, in the same manner that any attorney protects and defends 
his client in any of the state courts. In case of necessity, he may 
appoint a substitute to act in his place. All fees over and above 
what he is allowed as compensation for his services, he must re- 
port and pay into the United States Treasury. 

He must defend collectors of the customs and other revenue 
officers in his district, when suits are brought against them in their 



202 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

official capacity, and must report to the Solicitor of the T w «sury 
the number of suits determined and pending in his district. And 
when prize cases have been determined, or are pending in the 
District Court of his district, he must report the state and condi- 
tion of each case to the Secretary of the Navy. 

District Attorneys are appointed for four years, but may be re- 
moved at the pleasure of the President. Their compensation 
depends on the amount of business to be done in their respective 
districts. When important ports of entry, such as New York or 
Boston, lie in their districts, their duties are very numerous, and 
they receive a corresponding compensation. 

UNITED STATES MARSHALS. 

United States Marshals are the ministerial officers of the United 
States courts. Their duties and responsibilities are very similar, 
and nearly identical with the duties and responsibilities of sheriffs. 
in the courts of the several states. They are appointed by the 
President and Senate, for a term of four years. They appoint 
their own deputies, and their compensation consists of fees instead 
of a salary. There is a Marshal in every Judicial District in the 
United States, and there are fifty-nine of these districts in all. 

A District Court is held in every district ; and it is the Marshal's 
duty to attend the sittings of these courts, and also those of the 
United States Circuit Courts, when they happen to sit in his dis- 
trict. The Marshal for the District of Columbia must also attend 
the sittings of the Supreme Court, and execute its precepts. It 
is the duty of the Marshals to serve all writs and precepts eman- 
ating from them, whether of a civil or criminal character ; and to* 
execute the judgments and decrees of these tribunals ; and for 
this purpose they are authorized by law, (if necessary.) to com- 
mand sucn assistance as they may need in the execution of their 
duties. They are also held answerable for the delivery to their 
successors of all prisoners who may be in their custody at the 
time of their removal, or at the expiration of their term of 
office. 

They also have the custody of all vessels and goods seized by 
any officer of the revenue. It is their duty also to summon, and 
to pay, jurors and witnesses in behalf of any prisoner to be tried 
for a capital offense, under the laws of the United States. In the 
remarks made under the head " Census," we stated that it was the 
duty of the Marshals to superintend and direct the enumeration of 
the people ; and to collect such statistical facts as the law requires. 
This they do through deputies, whom they appoint for that special 
purpose. 

The United States Marshal is also required, on the first day of 
January and July of each year, to make a return of all the fees 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 203 

and emoluments of his office to the Secretary of the Interior; and 
it they amount to more than $6,000 per year, he must pay the 
surplus into the Treasury of the United States. 



GRAND JURY. 

The fifth article of the amendments to the Constitution, reads : 
" No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise in- 
famous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand 
Jury ; except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the 
militia, when in actual service, in time of war or public danger." 
This constitutional provision makes a Grand Jury a very impor- 
tant agent or instrumentality in the execution of the laws, and 
also a safeguard of the liberties and rights of the people. It 
secures every person from the expense and disgrace of a trial for 
infamous crimes, unless a Grand Jury of his countymen shall find 
upon inquiry and investigation, that there are good reasons for 
believing that Ue person so charged has committed the alleged 
offense. 

A Grand Jury, when called to take cognizance of violations of 
the laws of the United States, to find indictments against those 
who are charged with them, is summoned by a judge of a United 
States court in the circuit or district where the alleged crime has 
been perpetrated ; and it must take notice of all crimes against 
the laws of the United States, which may be brought to its knowl- 
edge, within the circuit or district in which it sits. Hence, if 
ordered by a Circuit Judge, its powers extend over all those states 
which lie in that circuit. But when ordered by a District Judge, 
its powers extend only to that district in which it sits, and a dis- 
trict never embraces more than one state, and in many cases a 
state is divided into two or three districts. 

GRAND AND PETIT JURIES. 

A Grand Jury never acts but in criminal cases. A Petit Jury 
acts in both criminal and civil cases. The finding or conclusion 
arrived at by a Grand Jury is called a presentment, or an indict- 
ment. The finding of a Petit Jury is called its verdict. 

A Grand Jury sits alone (not in presence of the court), 
and deliberates upon such matters of a criminal character as it 
possesses knowledge of, or which may be brought to its notice by 
the -court or by other persons; and when it finds that great evils 
exist, and wrongs have been perpetrated, it presents them to the 
court, and calls the attention of the law officers to them ; which 
is equivalent to a recommendation that judicial proceedings should 
be commenced to abate the evil, or to punish the wrong doer. 
This is called a presentment of the Grand Jury. 



204 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

And when they find, upon such evidence as they have, that a 
great crime has been perpetrated, or that they have good reason 
so to believe, and that it has been perpetrated by some person 
specified, they report their finding or conclusion to the Court. 
This is called an indictment by the Grand Jury ; after which the 
person so charged is arrested, if at large, and can be found, and 
is either imprisoned or held to bail for his appearance at court to 
stand trial. 

A Grand Jury never tries a case. 

A Petit Jury sits with the court, hears the pleadings and argu- 
ments of counsel on both sides, listens to the evidence of wit- 
nesses ; and then hears the charge of the judge, as to the law ap- 
plicable to the case; after which they withdraw and deliberate 
alone upon the case, and if they agree in a criminal case, their 
verdict is " Guilty," or " Not Guilty; " if in a civil suit, they say 
how much one party is indebted (if any), to the other. 

ELECTIONS. 
In choosing the President and Vice-President of the United 
States, the people vote for Electors, who afterward vote for 
the above named officers. United State Senators are chosen by 
the State Legislature. All other officers are elected by a direct 
vote of the people, and all elections are by ballot. 

RATIO OF REPRESENTATION. 

The ratio of representation simply means the ratio between the 
whole population of the United States, and the whole number ol 
their Representatives in Congress ; and this of course includes the 
ratio between the people of any individual State, and the Repre- 
sentatives it is entitled to ; both being estimated upon the same 
basis, and determined by the same rule. 

After having determined how many members shall compose the 
lower House of Congress, the next step is to apportion these mem- 
bers among all the States in the ratio of their population. If one 
State has twice the number of inhabitants that another has, it will 
be entitled to twice the number of Representatives in Congress, 
with this one exception, which is, that by a provision in^ the Con- 
stitution, every State, without regard to its population, is entitled 
to one Representative in the lower House. 

The adjustment of this matter is all provided for in the Consti- 
tution, that is, in its general features ; but it devolves upon Congress 
in every tenth year to re-adjust and re-apportion the Representa- 
tives among the several States, according to the populatiou of each 
State as shown by the last census, which is taken every tenth year ; 
and when the apportionment is once made it remains the same 
for the next ten years, when the census is taken again, and a new 
apportionment is made. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 20$ 

Up to the year 1874. this had been done nine times. 
It was done the first time by the convention which formed the 
Constitution. That apportionment is found in the Constitution, 
and is as follows : 

To New Hamsphire, 3 Delaware, 1 

Massachusetts. . 8 Maryland, 6 

Rhode Island, 1 Virginia, 10 

Connecticut, 5 North Carolina, 5 

New York, 6 South Carolina, . 5 

New Jersey, <,„- 4 Georgia, 3 

Pennsylvania, 8 

By this it will be seea that the first Congress consisted of but 
65 members. 

The Constitution also provided that Representatives should not 
exceed one to every 30,000 people. The next year after the gov- 
ernment went into operation, (1790,) the first census was taken, and 
as soon as the result was known, a new apportionment was made. 
This was done in 1792, and was made upon the ratio of one Re- 
presentative to every 33,000 of representative population. 

In 1870 the ninth census was taken, and in 1872 Congress de- 
cided that after March 3d, 1873, the Representatives should com- 
prise 292 members, being one Representative for every 135,239 of 
the population and apportioned them among the several States as 
follows : 

Alabama, 8 Missouri, 13 

Arkansas 4 Nebraska, 1 



California, 4 Nevada, 

Connecticut, 4 New Hampshire,. 

Delaware, 1 New Jersey, 

Florida, 2 New York, 

Georgia, 9 North Carolina,... 

Mississippi, 6 Ohio, 



Illinois, 19 Oregon 

Indiana, 13 Pennsylvania,. . 

Iowa, 9 Rhode Island,.. 

Kansas 3 South Carolina, 

Kentucky, 10 Tennessee, 

Louisana, 6 Texas, 



Maine, 5 Vermont, 3 

Maryland, 6 Virginia, 9 

Massachusetts, n West Virginia, 3 

Michigan, 9 Wisconsin 8 



Minnesota, 



In the apportionment no regard is had to the Territories or to 
their population. A Territorial member has no right to vote on 
any question, but has only the right to debate; and for this reason 
he is not, in the fullest sense, a member, and is not counted in 
adjusting the number of which the House is made to consist. 

GOVERNMENT PRISONS. 

The general government does not own, and has never built, 
prisons for the confinement of offenders against its laws. It uses 
me prisons of the States whenever they will allow it. This arrange- 



206 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ment between the general and State governments has been made 
in nearly if not all the States; the United States paying for the 
support of their prisoners. 

But in case any State should refuse to make such an agreement, 
the United States marshal of any district where, a prisoner is to be 
confined, is authorized to procure some building where the prison- 
ers may be safely confined in the district where they have been 
tried and convicted, or where they have been arrested and are held 
for trial. 



PROCLAMATIONS. 

A Proclamation is an official notice published by one high in 
authority, for the purpose of giving reliable and authoritative in- 
formation to the people that something has been done, or will soon 
be done, which is important for them to know, that they may act, 
or refrain from acting, according to the information contained in 
the proclamation. These proclamations are made known to the 
country through the most extensive channels of information that 
can be used for conveying intelligence to everybody in the Repub- 
lic. In our day, and in our country, the newspapers are the best 
means that can be used for this purpose. 

These documents are official acts brought before the people in 
due form and solemnity. Sometimes they are only recommenda- 
tions; at others they have all the force of organic law, or the acts 
of Congress. 

It has, for some years, been the custom of the Executive to de- 
signate some day toward the close of the year as a day of thanks- 
giving, recommending the day to be observed in a religious manner. 
Important changes in the commercial affairs between us and some 
foreign country are made known by the same method. 

A memorable proclamation was made by President Lincoln, in 
1862, by which he made known to the country, and especially to 
the Southern States, that if they continued their war against the 
United States for one hundred days after its issuance, he would 
then, in virtue of his authority as commander-in-chief of the army 
and navy, liberate the' slaves in all the seceded States. At the ex- 
piration of the time, which was on the first of January, 1863, he 
issued another proclamation, in and by which he did emancipate 
all the slaves in every State which warred against the United 
States government. 

The blockading of our ports at the commencement of the civil 
war, and the imposition of an embargo upon our shipping, previous 
to the last war with England, were both subjects which brought 
out proclamations from the President who then filled the Execu- 
tive chair. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 20$ 

COMMISSIONERS. 

Persons acting under this title are assigned to a variety of duties 
sometimes permanent and sometimes temporary. In the first place, 
they act as heads of bureaus in the various departments. These 
commissioners are permanent officials of the government, estab- 
lished and provided for by law; such are the commissioners of the 
land office, patent office, pension office, &c. 

Another class of commissioners can hardly be considered officers, 
but rather temporary or special agents. The business to be trans- 
acted may be a great distance from the capital, even in a foreign 
country. In these cases commissioners are appointed to do such 
business. They have been appointed to negotiate a peace,, to 
make treaties of various kinds between us and other powers, and 
to negotiate with the Indians for the purchase of their lands. The 
United States courts appoint them to take bail, or to take testi- 
mony to be used on trials, and do various other things -necessary 
in trials and proceedings before them. 

Congress frequently appoints commissioners to obtain informa- 
tion, or to investigate some matter on which they expect to legis- 
late. In all cases they must report their proceedings, either to 
Congress, to the President, or to the head of the department under 
whose instruction they act. Permanent commissioners report 
once a year, or oftener if required, that Congress may know the 
condition of affairs in their respective bureaus: Special commis- 
sioners, after they have performed the work assigned, make their 
report ; after which their duties cease and their commission comes 
to an end. 

The lowest grade of diplomatic agents are called commissioners. 
We are thus represented at the present time in the Republics of 
Hayti and Liberia. 

OFFICIAL REGISTER. 

Congress, in 1816, passed an act authorizing and requiring the 
Secretary of State, once in two years, to print and publish a book 
called " the official register," in which he was ordered to register 
the name of every officer and agent of the government, in the civil, 
military and naval departments, including cadets and midshipmen, 
together with the compensation received by each ; the names of 
the State and county where born ; and the name of the place 
where employed, whether at home or abroad. 

To the list of the persons employed in the Navy Department, the 
Secretary of the Navy is required to subjoin the names, force and 
condition of all the ships and vessels belonging to the United 
States, and when and where built. 

This work has been published and distributed, as the law 
directs, ever since the passage of the act, and is sometimes denomi- 

14 



2IO FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

nated " the blue book." It can be found in the Congressional 
library at Washington, where twenty-five copies of each edition 
are deposited. 

THE STARS AND STRIPES. 

A nation's Flag represents its sovereignty. The flag of the 
United States may well call forth more enthusiastic affection, pride, 
and hope than any other in the world ; for it symbolizes not only 
home, country, and associations dear to Americans, but the justice,, 
liberty, and right of self government that are dear to all man- 
kind. 

Its history is this : Soon after the Declaration of Independence 
the Continental Congress appointed a committee to confer with 
Gen. Washington and " design a suitable flag for the nation. " 
After the painful and depressing defeat on Long Island the re- 
treat through the Jerseys and across the Delaware, when r verything 
seemed lost for the new government, Washington suddenly struck 
the vigorous blows at Trenton and Princeton that confounded the 
enemy and drove him back to Staten Island. Congress and the 
country were cheered with a hope and a resolution that never 
afterward failed them ; for in the next campaign occured the cap- 
ture of Burgoyne, followed by the treaty with France ; and the 
close of the war in our favor was henceforth only a question of 
time. 

In the month of May or early June, 1777, following the stag- 
gering blow Washington had given the British army in Jersey, the 
committee referred to above, and Washington, completed the 
design for a flag. This was accomplished and the first flag made 
at the house of a Mrs. Ross, in Arch St., Philadelphia. The 
house is still standing — No. 239. She had a shop where she fol- 
lowed the " upholder " trade, as it was then called — the same as 
our upholstering. One day the Commander-in-chief, Hon. Geo. 
Ross, a relative of hers, and certain members of Congress, called 
on her, with a design for a flag — thirteen red and white stripes, 
alternate with thirteen six pointed stars — and requested her to 
make the flag. She consented, but suggested that the stars would 
be more symmetrical and more pleasing to the eye if made with 
five points, and folded a sheet of paper and produced the pattern 
by a single cut. This was approved and she finished a flag the 
next day. Mrs. Ross was given the position of manufacturer of 
flags for the government, which descended to her children. 

In 1794 this flag was changed, though its chief features were 
retained. Congress then ordered that the flag should consist of 
fifteen stripes, alternate red and white, and fifteen stars, white on 
a blue field. There were then fifteen States. The stars and 
stripes were equal, and a stripe and star were added with the 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 211 

advent of each new State. This was changed in 1818, as the 
States increased and the flag threatened to become too large, by- 
reducing the stripes to thirteen, representing the original Union, 
and the stars were made equal to the number of States. No 
change has since been made except to add a star whenever the 
union increased by the admission of a State. 

THE GOVERNMENT AND RELIGION. 

The founders of our government were wise enough to leave the 
people to arrange religious questions according to their pleasure. 
They were not unbelievers in religion, but thought, as most of our 
citizens now think, that entire liberty should be left to all to act in 
religious matters as they felt able and inclined. All religious sys- 
tems are equally tolerated — no government support is given special- 
ly to any. Some people do not approve of religious oaths (an affir- 
mation in the name of God, or calling God to witness that what is 
said is true,) and from such persons a solemn affirmation or state- 
ment, answers the purposes of the law. 

The Constitution prohibits Congress from making laws respect- 
ing the establishment of a State religion, or interfering with the 
free exercise of it, and declares that li no religious test shall ever 
be required, as a qualification to any office or public trust, under 
the United States." The President recommends a National thanks- 
giving to God once a year, for the blessings we enjoy, and some- 
times proclaims a day of fasting and prayer. It shows all due 
respect to the religious beliefs among the people, but leaves all 
free to practice any form of it, or to reject them all. 

CHAPLAINS. 

Erom respect to the religious habits of the people, chaplains 
are appointed to supply such religious instruction and services in 
the army and navy as might be felt desirable by those concerned. 
Those in the army receive the same pay and emoluments as a 
major of the infantry; or this was the compensation allowed by 
act of Congress in 1812. But by an act of 1862, it was fixed at 
$100 per month, and two rations per day, for those in the army 
or hospitals. By the act of 181 2, one chaplain was allowed to 
every brigade ; but by an act of 1861 (during the civil war) one for 
every regiment was allowed. 

Navy chaplains, in 1835, received $1,200 per year. But in i860 
this was raised to a lieutenant's pay; and this in 1862 was $1,800 
per annum. 

Chaplains in Congress receive $750 per annum. 

The United States also emplov a chaplain in the military acad- 
emy at West Point. 



212 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

COMPROMISES. 

Webster defines a compromise to be an agreement between parties 
in controversy to settle their difference by mutual concessions. 

COMPROMISE OF THE CONSTITUTION. 

This compromise consisted of concessions made by each section. 
The North conceded the return of fugitives from their Southern 
masters, when escaped to the north, and an enumeration of three- 
fifths of the slave population in computing the representation in 
Congress. The South conceded the final close of the Slave Trade 
at a given time (1808). Outside of the Constitution it, at the 
same time, conceded the "Ordinance of 1787," by which Slavery 
was excluded from territory north of the Ohio river. Thus the 
North and South divided the country between them. 

THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE. 

The arrangement of the Slavery question, so termed, was made 
in 1820, and took effect as to the State of Missouri in 1821. Mis- 
souri had included a clause in her Constitution, presented for 
the approval of Congress, prohibiting slavery. This clause the 
South demanded should be stricken out. It produced great ex- 
citement and hot discussion throughout the country, and seemed 
to threaten the stability of the Union. Both sections were resolute 
in maintaining their principle, but both appreciated the necessity 
of strength in the government and harmony between the sections, 
and each made a sacrifice for the sake of these. Missouri was 
required to admit slavery, and the condition was annexed that no 
more Slave States should be formed north of its southern line. 
This was a concession trying to both sides. The North became 
a party to the extension of Slavery, and the South gave definite 
limits to her power of expansion. Each, however, gained some- 
thing : the South a State above the limits before virtually fixed, 
and the North a definite and final limit to the extension of a hated 
institution. This was quite generally satisfactory, and for many 
years set that question at rest. 

The discovery of gold in California filled it with inhabitants so 
soon, and these so largely from the free States, that in two years 
from its definite acquisition it petitioned for admission into the 
Union with a clause in its Constitution prohibiting Slavery. This 
was very exasperating to the South, and after a long and- violent 
contest could be carried by the North only by the passage of the 
Fugitive Slave Law — a re-enactment of a part of the Compromise 
of the Constitution with provisions so vigorous and effective, could 
they have been enforced, as to be, in the highest degree, offensive 
to a considerable part of the northern people. Utah was given a 
Territorial government as a concession to the South, and the Slave 
Trade was abolished in the District of Columbia as her corres- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 213 

ponding concession to the North. These were the four compro- 
mise measures of 1850, the result of a discussion lasting nearly a 
year, engendering great bitterness on both sides, and failing to 
satisfy either. 

The attempt to enforce the Fugitive Slave Law proved ineffec- 
tual, in the end ; the rooted aversion of the Northern people to 
Slavery, kept in abeyance before by less offensive compromises, 
being fully aroused. This produced in the Southern people a bit- 
ter indignation as showing a disposition to rebel against a consti- 
tutional provision in their favor. They procured, in 1854, the 
repeal of the Missouri Compromise in the famous " Kansas and 
Nebraska Bill," and sought to introduce Slavery into Kansas. A 
civil war in that Territory followed. 

TREASON. 

The Constitution defines treason to be "levying war against the 
United States, or adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and 
comfort;" so that the highest or capital crime alone may be pur- 
sued with its penalties. 

An act of Congress passed April 30th, 1790, orders that the 
convicted offender shall be hung. 

By another act passed 17th July, 1862, it was made discretionary 
with the court trying the case to put the offender to death, or to 
imprison him for not less than five years, and to fine him for a sum 
not less than ten thousand dollars. 

Nonebut-a person owing allegiance to the United States can 
commit treason against them. 

" Misprison of treason " is the concealment of it by a person 
who knows it has been committed. This also is a grave offense, 
and is punishable by a seven years' imprisonment, and a fine .not 
exceeding one thousand dollars. 

Any person tried for treason, must be indicted by a grand jury, 
and tried by petit jury in the Circuit Court of the United States 
within three years after the crime has been committed ; otherwise 
it is barred by limitation — or, in other words, outlawed. 

NATIONAL BANKING. 

The present banking system was established by an act of Con- 
gress in 1863. These Banks are managed by private parties and 
corporations, apart from the government, but under a certain de- 
gree of supervision, and by its authority. By the act referred to 
any-number of persons not less than five may associate themselves 
together for the purpose of banking, by compliance with the fol- 
lowing conditions : 



2 14 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

First : They must, under their hands and seals, make a certi- 
ficate which shall specify — 

The name assumed by such association. 

The place where its business is to be conducted. 

The amount of its capital stock (which cannot be less than $50,- 
000), and the number of its shares. 

The names of its shareholders, and the number of shares held 
by each. 

The time when such association shall commence business. 

A declaration that said certificate is made to enable such per- 
sons to avail themselves of the advantages of this act. 

This certificate must be properly acknowledged before some 
competent person, and must be sent to the comptroller of the cur- 
rency in the Treasury Department, to be recorded and kept by him. 
When this, and all other acts which the law requires, has been 
done by the association, the comptroller of the currency gives 
them a certificate under his hand and official seal, to that effect, and 
that they are authorized to commence business. This constitutes 
the association a corporation. They have the right to make and 
use a common seal, and have all the rights, and are liable to all the 
responsibilities of ordinary legalized corporations; and may exist 
not to exceed twenty years from the passage of this act. Every 
shareholder is made personally liable for the debts of the associa- 
tion or bank, to the amount of the par value of his stock. 

In order to secure the holders of bills issued by these banks, 
they must deposit with the Treasurer of the United States, United 
States bonds bearing interest to an amount not less than one-third 
of the capital stock paid in. These bonds are safely kept by the 
Treasurer. The comptroller of the currency then issues to the 
bank an amount of bank notes equal to the amount of bonds thus 
deposited, less ten per cent. In case the bank should fail to re- 
deem its circulating bills, its bonds are sold, and with the proceeds 
the comptroller of the currency redeems them, or orders them to 
be paid at the United States Treasury. The bonds held by the 
Treasurer as security for the redemption of the bills issued by the 
association, must be transferred to him in trust ; thus giving him 
entire control of them in case it becomes necessary to sell them in 
order to redeem the bills of any association which may have 
failed to pay them on demand. 

This act has brought a great number of banks into existence, be- 
sides organizing most of the banks formerly existing under State 
laws under this system; so that we have a nearly uniform system of 
banking all over the United States. The bills of these banks pass 
in any part of the country, which was not often the case formerly. 
In case the bank should be mismanaged, or fail to pay for any 
cause, there is ample security for their redemption deposited in the 
United States treasury, where they will be paid on presentation. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 215 

The bill-holder is also better protected against counterfeits than 
he was under the old system ; for all the bills issued by these as- 
sociations are engraved by the government, and the plates and 
dies on which they are printed are Kept by the comptroller 
of the currency in the Treasury Department. The engrav- 
ing is done in the best possible manner, and it is exceedingly 
difficult to counterfeit them. Besides this, they all have the im- 
print of the seal ot the Treasury on their face, and are numbered 
and countersigned by the treasurer and register. . With all these 
guards and precautions, we have the best paper currency ever 
used since the establishment of the government. 

This act necessarily threw upon the Treasury Department a 
great increase of labor, and in order to provide for it a separate 
bureau was created, which is denominated the bureau of currency, 
the chief officer of which is called the comptroller of currency. 
He acts under the general direction of the Secretary of the Treas- 
ury. This bureau is charged with the execution of this and all 
other laws that may be passed by Congress respecting the national 
currency. The comptroller of the currency is appointed by the 
President and Senate, has a deputy, receives a salary of $5,000 
per year, holds his office five years, has an official seal, gives bonds 
to the amount of $100,000, and takes and subscribes the oath of 
office prescribed by the Constitution and the laws. His duties 
are numerous and very responsible, he having hundreds of millions 
under his care. 

The term national banks, given to these institutions, and na- 
tional currency to the bills they issue, were given from the fact 
that they were organized by an act of Congress, and that the 
security for the redemption of their bills consists exclusively of 
national bonds ; no other securities will be taken. 



THE NATIONAL DEBT 



In Each Year, from 1791 to 1878. 

1791 — ,..75,463,476.52 1812 45,209,737.90 1833 7,001,032.88 

1792 77,227,924.66 1813 55,962,827.57 1834 4,760,081.08 

1793 ,..80,352,634.04 1814 81,487,846.24 1835 351,289.05 

1794 78,427,404.77 1815 99,833,660.15 1836 . 291,089.05 

1795 80,747,587.38 1816 127,334,933.74 1837 1,878,223.55 

1796 ,83,762,172.07 1817 123,491,965.16 1838 . . 4,857,660.46 

1797 82,064,479.33 1818 103,466,633.83 1839 11,983,737-55 

1798 79,228,529.12 1819 95,529,648.28 1840 — 5,125,077.63. 

1799 — , 78,408,669.77 1820 91,015,566.15 1841 6,737,398.00 

1800 82,976,294.35 1821 89,987,427.66 1842 15,028,486.37 

1801 83,038,050.80 1822 93.546,676.98 1843 27,203,450.69 

1802.. , 80,712,632.25 1823 90,875,877.28 1844 24,748.188.23 

1803 77,054,686.30 1824 90,269,777.77 1845 17,093,794.80 

1804 86,427,120.88 1825 83,788,432,71 1846 16,750,926.33 

1805 82,312,150.50 1826 81,054,059.99 1847 38,956,623.38 

1806 75,723,270.66 1827 73,987,357-20 1848 48,526,379.37 

1807 69,218,398.64 1828 67,475,043.87 1849 64,704,693.71 

1808 65,196,317.97 1829 58,421,413.67 1850 64,228,238.37 

1809 57,023,192.09 1830 48,565,406.50 1851 62,560,395.26 

1810. 53, T 73, 21 7,52 1831 39,123,191.68 1852 65.131,692.13 

1811 48,005,587.76 1832 24,322,235.18 1853 67,340,628.78 



2l6 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

^854 47,242,206.05 1861 90,867,828.68 1868 2,643,753.566.3? 

^55 39,969,731.05 1862 514,211,371.92 1869... 2.652.533,662.28 

1856 30,963,909,64 1863 1,098,793,181.37 1870 2,509,270,608.00 

1857 29,060,386.90 1864 1,74.0,690,489.49 1871 2,303,573,543.00 

!858 44,910,777.66 1865 2,682,593,026.53 1872 2,197,743,440.72 

l8 S9 58,754,699.33 1866.. 2,783,425,879.21 1873 2,153,489,155.96 

i860 64,769,703.08 1867 2,692,199,215.12 1874 2,152,690,728.62 

Dec. 1, 1875, total debt less cash in Treasury, $2,117,917,132 ; Oct., 1878, $1,770,000,000. 

UNITED STATES BONDS. 

Sixes of 1861. — Dated 1861, and redeemable in twenty years 
from January 1st and July 1st of that year. Interest six percent, 
in gold, payable semi-annually — January 1st and July 1st. These 
Bonds were issued in three series: Under Act February 8th, 1861, 
$18,415,000; dated variously in 1861. Under Acts July 17th and 
August 5th, 1861, $50,000,000; dated November 16th, 1861. Un- 
der Acts July 17th and August 5th, 1861, in exchange for 7-30's, 
$139,317,150; dated November 16th, 1861. Under Act March 3d, 
1863, and principal made especially payable in gold coin, $75,000,- 
000; dated June 15th, 1864. Total issue, $282,732,150. 

Five-Twenties of 1862.— Commonly termed 6>/^Five-Twenties, 
dated May 1st, 1862. Redeemable after five years, and payable 
in twenty years from date. Interest six per cent, in gold, payable 
the first of May and November. Issued under Act February 25 th, 
1862, $514,771,600. 

Five-Twenties of T864. — Dated November xst, 1864. Re- 
deemable after five, and payable in twenty years. Interest, six 
percent, in gold, payable ist 'of May and November. Issued 
under Act March 3d, 1864 (principal specified as payable in gold), 
$3,882,500. Issued under Act June 30th, 1864, $125,561,300 
Total issue, $129,443,800. 

Five-Twenties of 1865. — Dated July 1st, 1865. Interest six 
per cent, in gold, payable January and July. They are redeem- 
able in five years, and payable in twenty years. Issued under 
Act March 3d, 1865, in exchange for 7-30 notes converted, and 
amount, August 1st 1868, to $372,346,350. 

Five-Twenties of 1865. — Dated November ist, 1865. Re- 
deemable after five, and payable in twenty years. Interest, six 
per cent, in gold, payable istofMay and November. Issued un- 
der Act March 3d, 1865, $197,777,250. 

Five-Twenties of 1867. — Dated July ist, 1867. Redeemable 
in five, and payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent, in 
gold, payable ist of January and July. Issued under Act March 
3, 1865, in exchange for 7-30 notes, and amount, August ist, 1868, 
to $371,346,350. 

Five-Twenties of 1868. — Dated July ist, 1868. Redeemable 
in five, and payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent, in gold, 
payable ist of January and July. Issued under Act March 3d, 
1865, in exchange for 7-30 notes, and amount, August ist, 1868, 
•to $39,000,000. 




MT. VERNON, THE HOME OF WASHINGTON. 




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OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



219 



Ten-Forties. — Dated March 1st, 1864. Redeemable in ten 
and payable in forty years. Interest, five percent, in gold, pay- 
able on the 1st of March and September on all Registered Bonds, 
and on all Coupon Bonds of the denomination of $500 and $1,000. 
On the $50 and $100 Bonds, interest is paid annually, March 1st. 
Issued under Act March 3d, 1863, and Supplement, March 3d, 
1864; principal, payable in gold, $194,291,500. 

Fives of 1870. — Redeemable at the pleasure of the United 
States, after May 1, 1 881, in gold. Interest, five per cent, in gold, 
payable quarterly— February, May, August, and November 1st 
Exempt from all taxation. Issued under Acts of July 14th, 1870, 
and January 20th, 1871. Amount, $200,000,000. 

U. S. Pacific Railroad Currency Sixes. — Dated January 
1 6th, 1865, and variously thereafter. These Bonds are issued by 
the Government, under Acts July 1st, 1862, and July 2d, 1864, to 
companies receiving their charter from Congress, which gives 
them the right to construct railroads to and from the Pacific Coast 
and on the completion of each twenty miles of track, to receive at 
the rate of $16,000, $22,000 or $48,000 per mile, according to the 
difficulty of constructing the same. They are payable thirty 
years from date of issue, and are registered in Bonds of $1,000, 
$5,000, and $10,000. Amount issued to September 1st, 1870, $64,- 
618,832. All of the Bonds are issued " Coupon " or " Registered." 
Coupon Bonds can be changed into Registered Bonds, but Regis- 
tered Bonds cannot be changed Coupons. Coupon Bonds are in 
denominations of $50, $100, $500, and $1,000: the Registered 
Bonds the same, with addition of $5,000 and $10,000. 



FUNDING— SECRETARY SHERMAN'S ACT. 

The contract of Aueust 24, 1876, made by the Secretary of the Treasury with certain parties 
for the negotiation of 8300,000,000 four and one-half per cent, bonds, had so far been executed 
on the 1st of March, 1877, that $90,000,000 had been sold to the associated contractors, and 
calls had been made for the redemption of a like amount of five-twenty bon e. 

While the contract expired in terms on the 30th day of June, 1877, it contained astipulation 
that it might be be terminated by the Secretary of the Treasury, upon ten day's notice, after 
the 4th of March, 1877. 

In May last it became apparent to the Secretary that, by a favorable change in the money 
market, four per cent, bonds could be sold at par in coin, with great advantage to the govern- 
ment ; and, availing himself of the privelege secured by the contract, he gave notice that he 
would limit the sale of four and one-half per cent, bonds to §200,000,000. 

On the nth day of May it was agreed that a portion of the latter should be sold under the 
authority of the resumption act for resumption purposes, and subscriptions were rapidly made 
until the aggregate reached $200,000,000, of which $185,000,000 were applied to the redemption 
of an equal amount of six per cent, bonds. 

On the 9th day of June, 1877, the Secretary entered into a contract with a portion of the 
previously associated parties for the sale at par, in coin, of the four per cent, bonds of the Uni- 
ted States, authorized to be issued by the refunding act. This contract was, in substance, 
similar to previous contracts, but was to terminate on the 30th day of June, 1878, with the 
right reserved to the United States to terminate it at any time after the 31st of December 1877, 
by giving ten days notice thereof to the contracting parties. The contract stipulated, that — 

" It is also agreed that the parties of the second part shall offer to the people of the United 
States at par and accrued interest in coin, the four per cent, registered consols and four per 
cent, coupon consols rf the denominations of $50 and $100 embraced in this contract, for a 
period of thirty days from the public notice of such subscriptions, and in such cities and upon 
such notice as the Secretary may prescribe prior to the opening of the lists ; and further, to 
offer to the subscribers the option of paying in instalments extending through three months." 



STATISTICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED 

STATES. 



POPULATION. 

The total population of the United States, according to the 
ninth census (1870), is 38,853,217, and leaving out the Indian 
tribes, 38,555,983. There are but four of the great empires of 
the world exceeding this in number of inhabitants, to-wit: 1. 
The Chinese Empire, 477,500,000 inhabitants. 2. The British 
Empire, 174,200,000 inhabitants. 3. The Russian Empire, 75,- 
500,060 inhabitants, 4. The German Empire, 40,200,000 inhabi- 
tants. France and Austria have each about 36,000,000 inhabi- 
tants, and are next to the United States in population. But in 
rapid increase of population our country surpasses all others, and 
must hold for many decades the foremost rank, as there is none 
that approaches it in natural wealth and resources. The follow- 
ing table is based upon the official reports of the decennial 
census : 

IncreaseJn 
10 years. 
Year. Population. per cent. 

i79° --- - --- 3,9 2 9 1 2I 4 

1800 — 5,^08,483 35 .02 

1810 7,238,881 36.45 

1820 .-_ 9,633,822 33-13 

1830 12,866,020 33-49 

1840 17,069,453 32.68 

1850. 23,191,876 35.87 

J 86o 31,443,321 35.59 

1870---. - 38-555,9 8 3 22.64 

According to the tables submitted to the Statistical Congress, 
at Berlin, in 1863 : 

The United States increased in 60 years (1800-1860) 593 per cent. 

England and Wales " 60 " ..(1801-1861) 121 " 

Russia 45 " „ (1816-1861) 79 " 

France " 60 ' (1801-1861) 37 " 

The efficient causes of progress of population are annexation, 
immigration, and natural increase (the excess of births over 
deaths). The first of these factors has contributed but little. 
Louisiana, when purchased, had 77,000 inhabitants; Florida, 

220 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 221 

nbcut ic,ooo ; California and New Mexico, about 60,000 ; Texas 
ana Oregon mainly brought back into the Union citizens who had 
emigrated thither but a short time before. Of far greater im- 
portance has been and will certainly be hereafter, the second 
factor, immigration, which, though partially arrested by the civil 
war, has expanded to the largest dimensions since the return of 
peace. Moreover, the character of the immigrants has materially 
improved, as the intelligent and moneyed classes of Europe have 
become more interested in our extraordinary resources. America 
is no longer looked upon in foreign countries as a refuge for op- 
pressed labor, but rather as a field for commercial and industrial 
enterprises, promising greater results than the combination of 
capital and labor can realize elsewhere. 

Nearly 10,000,000 of our population are foreigners or descend- 
ants of foreigners. It has been estimated that the population in 
1850 would have been about 22,000,000 if all immigration had 
been arrested at the time of the Declaration of Independence. 
The population of the colonies at the commencement of the 
Revolutionary war was probably not far from 3,000,000 ; and the 
arrival of immigrants, previous to the enactment of the pas- 
senger act of March 2, 18 19, amounted to about 250,000. Since 
that period the stream of immigration has steadily increased. 
The total number of immigrants who arrived between Oct. 1, 1819, 
and December 31, 1870, was 7,553,865. Including the 250,000 
already here before October, 181 9, the total number of aliens 
permanently added to our population by direct immigration since 
the establishment of the government will reach 7,803,765. 

It is obvious that this large influx of labor, partly skilled, part- 
ly unskilled, adds a large amount to the total wealth of the nation, 
however difficult it may be to estimate this value in dollars and 
cents. Mr. Fr. Kapp, member of the German Parliament, as- 
sumes the average value of each immigrant to be $1,125. Mr. 
Edward Young, the able chief of the Bureau of Statistics, deems 
$1,000 as somewhat too large. The question is yet unanswered; 
but if we accept $800 as being about the value of an immigrant, 
inclusive of the average amount in cash he brings with him, then 
the addition to the wealth ol the country by immigration to. 187 1 
reaches the stupendous sum of $6,243,092,000. 

The increase in the different divisions of the country has been 
very unequal. It has exceeded 100 per cent, in some of the new 
states and territories — Nevada, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, 
Dakota, Utah and Washington. It has been less than 100 per 
cent, and more than 50, in Iowa, Michigan, Oregon and the Dis- 
trict of Columbia. The increase has been still less in those older 
states which have attained a comparatively high degree of devel- 
opment, and possess a dense population, i.e., a large number of 
inhabitants to each square mile of area, as Maryland, New Jersey, 



222 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia and others. The increase 
in the former slave states has been small, averaging but 17 per 
cent. Only four of them — Florida, Louisiana, Missouri and 
Texas — have grown more than 30 per cent., as they offered ex 
traordinary inducements to immigrants, in the richness of their 
natural resources and the sparsity of their populations. The rate 
of increase of the New England States has been less than that 
of the United States at large. Maine and New Hampshire have 
slightly fallen off in population, although they have only eighteen 
and thirty-five inhabitants, respectively, to the square mile. Mas- 
sachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island are the most densely 
inhabited portions of the country, having, respectively, 182, 114, 
and 167 inhabitants to the square mile ; but their increase has 
been small, averaging but 1 8 per cent. 

Four of the five races into which the human family is ordinarily 
divided, are represented in the population of the United States— 
the Indian, the Ethiopian, the Mongolian and the Caucasian races, 
or classified by color, the red, black and yellow, and the white races. 
The total number of Indians was, according to the last 
census, 383,712. Of these 25,731 were living as broken bands in 
many of the states, sustaining no tribal relations ; g6,$66 were 
upon government reservations and under agencies ; and 234,740 
roamed as nomads over the thinly settled parts of the West. 
The Ethiopians or negroes were imported into the colonies as 
slaves, previous to the Declaration of Independence. In 1790 
they numbered 757,343 souls, 56,446 of whom were then free. In 
1850 they had increased to 3,638,762, inclusive of the various 
shades of colored persons, and ten years later, to 4,441,756, of 
whom 487,996 were free, and 3,953,700 slaves. The last census 
gives their number as 4,868,387. The rate of increase from 1850 
to i860 was 22.35 P er cent., but from i860 to 1870, only 9.6 per 
cent., while the population of the country at large increased dur- 
ing the same decades, 35.39 and 22.64 P er cent, respectively. 

In 1870 the proportion of the colored to the whole population 
was 14 j^ to 100, a ratio by no means alarming in a political 
point of view. But it greatly varies in the different states ; in 
South Carolina and Mississippi the number of the colored people 
considerably exceeds that of the whites ; in all others the whites 
predominate. 

The Mongolian race is represented by Chinese and a few Japa- 
nese. The number of the latter is, indeed, so small, that they 
are not separately enumerated in the census. In i860 there were 
35,565 Chinese in California only. At present they are found in 
twenty-three states. Asiatic immigration, says Mr. Edward 
Young, has not yet reached such proportions as to excite alarm 
in the most apprehensive, and falls far short of what has been 
represented, never having reached in any single year the number 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



223 



of 15,000; forming only four per cent, of oui total immigration 
A peculiarity of the Chinese immigration is the small number of 
females, not exceeding seven per cent, of the whole, a fact which 
seems to preclude a large increase of the pure race. 

The bulk of our population is of the Caucasian or white race, 
numbering 33,580,857, or 86.45 percent, of the grand total of 
inhabitants, and belongs to that race-branch which ethnologists 
have called the Aryan, Indo-European, or Indo-Germanic. 

The Hebrews or Jews constitute the only Semitic element in 
our population, but their numbers cannot be ascertained, as they 
are not enumerated in any official count or report. If, however, 
their number is to the entire population of the country as is the 
number of seats in the synagogues to the total of church accom- 
modations in the country, then the Jews may be estimated to ex- 
ceed 75,000 and to fall below 100,000. 

Of the Aryan race-branch the Germanic and Celtic nation- 
alities have almost alone contributed to the making of the Ameri- 
can nation. 

The English or Anglo-Saxon were the first settlers on our shores, 
and if not now the most numerous, have planted imperishably 
their language, institutions, and laws upon our soil. The new 
nation which is being formed out of the various elements will 
always exhibit the impress 01 their peculiar social and political 
characteristics. 

Germans came over and settled in this country at a very early 
day, and their influx has, with unimportant intermission, (/. <?., for 
instance, during the Napoleonic wars) steadily continued, a large 
proportion going to the rural districts and developing the agri- 
cultural resources. In Pennsylvania and the Shenandoah Valley 
of Virginia there are districts whose inhabitants are mainly de- 
scendants of the early German settlers from the Palatinate, and 
still speak a German dialect. The Swedes colonized the Western 
shores of Delaware River, and . the Dutch or Hollanders the 
Southern part of the state of New York. 

The Irish represent the Celtic element in our population. 
From 1691 to 1745 the influx of this element amounted to 263,000 
souls (according to Thomas Newenham's " Statisical and His- 
torical Inquiry into the Progress and Magnitude of Ireland.") 
The 165,000 persons who immigrated from 1790 to 1814 were 
mainly Irish (probably nine-tenths). They settle in large cities 
and towns or in the manufacturing districts. The majority of 
laborers in the industrial establishments of New England, and on 
railroads and canals, are Irish, and not many go into the rural 
districts. 

The Romanic nations of Europe have also sent their quota 
across the Atlantic, although a small one. French Huguenots, 
pe*aecuted at home for their religion, settled in South Carolina. 



224 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Missouri and Louisiana, when ceded to the United States, were 
mostly inhabited by Frenchmen ; and the annexation of Florida,. 
Texas, California and New Mexico, added a few thousand Span- 
iards and Spanish half-breeds to our population. 

The Slavonic nations have contributed to our increase still less 
than the Romanic. The few Russians, Poles, and others,who land 
on our shores are soon lost in the great mass. 

The question as to the proportion in which the nationalities 
above mentioned are represented to-day among the American 
people is one of considerable ethnographic interest. From the 
nature of the inquiry a rough estimate only can be given. We 
take as the basis the census for 1820, previous to which the nation- 
ality of immigrants was not specified. The white population in 
that year was 7,862,166. Since then the direct white immigration 
has been about 7,300,000. In 1870, the white population had in- 
creased to 33,586,989. 

If the sum of the first two numbers is deducted from the last,, 
the remainder (about 17,930,000,) is that part of the increase 
which is owing to the excess of births over deaths. If we then 
distribute the white population of 1820, and the direct white 
immigration since 1820, among the nationalities above mentioned, 
and add to each its proportionate share of the increase due to the 
excess of births over deaths (17,930,000,) we shall obtain approxi- 
mately the numerical strength of each nationality in the American 
people. 

The following results in round numbers are based upon this 
estimate and calculation, and though not claiming for them a 
great degree of accuracy, we think that they are not very far from 
the truth : 

1. Anglo-Saxons 8,340,000 inhabitants 

2. Germans— including Prussians, Austrians and Swiss 8,930,000 lt 

3. Other Germanic Nations, as Dutch and Scandinavians 728,000 " 

Germanic Nations . 17,998,000 " 

4. Celts — principally Irish 10.255,000 " 

5. Romanic Nations, as French, Spaniards, Portuguese and Italians.. 1,016,000 

6. All other nationalities 4,326,000 " 

Total white inhabitants in 1870 33!595iOoo 

The number of natives descended purely from one or the other 
stock is still larsje. Intermarriages between persons of different 
nationalities are, however, quite common. Were the fusion of 
these diverse elements complete, then, of ioo drops of American 
blood, 25 would be Anglo-Saxon, 27 German, 2 Dutch or Scandi- 
navian, 30^ Celtic, 3 Romania and 12^ uncertain. 



our governmemt and history. 225: 

MARVELOUS GROWTH OF CITIES. 

The growth of cities in our country is marvelous. It makes the 
fanciful creations of Aladdin's lamp seem like realities, and 
almost gives us faith in the thousand-and-one tales of Shahrazad. 

On the sides of Mount Davidison, in Nevada, appeared a wall 
of black sulphuret, in 1861. There was a suspicion that 
it concealed the entrance to a great treasury. And so it did, for 
in the bosom of that mountain lay the great " Comstock lode " of 
silver and gold. The treasure-door was opened, and four years 
from that wonderful revelation, Virginia City stood over it, a town 
of twenty thousand inhabitants, whose citizens there had picked 
out $30,000,000 worth of silver ore from beneath its foundation. 

But this was an abnormal growth of a great town — the result 
of a single industry. There are many instances like it in the 
wonderful mineral regions of our country. But the normal 
growth of some of our cities is quite as marvelous. This is 
illustrated by three in the State of New York, namely, Brooklyn, 
Rochester, and Buffalo. A little more than sixty years ago, 
Brooklyn was a little village clustered near the old ferry-house at 
the foot of Fulton street, which was then not named ; now its 
population is well nigh half a million. Rochester, at about the 
same time, consisted of a single log hut, from the timber of which 
was wrought a table, now in possession of Henry O'Reilly, Esq., 
of New York City ; now Rochester contains more than eighty 
thousand inhabitants. In 18 13 Buffalo was a little village in 
ashes — laid waste by the torch of British soldiers ; now it con- 
tains a population of full one hundred and thirty thousand souls. 
These have had a normal growth. 

In 1847, San Francisco contained a population of four hundred 
and fifty-nine persons, it now contains about two hundred and 
seventy thousand, and is one of our great commercial cities. 

But the blossoming in the wilderness of the great city of Chicago? 
on the western shore of Lake Michigan, is quite as marvelous as 
any or record. There, forty-five years ago stood a solitary 
mansion on the northwestern border of a little river that empties 
into the lake, with a few log houses in its neighborhood, and a 
military post on the opposite side of the stream, known as Fort 
Dearborn. That was the whole of Chicago in 1830, when a small 
area of a few acres was surveyed for a village. 

" The first white man who settled here was a negro," said the 
Pottawatomies, in great simplicity, who called the place Chi-Ka- 
Kou, the name of the pole-cat, in their language. That first set- 
tler was Jean Baptiste Point au Sable, a mullatto from the West 
Indies, who found his way to that far-off wilderness in 1796. He 
built a log hut, but did not remain long. His dwelling and im- 
provements passed into the possession of John Kinzie, a native 
\5 



22 6 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

of Quebec, and an enterprising trader with the Indians, and who 
for a while was the only white inhabitant in northern Illinois, 
excepting a few soldiers of the United States army. He estab- 
lished a trading-house at Chicago in 1804, where, two years 
before, a stockade had been built and named Fort Dearborn in 
honor of the then Secretary of War. It had a block-house at 
each of two angles on the southern side, a sally-port and a 
covered way on the north side that led down to the river, for the 
double purpose of providing means of escape, and for procuring 
water in the event of a siege. It stood on the south bank of the 
Chicago River, about half a mile from its mouth. When Major 
Whistler built it, his soldiers hauled all the timber, for he had no 
oxen; and so economically did he work, that the fort cost the 
government only $50. For awhile the garrison could get no 
grain, and Whistler and his men subsisted on acorns. Now 
Chicago is the greatest grain centre in the World. 

The commerce of the city amounts, annually, to about half a 
billion of dollars, and the grain market forms the basis of specula- 
tion as railway shares do in Wall street. In 1873 there were 
fifteen grain-elevators there with a storage capacity of 12,800,000 
bushels, each receiving and shipping 100,000 bushels a day. At 
the same time the total value of live stock received there, includ- 
ing cattle valued at $41,000,000, hogs at $33,500,000, sheep at 
.$950,000, and horses at $250,000, or a total of more than 
$575,000,000. A million and a quarter of hogs were packed there 
that year. Think of it : only forty years before, a single white 
family there were afraid their stock of flour and meal might 
become exhausted before the ice in the lake should break up 
in the spring, and the Indians were " dying in companies from 
-mere destitution ! " That little germ of a village has grown to a 
city of about half a million inhabitants. There are over 70,000 
miles of railroad on the continent, and one-third of them feed 
Chicago's markets. 

CITIES. 

The growth of the cities has been far more rapid than that of 
the open country. Thus the city of New York increased during 
the last decade 19 per cent.; New Haven, Conn., 29 per cent.; 
Boston, 41 percent.; Portland, Me., 19 per cent.; Baltimore, 26 
per cent. ; Richmond, Va., 34 per cent. ; ratios which are far in 
advance of their respective states. Philadelphia with 19 per cent, 
alone shows a smaller growth than its state with 21 per cent. 
Jersey City has made a progress (183 per cent.) even more rapid, 
than the most prosperous cities west of the Alleghanies. Pitts- 
burgh increased 75 per cent.; Buffalo, 45; Cleveland, 114; 
Detroit, 74; Chicago, 166 ; Milwaukee, 58; St. Louis, 93 ; Cincin- 
nati's; Indianapolis, 159; Louisville, 48; and San Francisco, 
63'. The Southern cities advance less rapidly New Orleans shows 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 2^7 

an increase of 39 per cent, and Mobile of only 9. The most re- 
markable growth apparently was that of Scranton, Pa., which 
increased 261 per cent. 

OCCUPATIONS AND BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY. 

The total number of persons employed in gainful and reputable 
occupations, for which they receive compensation in the shape of 
wages or salary, or from which they derive products of a merch- 
antable character, was, in 1870, 12,505,923, of which 10,669,635 
were males,. and 1,836,288 females. In a majority of the states 
the number of those who had no recognized occupations was quite 
large; but of the 10,429,150 males between the ages of 16 and 59 
inclusive, 9,486,734 were accounted for in the tables of the 
census, while of 989,516 above the age of 60, 634,837 were 
accounted for. The difference in the former period (*. e, 16 
to 59) is substantially made up, first, by the number of students 
pursuing courses of instruction ; second, by the number of persons 
afncted with bodily or mental infirmities disqualifying them from 
participating in the industry of the country ; third, by the members 
of the pauper and criminal classes. 

The total number of females above the age of 16, not accounted 
for in the census, was in the neighborhood of 9,100,000. But of 
these probably 7,400,000 were occupied in "keeping house," others 
attended school, and the remainder was made up of various classes, 
such as grown up daughters living at home, widowed mothers sup- 
ported by their children, ladies living upon the income of accu- 
mulated property, as well as paupers, vagrants, and criminals. 

The cenus report classifies all the various occupations under 
four heads: 

1. Agriculture, in which were employed a grand total of 5,922,471 
persons. Of these 2,977,711 were farmers and planters, 2,885,996 
agricultural laborers, 31,435 gardeners and nursery-men, 6,588 
stock raisers, and 5,590 stock herders. 

2. Under the head of Prof "essional and Personal Services, the cen- 
sus enumerates 72 distinct occupations, with 2,684,793 persons. 

Laborers, not specified, greatly predominated, numbering 1,031,- 
666. Of the 975,734 domestic servants, 108,380 were males, and 
867,354 females. Thus only 1 out ot every 8.7 of the 7,579, 
863 families enjoyed the assistance of female help. The majority 
of the servants were natives of the United States, viz : 728,180 ; 
145,956 were natives of Ireland; 42,866, of Germany, 14,878, of 
British America; 12,531, of England ; and 5,420, of China. Barbers 
and hair dressers numbered 23,935 > boarding and lodging-house 
keepers, 12,785 ; hotel-keepers, 26,394 ; restaurant keepers, 35,185 ; 
clerks in hotels and restaurants, 5,245 ; other employees in these 
establishments,23,438 ; clerks and employees in government offices, 
23,079; launderers and laundresses, 60,906. The learned professions 



228 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

were thus repsented; authors and lecturers, 458; chemists, 608; 
metallurgists, 164; clergymen, 43,874; dentists, 7,839; civil en- 
gineers 4,703; journalists,5,286; land surveyors, 2,671; lawyers, 
40,736; naturalists, 287; physicians and surgeons, 62,383; and 
veterinary surgeons, 1,169. 

The different branches of the fine arts included 2,017 architects, 
934 designers and draftsmen, 775 painters, 250 sculptors, and 
2,948 artists not specified. There were 136,570 teachers, 9,491 of 
whom taught music, 108 drawing and painting, and 149 dancing. 

3. The title Trade and Transportation includes the commercial 
classes, numbering 1,191,238 persons, of whom, 14,362 were bank- 
ers and brokers, employing 995,598 officials, clerks, and others; 
the railroads absorbed the activity and services of 163,303 persons; 
the telegraphs of 8,579 ; and the express companies, of 9,396. The 
traders and dealers of all classes numbered 1,262,268, who employ- 
ed 222,504 clerks, 31,177 book-keepers and accountants, 7,262 
commercial travelers, and 14,203 salesmen or saleswomen. The 
sailors numbered ^6,66^; the boatmen and watermen, 21,332 ; the 
canalmen, 7,338; steamboatmen and women, 7,975 ; and the ship- 
pers and freighters, 3,567. 

4. In the Manufactures, and Mechanical and Mining Industries, 
there were engaged 2,707,421 persons, of whom 344,596 were 
carpenters, 171,217 boot and shoemakers, 161,820 tailors and 
seamstresses, 152,107 miners, 141,774 blacksmiths,i 11,106 cotton- 
mill operatives, S^^S^ woolen-mill operatives, 41,619 mill and 
factory operatives not specified, 80,710 masons, 85,123 painters 
and varnishers, 39,860 printers, and 42,877 manufacturers. 




AGRICULTURE. 

The great majority of the people of the United States are engaged 
in agriculture, which here as elsewhere forms the basis of national 
wealth. With happy peculiarities of climate, extent of territory 
through so many degrees of latitude or isothermal belts, and an 
immense area of most fertile soil, we enjoy extraordinary advantages 
for producing agricultural staples in great variety and abundance. 

The importance of the agricultural interest is fully recognized 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 229 

by the government and the people. In 1872 the Department of 
Agriculture was established by act of Congress, for the purpose 
ot collecting statistics, introducing from foreign lands seeds of 
new plants, testing their adaptability to our soil and climate, and 
disseminating inlormation to the farmers. Agricultural colleges 
have been established in many of the states, and agricultural per- 
iodicals are published in nearly all parts of the country. 

But farming is, as yet, a business rather than a profession. 
Too much land is superficially cultivated and soon exhausted. 
The very perfection of the labor-savinr; machines and implements, 
in which this country surpasses all others, promotes the process 
.of wearing out the surface soil. In all the older states there are 
large tracts which formerly produced twice as much corn or wheat 
to the acre as they produce now. It has become doubtful whether 
farming pays in New England ; and the country population 
there is gradually decreasing. The older tobacco plantations of 
Maryland and Virginia have been in many instances abandoned, 
and a large proportion of the southern cotton lands have ceased 
to yield profitable returns. The yield of wheat fifty years ago in 
Ohio was 30 bushels to the acre; to-day it is not quite 15. An 
English traveler was surprised by the extraordinary productive- 
ness of the wheat fields near Albany, N. Y., in 1775, which 
yielded from 30 to 40 bushels per acre, with inferior cultivation. 
In 1855 winter wheat yielded 7^ bushels and spring wheat but 5. 
The present method of farming will probably prevail as long as 
farmers can go West and obtain fresh land for a comparatively low 
price. But when the vast amount of virgin soil yet awaiting the 
arrival of the husbandman shall have been all taken up and made 
to yield its dormant treasures, lands will necessarily increase in 
value, thoroughly scientific cultivation will become profitable, and 
agriculture will rise to the dignity of a learned profession. 

According to the last census report, the aggregate area of the 
farms of the United States comprised 407, 735.041 acres, or about 
21 per cent, of the entire surface. Of this amount 189,000,000, 
or somewhat over 9 per cent., were "improved" i.e., cleared 
land, used for grazing, grass, or tillage, or lying fallow. These 
figures show what an immense amount of land is yet open to the 
settler. In i860, the improved lands comprised 163,000,000 of 
acres, and in 1850, 113,000,000. The rate of progress will here- 
after, probably, not fall short of 4,000,000 of acres per annum. 
At this rate it will still take about two hundred and fifty years 
before the cultivable portion of the United States (somewhat 
more than one-half the entire area) will be improved. 

The total area in woodland was 159,310,177 acres, or 39 per 
cent, of the aggregate of acres in farms. The Southern states 
are remarkably well wooded ; the twelve states from Maryland to 
Tennessee averaging in woods 52 per cent, of their farm area; 



230 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

the New England states have 32 per cent, of woods ; the Middle 
states 28 per cent.; and the Central states, from West Virginia to 
Nebraska, 32 per cent. The territories are not rich in woods, 
except Washington, which has 44 per cent. California has but 4 
per cent, of its farm area in woodland ; Nebraska, 10 ; Kansas, 
11; Iowa, 16; Illinois, 19; Indiana, 39; Ohio, 31; Kentucky,. 
48; and West Virginia, 51. 

The cash value of farms in 1870 was $9,262,803,861 (against 
$6,645,045,007, in i860); and of farm implements, $336,878,429. 
The wages paid during the year amounted to $310,286,285, and 
the value of all farm products, including betterments and increase 
of stock, reached the large sum of $2,447,538,658; in addition 
to which the orchards produced $47,335,189, and the market gar- 
dens, $20,719,229. New York, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania,. 
Indian-*, Iowa, and Missouri, rank first in the value of farm 
products. 

The value of animals slaughtered or sold was $398,956,376 ; 
of home manufactures, $23,423,332; and of forest products, 
$36,808,277. If these sums are added to those of the farm, 
orchard, and garden products, the grand total of agricultural ac- 
tivity amounts to $2,974,781,059, or about $80 for each inhabit- 
ant of the country. 

The live stock comprised 7,145,370 horses, 1,125,415 asses and 
mules,8,935, 332 milch cows, 1,319,271 working oxen, 13,566,605 
other cattle, 28,477,951 sheep, and 25,134,569 swine. The total 
value of all live stock was $1,525,276,475. 

The census returns of domestic animals include only those on. 
farms. No provision is made for enumeration of horses, cattle, 
and other animals, kept for work, milk, and fattening, in cities, or 
those in transitu to the feeder and butcher. The statistician ot 
the Department of Agriculture estimates the number of cattle 
not on farms, in 1870, 45273,973, or 15 per cent, of the aggregate 
returned; and the number of horses, 1,547,370, or 18 per cent. 

Illinois had the largest number of horses, 853,738, or 34 horses 
to every 100 inhabitants; then follow Ohio with 609,722, or 23. 
horses to 100 inhabitants ; New York, with 536,861, or 12 horses 
to 100 inhabitants; and Indiana with 497,883, or 30 horses to 
100 inhabitants. 

Missouri, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, and Alabama, had 
the largest number of mules and asses. The. Northern states had 
but few. 

The principal sheep-raising states are Ohio (about five million 
sheep), California (two and two-third millions), New York (over 
two millions), Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Missouri, Pennsylvania,. 
and Wisconsin (from one to two millions each.) 

The subjoined table shows to what extent each state and terri- 
tory participates in the grand sums above given ; 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



23T 



STATES AND TERRITORIES. 



Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Dakota 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois. 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey. 

New Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina 

Oho 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

Tennessee -. 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



6- 



1! 



5 £ <■> 

c J2.5 



,062,204 

14,585 
,859,821 
,218,133 

95,594 

,646,752 

42,645 

698,115 

8,266 

736,172! 

,83 £,856 

26,603 

•329,952 

,104,279 

,306,467 

.971,003 

,103,850 

,045,640 

-9!7,793 
,914,007 
,736 221 

, 96,339 
,322,102 
,209,146 
,130,615 
34,674 

647,031 

92,644 

',334,4 8 7 

,976,474 

143.007 
1,627,206 
1,258,742 

•,469,133 
,116,290 
,515,965 

289,630 
1,010,539 
1,843,278 
1,964,836 

n8,755 
1,073,257 
1,165,040 

192,016 

1,580,254 

;,899,?43 

338 



IS- 6 
.02 

5-5 
5-i 

.14 
35- 

•04 

51 '3 

23.0 

1.9 

18.4 
.01 

54-8 
46.7 
26.6 

33- 6 

14.0 

40.1 
36.2 
14. 1 

4-3 
13-9 

21-8 

.09 



39- 
41.2 

.18 
48.4 
16-2 
56-5 
1.8 
39-o 
43-3 
13-8 
235 
i-7 

.2 
47-3 
3i- 1 

.1 
19.8 
17. 1 



O 



67,739 

16 

40,029 

141,240 

3,385 

124,24 

2,085 

46,712 

3,800 

9,947 

94,559 

492 

920,506 

634,804 

392,662 

90,327 

311,238 

68,245 

102,96 

170,369 

116,432 

398,240 

97, 8 47 

81,716 

39 2 

729 

3°, 2 42 

1,485 

80,589 

257,523 

2,260 

1,272,858 

78,2 
1,054,465 

22,353 
r,043,482 

21,574 

44,809 

218,744 

60,150 

2,798 

139,367 

213,021 

3,878 

101,604 

300,414 

18 



U 

26,690 
143 
17,223 
37,965 
2,871 
17,545 
780 

4,257 

115 

5,2 

3°, I 56 

521 

149,757 

83,777 

82,987 

23,173 

66,287 

i5»929 

23,357 

18,434 

17,049 

49,810 

20,119 

29,940 

84,285 

1,819 

6,55 

i,445 

15,246 

2i,443 

2,389 
75, 
21,994 
120,30 

6,829 
H5,647 

3, J 35 
12,443 
55,o84 
37,425 

2,150 

23,". 
28,188 
2,103 
i7, I 75 
45,3" 
442 



3 S3 

> o^ 

.5 ° c 

'■£ &$ 



67,522 

278 

40,702 

49,856 

2,335 

26,482 

496 

8,172 

320 

8,910 

80,390 

638 

200,86: 

122,914 

1 14.381' 

27,63 

87,477 

52,007 

33,47° 
35,344 
32,192 
81,509 
33,446 
73,i38 
103,036 

1,677 

8,605 

1,660 
22,474 
42,725 

1,905 
253,526 

57, 
198,257 

7,*23 
183,946 

4,76 
41.909 
86,473 
49, l8 5 

i,973 
34,647 
5i,775 

2,112 

23,380 

78,027 

43 



^"o o 

l-g-i.. 

§ rt o j~- 

O'O bfjO 



4,670 

„ 9 
3,844 
6,112 

252 

4,882 

22 

997 

52 r 

6,854 

58 

56,789. 

3°i247 

25,781 

4,156 

24,122 

818 

4,939 

4,621 

4,325 
11,712 

3,°77 

4,091 

23,627 

169 

855 

104- 

3,720 

6,982 

225 

•28,226 

7,983 

40,498 

1,366 

28,4x3. 

756 

2,507 

15,856 

4,835 

• 172- 

4,32i 

8,376 

292 

4,9*5 

i I ,9 I 5 



In 1870 there were in the United States 2,659,985 farms, which 
had an average extent of about 150 acres. Over one-half of the 
farms covered from 20 to 100 acres. According to the classifica- 
tion of the census report, 0.3 per cent, of all the farms were be- 
low 3 acres; 6.4 per cent, had from 3 to 10 acres; 11.1 percent., 
from 10 to 20 acres; 31.9 per cent., from 20 to 50 acres; 28.3 
per cent, from 50 to 100 acres; 21.2 per cent., from 100 to 50a 



232 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

0.6 per cent., from 500 to 1,000 acres; and but 0.2 per cent, more 
than 1,000 acres. 

The average size of farms has considerably decreased since 
i860; except in Wisconsin, where no change has taken place; in 
Massachusetts, where it has increased from 94 to 103 acres ; and 
in California where it has risen from 466 to 482 acres. In North 
Carolina it has decreased from 316 to 212 acres; in South Caro- 
lina, from 488 to 233; in Mississippi, from 370 to 193; in Texas, 
from 591 to 301. In the central states the decrease is less 
marked; and was from 146 to 128 in Illinois; from 114 to in, 
in Ohio; from 211 to 158, in Kentucky; and from 165 to 134, in 
Iowa. 

Irrigation. — That portion of the United States which includes 
the Cordilleras and the Great Plains, suffers, as has been stated, 
from either scarcity or absence of moisture. Agriculture there 
will always be impossible, except in favored spots, which admit 
of irrigation from the rivers and creeks. But even in the most 
favored states of the Mississippi valley irrigation would be ex- 
ceedingly profitable. The yield of meadows would thereby be 
doubled and trebled, and that of the grain fields at least greatly 
increased. 

The great staples of the United States are the cereals — corn 
wheat, rye, oats, and barley ; potatoes, rice, tobacco, cotton, wool, 
and dairy products. 

Indian Corn, or Maize, is the only cereal indigenous to the 
American continent, and is the most extensively cultivated food- 
plant of the United States. It requires great summer heat, and 
hence our climate is peculiarly adapted to its culture. The 
northern limit maybe represented by the summer isotherm of 65 °, 
which excludes northern Maine, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, the 
valley of the St. Lawrence, and the larger portion of the Pacific 
coast. Its yield varies from 30 to 80 bushels to the acre. The 
total product amounted in 1870 to 760,944,549 bushels. Illinois 
produced over one-sixth of the whole amount ; Iowa, Missouri, 
and Ohio, each a little over one-twelfth ; and then followed Indi- 
ana, Kentucky, and Tennessee. 

Wheat requires a cooler climate than corn, and its range ex- 
tends farther north, but not as far south. It is, on the east of 
the Rocky Mountains, a reliable crop as far as the Saskatchawan 
valley, in 54 lat., and on the Pacific coast as high as 6o° lat. 
The average yield/ with careful cultivation and good soil, is about 
30 bushels to the acre. Forty bushels is considered an extraor- 
dinary crop, but in the irrigated region of Utah and Colorado a 
yield of 60 bushels is not exceptional. In 1870 there were pro- 
duced in the United States 112,549,733 bushels of spring wheat, 
and 175,195,893 of winter wheat; together, about 288,000,000 
bushels. Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, California, and Illinois 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



233 



produced the largest quantities of spring wheat ; Ohio, Indiana, 
Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, and New York, of 
winter wheat. 

Rye is a much hardier plant than wheat, and is cultivated mostly 
in the extreme northern or more elevated parts of the country. 
Its cultivation is much less profitable than that of wheat. The 
total yield in 1870 was 16,918,795 bushels, of which Pennsyl- 
vania, New York, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Kentucky produced 
the largest amount. 

Tne cereal, Oats, is so well adapted to either cold or warm 
climates, that it may be cultivated in nearly every portion of 
our country. It produces from 30 to 80 bushels to the acre. 
The yield in 1870 was 282,107,157 bushels, which were raised 
chiefly in the Northern and Middle states, as Illinois, Pennsyl- 
vania, New York, Ohio, Iowa, Missouri, and Minnesota. 

Barley, also, is a product of the north, and is almost exclusively 
used for the manufacture of malt beer. It yielded in 1870, 29,- 
961,305 bushels, the greater portion of which was produced in 
California and New York. 

The product of the cereals, from 1850 to 1870, was as follows : 



1850. 



[860. 



1867. 



Corn... 
Wheat. 
Rye... 
Barley. 



592,071,104 838,792,742 768,520,000 

100,425,944 173,104,924 2x2,441,400 

[4,188,813 21,101,380 23,184,000 

5,162.015 _r 13,826,098 25,727,000 



760,944,549 

187,745,626 

16,918,795 

29,761,305 



Oats 146,584,179 172,643,185 278,798,000 282,107,157 



Buckwheat. 



,956,912 17,571,818 



Aggregates. 



867,388,967 



1.237. 



21,359,000 
30,029,400 



9,821,72: 



1,287,299,153 



The money value of the 1,330,029,400 bushels of cereals pro- 
duced in 1867 is officially stated by the Department of Agricul- 
ture to be $1,248,037,000. 

The area of cereals, in acres, is reported by the same depart- 
ment as follows : 



1867. 

Corn . 32,520,249 

Wheat 18,321,561 

Rye -£,'689,275 

Barley 1,131,217 

Oats 10,746 ,416 

Buckwheat 1 ,327,826 



1870. 

Corn o» .- 34,091,137 

Wheat 19,943 ,803 

Rye 1,069,531 

Barley 1,177,666 

Oats 8,365,809 

Buckwheat 413,915 



The large crops of 1870 were produced by the farming popula- 
tion of over thirty-eight millions inhabitants, being at the rate of 
33 bushels a head for the whole population. If it is correct to 
assume that eight bushels of cereals are sufficient to support one 
person for one year, the United States had a surplus of 25 bush- 
els per inhabitant for exportation, or an aggregate of 1,000 mil- 
lions of bushels. A very large portion of this surplus, however, 
was fed to swine and other animals, and reappeared in the form 



234 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES, 

of animal food, while a not inconsiderable quantity was distilled 
into whisky and other spirituous liquors, or converted into starchy 
etc. 

The total production of cereals is on an average more than 
twice as large for each inhabitant of the United States, as it is 
in Europe. This enormous production is in a great measure ow- 
ing to the numerous machines for sowing, planting, reaping, 
threshing, and preparing the grain for market, which are the re- 
sult of the inventive genius of the American people, saving the 
labor and taking the place of millions of men, and that, too, at 
seasons of the year when men in sufficient numbers could not be 
obtained. The number of reaping machines actively employed 
in 1866 was estimated by Mr. John Stanton Gould at 210,000, a 
number which since then must have greatly increased. 

Rice is pre-eminently the grain of the subtropical zone. It re- 
quires a great deal of moisture, and can be cultivated only on 
fields which are subjected to inundation, either natural or artifi- 
cial. Rice Culture is described thus : " A sluice is cut through 
the river banks, and the fields, being first inclosed in a levee, are 
flooded. The land is plowed and flooded in March, and as soon 
as the young plants appear, they are submerged in water, so reg- 
ulated as to keep their heads just above the surface. When the 
grain has matured, the fields are laid dry, and the crop is gathered. 
The yield is from 30 to 60 bushels per acre, but under favorable 
conditions rises as high as 90 bushels." Rice was introduced into 
Virginia early in the seventeenth century, and fifty years later 
into the Carolinas. It is also cultivated now along the coasts of 
Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, and Texas. The total crop in the 
United States was 80,841,422 pounds, in 1840; 215,312,710, 
in 1850; 187,167,032, in i860; 73,635,021, in 1870. The great 
decrease in its production for the last decade is owing to the civil 
war. During this war labor was entirely disorganized ; flood-gates,, 
drains, canals and barns were destroyed, and when peace returned 
rice culture had well nigh ceased. In i860 rice to the value of 
$2,567,399 was exported; in 1870 the export had fallen to $127,- 

6 ss- ... 

Tobacco is indigenous in America, and was first introduced into 
Europe by Sir Walter Raleigh. Since then the consumption 
has enormously increased, so that its culture has extended to 
every part of the civilized world where the conditions of soil and 
climate are favorable to its growth. The tobacco crop in the 
United'States for 1840 was 219,163,319 pounds; for 1850, 199,- 
752,646 pounds; in 1860, 434,209,641 pounds; and for 1870,. 
262,735,341 pounds. Over forty per cent, of this quantity was 
raised in Kentucky (viz : 105,305,869 pounds). Virginia, Ten- 
nessee, Ohio, Maryland, Missouri, and North Carolina produced 
44 per cent. ; while the remainder was produced chiefly in Con- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 235 

necticut, Indiana, Iowa, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, 
and West Virginia. 

Sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum) is a tropical plant, and its 
cultivation in the United States is almost entirely confined to the 
Mississippi delta in Louisiana. It is very sensitive to frost, so 
that, if the juice becomes frozen, the sachmne matter contained 
therein will not crystalize into sugar. In the West Indies the 
cane is a perennial plant ; in Louisiana the crops are gathered 
from one planting. The quantity of sugar produced on an acre 
varies greatly, according to the quality of soil and care of culti- 
vation. The crop of i860 in the United states yielded 230,982 
hogsheads of sugar, of 1,000 lbs. each, and 14,963,996 gallons of mo- 
lasses; in 1870, 87,043 hogsheads of sugar and 6,593,323 gallons 
of molasses. During the latter year sugar and molasses were 
imported to the amount of nearly $72,000,000, being little less 
than the total value of exports during the same year, of corn,, 
wheat, and flour. It is not likely that the limited area fit for cane 
culture will ever produce more than a small portion of the 
amount annually consumed in our country, and hence the intro- 
duction of the beet-sugar industry would be of great advantage 
to our prosperity. That this can be done is shown by actual ex- 
periments successfully made in various places. 

Sorghum (Sorghum saccharatum) is raised in the Mississippi, 
valley, and yielded in 1870, 16,050,059 gallons of molasses; but 
only twenty four hogsheads of sugar. The product of maple 
trees was 28,443,645 pounds of sugar, and 921,057 gallons of mo- 
lasses. 

Cotton is the great staple of the Southern states. Two varie- 
ties are cultivated — the upland and the sea-island cotton. The 
former grows under favorable conditions as far north as the 40th 
parallel, but as a commercial crop it is limited by a line which 
coincides with the northern boundary of Mississippi, sweeps 
around the base of the Appalachians through Alabama, Georgia, 
and South Carolina, and then turns north to Raleigh and south- 
eastern Virginia. Beyond the Mississippi its culture extends up 
he lower valleys of the Red, Arkansas, and White rivers. The 
sea-island variety is raised on the low fertile islands of the South. 
Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Its value is five or six times as great 
as that of the upland. 

In 1792 the question was seriously discussed in England, wheth- 
er the United States would ever produce one hundred bales of 
cotton. Subsequently the inventive genius of Eli Whitney con- 
quered for this plant a place among the principal staples of the 
world, second only to the cereal grasses. His cotton gin, which 
separates the fibre from the seed, renders it possible to prepare 
even the largest crops for the loom. 

In 1800 the whole product amounted to 100,000 bales of 400 



236 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

pounds each ; in 1824, to 509,158 bales ; in 1830, to 976,845 bales; 
in 1840, to 2,128,880 bales; in 1850, to 2,445,793; and in i860, to 
5,196,940. The war brought this branch of industry almost to a 
standstill; nor has the recovery been very rapid since. In 1866 
the crop was almost 2,000,000 bales; in 1867, 2,500,00 bales; and 
in 1870, 3,011,990 bales, which were produced chiefly in Missis- 
sippi, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, the Caroli- 
nas, and Tennesse. For years to come the production will not, 
in the opinion of the Commissioner of Agriculture, reach the 
quantity before the war, and the average value will not exceed 
300,000,000 dollars. 

The Potato is hardly of less importance than corn or wheat. 
It is a native of America, and has been found growing wild in 
Chili and Ecuador, but is now cultivated in nearly all parts of the 
temperate zone. Its climate range is very wide, as it is successfully 
grown from Alabama and Georgia to the shores of the Great Lakes, 
and even of Hudson Bay. The average yield is below two hundred 
bushels feo the acre, though crops of four hundred bushels are not 
rare under favorable conditions of soil and season. In 1867 the 
United States produced 143,3375473 bushels, chiefly in New York 
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, and Wisconsin. 

The Sweet Potato is a native of the East Indies and tropical 
America; and is in the United States chiefly cultivated in the 
Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, and Texas. The crop in 
1870 was 21,709,824 bushels. 

Flax and Hemp were cultivated in the United States at an early 
date ; but they are now in great measure superseded by cotton. 
The hemp crop yielded, in 1870, 12,576 tons, eleven-twelfths 
of which were produced in Kentucky and Missouri. Flax yielded 
in the same year 27,133,003 pounds, two-thirdsof which were pro> 
duced in New York. 

The Hay crop of the country is of great value ; but from its 
weight and bulk it does not form an important item in the list oi 
exports. In 1850 there were produced 23,838,642 tons; in i860 
19,083,896 tons ; and in 1870, 27,316,048 tons. The following 
states produced from one to between five and six millions of tons 
each : New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, Iowa, Indiana, 
Michigan, Wisconsin, Maine, and Vermont. The Southern states 
receive from the Northern large quantities of hay in the form of 
compressed bales. 

Butter, Cheese, and Milk are produced chiefly in the Northern 
states, and of these New York is far in advance of all others. 
The subjoined table shows the increase of dairy produce during 
the three last decades : 

1850. i860. 1870. 

Butter 313,345.306 450,681,372 514,092,683 pounds. 

Cheese 105,535,893 103,663,927 53,49 2 i I 53 pounds. 

Milk(sold) » 235,500,599 gals. 




'% 




iw^ 



.=_ -' x^ v ■ 






OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 239 

The production of Wool has progressed remarkably both as 
regards quantity and quality. In 1850 the aggregate product was 
about 52,000,000 pounds; in i860, 60,000,000; and in 1870, 100,- 
■000,000. Ohio, with twenty and a half millions, surpasses all the 
other states ; California follows with eleven millions ; New York, 
with ten millions ; Michigan, with eight millions. Vermont ex- 
cels in producing wool of the very finest quality. 

The production of Silk is still in its infancy in the United 
States. The census for 1870 reports 3,937 pounds of silk cocoons, 
which were produced almost entirely in California. Here the 
mulberry (morus alby, and M. moretti) grows well in proper situ- 
ations ; but whether the raising of silk-worms can be successfully 
carried on with the high prices of labor is doubtful. 

MANUFACTURES. 

The manufacturing industry of the United States progresses 
at the most extraordinary rate, and keeps pace with the develop- 
ment of the natural resources of the country. New branches are 
constantly added to those already in successful operation, and near- 
ly all the commodities that enter into the consumption of a civilized 
nation are produced within our borders. 

In 1870 there were 252,148 manufacturing establishments, em- 
ploying 1,215,711 horse-power of steam engines, 1,130,431 horse- 
power of water wheels, and 2,053,996 hands, of whom 1,615,508 
were males above 16 years of age, and 323,770 females above 15 
years of age. The capital invested was $2,1 18,208,769 ; the raw 
material consumed had a value of $2,488,427,242 ; the wages 
paid amounted to $775,584,343; and the value of the products 
was $4,232,325,^42. Deducting from this enormous amount the 
cost of raw materials, the profit realized by the manufacturing 
industry during the year was $1,743,898,200, or $45.25 per head 
to the population. The increase of this great branch of industry 
during the last decade has been unprecedented. 

The subjoined table exhibits the industrial statistics; the states 
being arranged \n the order of the value of the annual products : 

Capital in- Value of annual 

& l A i Jib. vested products. 

New York... $366,994,320 $785,194,651 

Pennsylvania _ 406,821,845 711,894,344 

Massachusetts 231,677,862 553,912,568 

Ohio 141,923,964 269,713,610 

Missouri 80,257,244 206,213,429 

Illinois 94,368,057 205,620,672 

New Jersey 79,606,719 169,237,732 

Connecticut 95,281,278 161,065,474 

Michigan 71,712,283 110,394,676 

Rhode Island... 66,557,322 111.418,354 

Indiana , 52,055,425 108,617,278 

Maine 39,796,190 79,497,521 

Wisconsin 41,981,872 77,214,326 

Maryland 36,438,729 86,593,613 

New H»-ns«Hle 3°> 2 3i743 7 I *°38,249 



240 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

STATES Capital Value of annual 

_ ... . Invested. Products. 

California.. 39,728,202 66,594,556 

Kentucky 29,247,809 54,625,809 

*°. wa " 22,420,183 46,534,322 

Virginia 18,455,^00 38,364,322 

Tennessee 15.599,295 34,361,636 

Vermont 20,329,637 32,184,606 

^eorgia. 13,930,125 31,196,115 

Louisiana... 18,313,974 24,191,905 

West Virginia 11,084,520 24,102,201 

Minnesota 11,993,720 23,110,720 

North Carolina 8,140,473 19,021,327 

Delaware. 10,839,093, 16,206,397 

Nevada 5.127,790 '5,870,539 

Alabama 5 714,032 13,040,644. 

Kansas - 4,3 I 9,°6o 11,775,833 

Texas 5,284,110 11,517,302 

South Carolina ~ 5,400,418 9,858,981 

Dist. of Columbia 5,021,925 9,292,173 

Mississippi 4,501,714 8ii54!758 

Oregon L- 4,376,849 6,419,756 

Nebraska 2,169,963 5,738,512 

Florida 1,679,930 4]685,'403 

Arkansas 1,782,613 4,629,234 

Colorado 2,835,605 2,852,820 

Washington 1,893,674 . 2,851,052 

Montana 1,794.300 2,494,511 

Utah 1,301,898 2,343,019 

New Mexico 1,450,695 1,489,868 

Idaho 742,390 1,047,624 

Wyoming. 889,400 765,424 

Arizona « 150,700 185,410 

Dakota 79,200 178,570 

The manufacture of Cotton Goods is one of the oldest branches 
of industry in the United States. It properly began with the 
erection of the first water frame for spinning, in Rhode Island, in 
1790; but since then it has increased even more rapidly than the 
production of the raw material. In 1850 there were employed 
3,633,693 spindles ; and the total product had a value of $65,501,- 
687. Ten years later the number of spindles in operation was 
5,235,727, and the value of products, $115,681,774. By 1870 the 
spindles had increased to 7,132,415, and the value of products to 
$177,489,739; of which Massachusetts produced one-third, or 
$59,493,155. The states next in rank, as regards the production 
of cotton goods were Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, New Hamp- 
shire, Connecticut, Maine, and New Jersey. The Printed Cotton 
and Woolen Goods had a value of $54,446,044. 

The value of Woolen Goods in 1870 was $155,405,358, against 
$61,894,986 in i860, and $43,207,545 in 1850. The leading states in 
this branch of industry were Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Rhode 
Island, New Hampshire, and Maine. The census report enumer- 
ates fifteen different articles manufactured in this country, among 
which flannels, cloths, cassimeres, blankets, tweeds, and twills 
occupied the first places. 

The manufacture of Silk Goods has doubled during the last de- 
cade. The census for i860 returned for the total value of the 
products, $6,607,771 ; and the census of 1870, $12,210,662. In 
the former year the production was limited to sewing silk and 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 241 

twist: in the latter there were manufactured 1,026,422 yards of 
silk goods, 3,224,264 yards of silk ribbon, 370,031 pounds of ma- 
chine silk, and 127,590 pounds of spool silk. 

The value of Hosiery produced in 1850 was but $1,028,102 ; in 
i860 $7,280,606 ; and in 1870, $18,411,564. The manufacture of 
Carpets shows also a remarkable increase, in producing the follow- 
ing values : in 1.85045,401,234; in i860, $7,857,636; and in 1870, 
$21,761,573. 

Ready-made Clothing is manufactured principally in New Eng- 
land, New York, and Pennsylvania. The value in 1850 was $40,- 
678,802; in i860, $64,002,965; and in 1870, $147,650,378. In 
the production of Cast Iron were 'invested in 1870, $67,578,961, 
and the raw materials consumed, as pig-iron, scrap-iron, and coal, 
had a value of $48,222,550 ; while the value of products amount- 
ed to $99,843,218, against $36,132,033 in i860, and $25,108,155 
in 1850. New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Massachusetts are 
the leading states in this branch of industry. 

Boots and Shoes were manufactured to the amount of $181,644,- 
090 m 1870, against $91,889,298 in i860. 

The manufacture of Machinery has more than doubled within 
the last decade. In 1870 the products had a value of $138,519,- 
248, and in i860, $51,887,266. Pennsylvania, NewYork, Ohio, 
and Massachusetts are the foremost machine-producing states. 

Sawed Lumber, including shingles, staves, etc., was produced in 
i860 to the value of $96,715,854, and in 1870, of $210,159,327, 
chiefly in Pennsylvania, New York, Michigan, and Maine. 

Tanned Leather manufacture in 1870 had a value of $86,169,- 
$83, and the Curried Leather, of $54,192,017. 

The production of Brick and Tile increased from $11,263,147 
in 1850 to $29,302,016 in 1870, and is most extensively carried 
on in New York and Pennsylvania. The Carpenters and Builders 
trade added to the national wealth the large sum of $132,901,432, 
and the value of Furnitures*.* $68,522,221, and of Glass, $19,- 

235> 862 - 

No branch of manufacture grows more rapidly than that of 
Agricultural Implements. The products in 1850 had a value of 
$6,842,611; in i860, of $17,487,960; and in 1870, of $52,066,- 
875. The census report for the last year enumerates 21,790 corn- 
planters, 88,740 cultivators, 19,^72 fanning mills, 103,646 grain- 
cradles, 207,310 dozen of hand rakes, 9,150 harrows, 3,566 har- 
vesters, 1,298,260 hay forks, 80,619 horse rakes, 39,4-86 mowers, 
60,388 reapers, 59,645 mowers and reapers combined, 864,947 
plows, 2,931 threshers, 881,244 scythes, 6,900 seed sowers, and 
1,031 separators. 

Chewing, Smoking and Snuffing Tobacco was manufactured of 
16 



242 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



1,388,356 in value in 1870; and $21,820,545 in value in i860; 
and the number of Cigars was 935,868 boxes (of one thousand 
each), which had a value of $28,299,067. 

The value of Carriages and Wagons was $65,362,837. 

The Sugar Refineries turned out products to the amount of 
$108,941,911, and the Distilleries of Liquor ; Beer Breweries and 
Wine Manufactories of $94,133,014. 

Paper of all descriptions was produced in 1870 to the value of 
$48,676,935, against $23,447,302 in i860, and the value of printed 
publications was in both years respectively $32,674,037 and $31,- 
986,433- 

Flour and Meal had increased from $248,580,365 in i860, to 
$444,985,143 in 1870. 

The Iron industry of our country has attained colossal propor- 
tions, and is second only to that of England. In 1870 our pro- 
ducts were: pig-iron, $60,640,498, iron castings, $76,453,553; iron 
blooms, $23,389,625 ; forged and rolled iron , $128,062,627, and 
nails and spikes, $24,823,996. 

MINING. 

The United States is probably the richest country in the world, 
as regards the useful and precious minerals. The Appalachian 
ranges and the Mississippi valley have immense coal fields, inex- 
haustible deposits of iron, copper, lead, etc.; while the treasure 
of precious metals in the region of the Cordilleras is practically 
without limit. For many years to come the yield of our mines 
will increase, and mining continue to be a great legitimate branch 
of industry. 

Gold and Silver were formerly obtained to a limited extent in 
Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia ; and the value of the gold 
annually mined averaged about $1,000,000. But with the gold 
discoveries in California in 1848 the United States took the first 
rank in the production of this metal, and has maintained it ever 
since. Mining has been followed in the West by several different 
methods. Placer mining was the first; an inexpensive process 
by which the loose gold is washed out of the alluvial soil. Hy- 
draulic mining is placer mining on a gigantic scale; and this is 
still a profitable pursuit in California. The chief process now is 
quartz mining, by which the gold is obtained from the hard rocks 
(mostly quartz) of the auriferous veins. This has become and will 
remain for many years a legitimate industry, which if skillfully 
conducted, will yield regular returns, but no sudden fortunes. 
Hydraulic and quartz mining require large investments of capital, 
and hence are mostly carried on by chartered companies, whose 
shares are bought and sold in the market. The history of this 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 243 

commerce in shares began with the discovery of the rich Washoe 
mines in Nevada, 1858 ; particularly the Comstock Lode. The 
first reports of these discoveries were considered in San Francisco 
as greatly exaggerated ; but when some of the ores on their re- 
duction yielded $3,500 per ton, the value of the deposits became 
apparent. With great difficulties, and at an enormous expense, 
machines, crushing works, and food were transported across the 
Sierra Nevada to Washoe. Several companies were incorporated, 
and their shares alternately rose and fell. 

From i860 to 1862 many mines were in successful operation, 
and at the same time explorations were made in various parts of 
the Great Basin, and new districts were discovered, as Esmeralda, 
Silver Mountain, Humboldt, Owen River, and others. In 1862 
the deposits on the Colorado and Reese rivers were found; and as 
the news of these discoveries reached San Frarcisco, the excite- 
ment rose and in the spring of 1863 attained its climax. All 
classes of persons rushed into the wildest speculation. Merchants, 
physicians, and lawyers hastened to invest their savings in mining 
shares. Even women participated in the general mania. Then 
followed a general reaction. It became known that many mines 
were worthless. All mining shares fell greatly in price, and many 
lost their value altogether. The shares of the Wide West, Sheba, 
and Darsey (three of the better mines), for example, which during 
the excitement had risen to $580, $500, and $8co respectively, 
fell to $65, $70, and $90. This was a reduction of from $3,500,- 
000 to $393,000 for the aggregate value of the three mines named. 
The reaction had a favorable influence on the mining industry of 
the West. Capitalists became more cautious, and before making 
investments, had the mines thoroughly examined. Those wild 
speculations which so greatly impaired confidence in this interest 
are*now rare, and fluctuations in stock have gradually narrowed 
down to a limited range. 

The total value of the gold and silver products of the western 
mines was estimated by J. Ross Brown, in his report to the Secre- 
tary of the Treasury, as follows : 

For 20 years, from For the year ending 

1848 to 1868 Jan. 1, 1868. 

California $900,000,000 $25,000,000 

Nevada 90,000,000 20,000,000 

Montana 65,000,000 12,000,000 

Idaho. 45,000,000 6,500,000 

Washington -- 10,000,000 1,000,000 

Oregon 20,000,000 2,000.000 

Colorado .. 25,000,000 2,000,000 

New Mexico and Arizona 5,000,000 1,000,000 

Bullion, of which no account was taken 50,000,000 5,000,000 

Aggregate... - $1,210,000,000 $74,500,000 

Estimates for the years 1869 and 1872 give the following figures : 



244 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Gold. Silver. Total for 1869, Total for 1872 

California $20,000,000 $ $20,000,000 $19,049,089 

Nevada - 1,500,000 12,500,000 14,000,000 25,584,871 

Oregon and Washington 4,000,000 4,000,000 2,131,089 

Idaho -. 6,850,000 150,000 7,000,000 2,514,090 

Montana 11,850,000 150,000 12,000.000 4,442,135 

Arizona - 1,000,000 — ...... 1,000,000 *43i777 

NewMexico 500,000 ...... 500,000 500,000 

Colorado 3,500,000 500,000 4,000,000 3,001,751 

Utah ..... 3,521,022 

All other sources — 1,000,000 1,000,000 



$50,200,000 $13,300,000 $63,500,000 $60,887,82 

Quicksilver is found only in the coast ranges of California. The 
New Alraaden Mine produced from January to August, 1867, 31,- 
061 flasks, of 75 Spanish pounds each; the New Idria Mine yield- 
ed for the first six months of the same year 5,014 flasks, and the 
Reddington Mine, 55 miles N. W. of Napa, yielded up to January, 
1867, 9,009 flasks, selling for. a total of $344,594. The export of 
quicksilver increased from 9,000 flasks, in i860, to 42,000 flasks, 
in 1865. 

Copper is mined chiefly in Michigan and Wisconsin, near the 
coast of Lake Superior. The production in i860 was 14,432 tons 
which were worth $3,316,516. The most productive Lead mines 
are in Missouri, Illinois and Iowa. Those of Missouri yield 
nearly half of the entire product of the country, which was in i860 
about 9,000 tons, of $97 7,281 in value. Zinc and Nickel are found 
only in Pennsylvania, which produced, in i860, 11,800 tons of 
zinc, of $7 2,600 in value. 

Coal. The total extent of all productive coal fields thus fai 
known in the United States is 125,000 square miles, and embraces* 
the following areas : 

1. The Appalachian coal field, covering parts of Pennsylvania^ 
Ohio, Virginia, Eastern Kentucky, Eastern Tennessee, and 
Alabama. The workable area is estimated at 60,000 square miles. 
In the center of Pennsylvania, between Pottsville and Wyoming^ 
are the famous anthracite beds, divided into many distinct patches; 
and in the western part commences the great bituminous coal 
field, which spreads westward into Ohio and southward to Ala- 
bama. ■ 

2. Illinois and Missouri coal fields, covering a very consider- 
able part of Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky, and west of the Miss- 
issippi river, portions of Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, and Arkansas. 
Their estimated area is also about 60,000 sq. mis. 

3. The Michigan coal fields, situated about the center of the 
lower peninsula, and embracing an area of 5,000 sq. mis. 

4. The Texas coal field, covering the northern and north- 
western counties. 

' 5. The Wyoming coal field, of unknown area, which supplies, 
to a large extent, the Union Pacific railroad. 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 245 

6. A small coal field of about 1,000 sq. mis in Rhode Island 
and Massachusetts, between Providence and Worcester. 

The amount of anthracite and semi-anthracite coal sent to mar- 
ket in 1870 was, according to the Miners' Journal, 15,368,437 
tons, an increase over 1869 of 1,716,600 tons. In addition to this 
there were consumed in the collieries 3,842,876 tons. 

The total product of bituminous coal for 1870 was 34,179,778 
tons. 

Petroleum or coal oil first attracted attention about 15 years 
ago. In 1857 the first well was sunk near Titusville, on Oil Creek, 
in Pennsylvania; and at a depth of 70 feet the oil was struck, which 
yielded a steady flow of 400 gallons per day. In 1860 the num- 
ber of wells in this region was upward of 2,000,72 of which yielded 
a daily product of 1,165 barrels, of 33 gallons each. From that 
time petroleum became one of the great staple articles of com- 
merce, immense quantities being consumed at home or exported 
to Europe. 

The total shipments have been for the last 10 years as follows : 

In 1861 1,500,000 gallons, In 1866 67,430,451 gallons. 

In 1862 10,887,701 - " In 1867 67,052,020 " 

In 1863 28,250,721 " In 1868 *... 99,281,750 " 

In 1864 31,872,927 " In 1869 102,748,604 " 

In 1865 29,805,523 " In 1870 - 141,208,155 " 

Total export in 10 years 580,037,852 gallons 

At an average of 25 cts. per gallon, including crude and refined, 
for the whole period, this would give a total valuation of $145,- 
009,474, or at 20 cts, per gallon, $116,007,579, which has been ad- 
ded to the exports of the country from an article unknown to 
commerce 12 years ago. 

The Valley of Oil Creek, a tributary of the Alleghany river, is 
the principal oil region of the country. It produced in 1869 the 
enormous number of 398,186 barrels, and in 1870, 471,657 barrels. 

COMMERCE. 

The commerce of the United States has grown at the most ex- 
traordinary rate during the last decade, keeping fully abreast with 
the increase of population, manufactures, and general wealth of 
the country. 

In the year 1700 the exports of the colonies amounted to £395,- 
000, and the imports to ^344,000. In 1792 these values had 
risen respectively to $20,753,098 and $31,500,000, and in 1807, to 
$108,343,150 and $138,500,000. Then followed a period of com- 
mercial depression, brought about by the " Decrees of Berlin and 
Milan," and the "Embargo," and up to the year 1839 the exports 
and imports averaged about $78,000,000. The crisis of 1837 was 
succeeded by a decline which reached its lowest point in 1842. 



246 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Here the figures rise again, slowly at first, more rapidly afterward, 
with but a brief interruption in consequence of the crisis of 1857. 

In i860 the exports amounted to $400,122,296 ; the imports to $362,163,440. 

1862 229,938,975; 205,819,823. 

|, x ^4 || || 340,665,580; 328,514,559. 

1866 437i64i,357; • " 565,426,394- 

In the year ending June 30, 1870, the United States imported 
goods to the value of $541,493,706 and exported goods to the 
value of $590,078,550. Of this amount the value of domestic ex- 
ports was $562,518,651, and of foreign exports, $28,459,899. 

New York absorbs 56.8 per cent, of the total foreign commerce 
of the country. Its pre-eminence is owing to the geographical 
position of the city, her magnificent harbor and her excellent con- 
nections with the interior by rail and canal. The Erie Canal, 
which connects New York with the Great Lakes, is the only water 
communication which intersects the whole breadth of the Appal- 
achian System from East to West. 

The mercantile fleet of the United States had, in 187 1, 4,282,607 
tons new admeasurement, of which 1,087,637 tons were employed 
in steam navigation, 

Vessels which are engaged in foreign commerce and the whale 
fishery are registered, those which are employed in the coasting 
trade, mackerel fisheries, etc., are merely enrolled and licensed. 

On the 30th of June, 187 1, the tonnage was employed as fol- 
lows: 

In foreign trade - 1,363,652 tons. 

la whale fisheries 61,490 " 

Total registered tonnage — 1,425,142 

Enrolled vessels in the coasting trade 2,722,372 

Licensed " " " (under 20 tons). 42,228 

In the cod and mackerel fisheries 92,865 

Total registered and licensed tonnage .* 2,857,465 

Total tonnage of the U. S 4,282,607 

The tonnage of our merchant fleet was 1,042,404 in 1800, 
1,232,502 in 1810; 1,298,958 in 1820, and 1,267,847 in 1832. 
During the next fifteen years it doubled; numbering 2,562,084 
tons in 1845. In 1850 k reached 3,535,454 tons ; in 1855, 5,212,- 
001 ; and attained its greatest development in 1861, when it num- 
bered 5,539,813 tons. The Southern insurrection, the British 
recognition of the Southern States as belligerents, and the depre- 
dations of Southern cruisers, bore with crushing weight on the 
shipping interests of the United States. Many ships were cap- 
tured and destroyed, and many more passed into foreign hands. 
Official returns show that our ocean commerce is being carried 
more and more in foreign bottoms. In i860 nearly 71 per cent, 
of our foreign commerce was in American ships; in 1864 it had 
decreased to 46 per cent. ; in 1868, to 44 per cent. ; and in 187 1, 
to 38 per cent. There is no valid reason why our shipping in- 
terest should not rise from its present depression and again take 



r'«jw;r< ' ' ' r ' i ! i j ; f / ! / /|| j ' V.aS I ! i l i i j I ) J H) ) iiJ ^ U'l I (I|f '! ' | j ■'{ f ' j 1^'// T 7 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 249 

the prominent rank it held before the war. The United States 
produce an abundance of iron and of the best ship timber in the 
world. American skill and ingenuity have produced the best 
ship models known. Though the high price of labor and mate- 
rials render competition with the older countries of Europe very 
difficult, yet with the wisest congressional enactments, and the 
most intelligent adjustment of taxes on ship-building materials, 
we may hope soon to re-assume our former position as a maritime 
nation. 

The number of vessels which entered into the ports of the 
United States during the year ending June 30, 1871, was 30,102, 
with an aggregate tonnage of 10,009,184. Of these there were 
19,406 foreign vessels, with a tonnage of 6,266,444 or 62^ per 
cent. 

During the same year 29,861 vessels of 9,898,482 tons burden 
cleared from our ports, of which 10,288 vessels of 6,151,537 tons 
were foreign. 

It has recently been estimated, that there are on the Great 
Lakes no less than 5,424 steamers, sailing vessels and barges, 
having an aggregate capacity of 717,299 tons, and total value of 
$53,343,000. In 1800 there were only 1,640 vessels of all kinds 
on those lakes, valued at $23,229,000, and having a total capacity 
of 412,127 tons. 

The domestic commerce of the United States far exceeds the 
foreign commerce in the amount and value of the goods bought 
or sold. But as there is no bureau, official or unofficial, in which 
the movements of goods are registered, it is impossible to obtain 
statistics embracing the whole field. Our ocean coasts measure 
33,633 miles (exclusive of Alaska) ; the lake shores 3,620 miles; 
and the Mississippi, with its tributaries, has a net-work of navi- 
gable waters extending over 35,650 miles, to which the other navi- 
gable streams add nearly 50,000 miles. The combined length of 
our canals is over 6,000 miles, and of railroads over 65,000 miles. 
Thus our country possesses an aggregate of great commercial 
highways, open to steam communication, exceeding 190,000 miles 
in length. And all these roads and water ways carry vast quan- 
tities of goods and effect the interchange of commodities between 
the different parts of the country. The Southern States send 
their cotton to the factories of the North, and receive in return 
Northern manufactures ; the surplus of the Western grain moves 
to the Atlantic seaboard, to be consumed in the densely popu- 
lated states of the East, or to be shipped to foreign lands ; the 
Pennsylvania coal-fields furnish the households and steam engines 
of the New England and Middle States with fuel ; and the forests 
of Maine, Wisconsin and Michigan supply the great lumber mar- 
kets of Portland, Albany, Chicago, and other cities. 



.250 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

RAILROADS, TELEGRAPHS, AND CANALS. 

The wonderful progress of the United States is clearly shown 
by the development of the railroad system. In 1830 the first 23 
miles were opened for use ; during the decade ending 1840, 3,153 
miles were added; in that ending 1850, 5,508; in that ending i860, 
21,614; and in that ending 1870, 22,764 (notwithstanding the civil 
war, which occupied a part of this decade). At present the mile- 
age probably exceeds 68,000, the construction of which cost in 
round numbers about $3,250,000,000, or $50,000 per mile. The 
mileage of all European railroads in 1871 was 66,135; of which 
Great Britain had 15,144; Germany 12,304; France 10,635; 
Russia 6,989; Austria 6,325 ; and Italy 3,648. Thus the time is 
near at hand when our railroads will exceed in length those of all 
Europe combined. 

In 1872 there were 346 incorporated railroad companies. 

The Telegraph service in the United States is performed by 
seven separate associations, which were estimated on the 1st of 
January, 1873, to have a total length of lines of 80,000 miles; of 
wires 180,000 miles; 6,300 stations; and an aggregate nominal 
capital of $60,000,000. The most important of these associa- 
tions is the " Western Union Telegraph Company," which is a 
consolidation of most of the telegraph interests of the country 
prior to 1866. This company, on the 1st of July, 1872, controlled 
and operated 62,032 miles of line, 137,190 miles of wire, 
and 5)237 stations. Of this aggregate 1,212 miles of 
line were in New Brunswick and in Nova Scotia, 
and 512 miles of line in British Columbia; leaving 60,308 
miles of line, and 133,936 miles of wire, in the United States. 
There is probably no village of any importance in the country 
which is not within easy reach of telegraphic communication ; 
and yet the construction of new lines is progressing uninter- 
ruptedly. 

The Canals of national importance are those which connect 
the seabord with the great central region of the St. Lawrence and 
Mississippi valleys. Foremost amongst these is the Erie Canal, 
which was constructed from 181 7 to 1822, under the direction of* 
DeWitt Clinton, Governor of New York. It connects Albany at 
the head of navigation of the Hudson river, with Buffalo on the 
eastern extremity of Lake Erie, following the direction of the 
Mohawk valley, and thus in connection with the Hudson River 
forms an uninterrupted water communication between New York 
city and the Great Lakes. The total length of the caaal is about 
370 miles, which is, however, greatly increased by the numerous 
branches, extending in various diiections. One of these connects 
Roch ester with the Alleghany river. New York city owes its pre- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 25 I 

eminence as the commercial metropolis of our country chiefly to 
this canal. 

The Pennsylvania Canal consists of the central division, which 
connects Columbia on the Susquehanna river, with Hollidaysburg 
at the foot of the Alleghany Mountains; and the western division, 
which connects Pittsburgh with Johnstown. The distance of 37 
miles intervening between Johnstown and Hollidaysburg is 
traversed by a portion of the Pennsylvania railroad. A branch 
canal extends from Wrightsville, opposite Columbia, along the 
lower course of the Susquehanna River to Havre de Grace, on 
Chesapeake Bay; and other lines follow the upper Susquehanna, 
terminating at Bellefonte and West Nanticoke. The commerce 
in coal and other mineral products of Pennsylvania has been 
greatly facilitated by this extensive canal system. The Chesa- 
peake and Ohio Canal is designed to connect Chesapeake Bay 
with the Ohio river, and has thus far been completed Irom Alex- 
andria and Georgetown along the Potomac river to Cumberland. 
The James River and Canawha Canal connects R ichmond with 
Buchanan, Va., and follows the James River valley. The numer- 
ous other canals in the United States are chiefly of local import- 
ance, and their description will be found in the articles on the 
states in which they are situated. 

EDUCATION. 

The people of the United States have always recognized the 
paramount importance of education and mental culture. Twenty 
years after the first tree was felled and the first block-house built 
in New England, the settlers of Massachusetts, though neither 
numerous nor wealthy, founded Harvard University. This glor- 
ious example was soon followed in other colonies, and the spirit 
thus early manifested pervades the entire nation. In no 
country in the world is there a larger amount of money expended 
for purposes of education by communities or private citizens; 
and certainly the excellence of our school buildings and other 
appurtenances is unequaled. In 187 1 benefactions and donations 
from private citizens to educational establishments amounted to 
the large sum of $8,592,000. 

The general system of education originated in New England, 
where as early os 1628 provision was made for the education of 
every child in the settlements. In 1637 a school was ordered to 
t>e provided for every neighborhood of 50 families, and another 
of a higher grade of instruction for every 100 families. These 
schools were maintained by taxes raised in each district. The New 
England system of public schools has been adopted with but 
slight modifications by nearly all the states of the Union. The 
Federal Government has no vote in the management or establish- 



252 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ment of schools, and there is consequently in the cabinet no 
Minister or Secretary of Public Instruction, as in nearly all Euro- 
pean governments ; but Congress has aided the cause of educa- 
tion by reserving for the school fund of each state one section of 
land (of 640 acres) out of every township of the public domain. 
The amount of land thus appropriated or reserved for school 
purposes approaches nearly 12,000,000 acres. The older states 
have besides large permanent school funds; but the maintenance 
of the schools is secured chiefly by direct taxation, which is voted 
in all the states with great liberality. 

The instruction given in the common schools is elementary and 
comprises reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and on outline 
of the history of the United States. There are, however, num- 
erous public and private schools of a higher grade in the cities 
and many country districts, such as grammai schools, high 
schools, and institutions of secondary instruction, where, in addi- 
tion to the elementary branches, Latin, German, French, mathe- 
matics, and the rudiments of the natural sciences are taught. In 
nearly all the states there are normal schools for the purpose of 
training competent teachers. 

Colleges and Universities in which the classical and scientific 
or professional branches of learning are taught, abound in the 
United States to an extraordinary extent. The report of the 
Commissioner of Education for 187 1 enumerates 372 collegiate 
institutions which are authorized to confer academic degrees; 56 
agricultural and scientific schools; 117 theological seminaries; 
40 law schools; 94 medical, dental and pharmaceutical schools; 
136 female colleges; and 84 commercial and business colleges;, 
and this enumeration is probably not complete. Many of these 
institutions are necessarily limited in means and performance, 
and yet await a fuller development and a wider scope; but there 
are also many with ample endowments and generous aims, which 
have greatly raised the standard of literary and scientific excel- 
lence. Such institutions as Yale, Harvard, and Princeton univer- 
sities, the state University of Michigan, Columbia College in New 
York, and some others, are subjects of just pride to every Ameri- 
can, and enjoy a well-deserved fame throughout the civilized 
world. A real university requires vast sums of money for its or- 
ganization and management, and in those countries where the 
true idea of a university is best comprehended, the available 
means and forces are concentrated upon a few large institutions. 
The recognition of this fact is rapidly gaining ground in the 
United States, and instead of multiplying the already too large 
number of small colleges, it is becoming more and more the policy 
to unite and combine those existing. 

Harvard College is the oldest institution of learning in the 
country. It was founded in 1636 and embraces, 1, an academical 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 253 

department, including regular courses of religion philosophy, 
rhetoric and oratory, history, modern languages, Latin, Greek, 
Hebrew, natural history, physiology, chemistry, mineralogy, phys- 
ics and mathematics; 2, a divinity school, 3, a law school; 4, a 
medical school; 5, the Lawrence Scientific School and school 
of mining and practical geology; 6, a school of astron- 
omy; and 7, a dental school. It is situated in Cambridge, 
near Boston, has 76 professors, and was attended in 1871 by 643^ 
students. The library contains 176,000 volumes and is one of 
the richest in the country. Yale College, in New Haven, Conn,, 
was established 62 years later than Harvard, and embraces, 1, an 
academical department; 2, the Sheffield Scientific school; 3, a 
theological department; 4, a law department ; 5,. a medical de- 
partment; and 6; a school of the Fine Arts. The number of 
professors and instructors in 1871 was 68, and of students 840. 
The college possesses libraries with a total of near 100,000 vol- 
umes, valuable mineralogical, geological, botanical and zoological 
collections, an astronomical observatory, and an excellent chem- 
ical laboratory. 

Columbia College, in New York, was chartered in 1784, and is 
a wealthy institution. It embraces, 1, a school of letters and 
science ; 2, a school of mines ; and 3, a law school ; and has 34 
professors and about 300 students. The College of Physicians 
and Surgeons of the city of New York, with 28 professors and 
326 students, is connected with Columbia College. 

The subjoined table contains a list of those colleges which, ac- 
cording to the report of the Commissioner of Education, had 
over ten teachers during the year 187 1 : 

1 University of California Oakland, California. 

2 St. Ignatius College San Francisco, California. 

3 Santa Clara College Santa Clara, California. 

4 Trinity College Hartford, Connecticut. 

5 Wesleyan University Middletown, Connecticut. 

6 Yale College _ New Haven, Connecticut. 

7 University of Georgia Athens, Georgia. 

8 University of Chicago. Chicago, Illinois. 

9 Northwestern University Evanston., Illinois. 

10 Knox College Galesburg, Illinois. 

11 Illinois College Jacksonville, Illinois, 

12 Monmouth College Monmouth, Illinois. 

13 Northwestern College Naperville, Illinois. 

14 Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana. 

15 Northwestern Christian University _ Indianapolis, Indiana. 

x6 University of Notre Dame _ . Notre Dame, Indiana. 

17 Upper Iowa University . Fayette, Iowa. 

18 Iowa College Grinnell, Iowa. 

19 Simpson Centenary College Indianapolis, Indiana. 

20 Iowa State University Iowa City, Iowa. 

21 Iowa Wesleyan University Mt. Pleasant, Iowa. 

22 Berea College Berea, Kentucky. 

23 Kentucky University Lexington, Kentucky. 

24 Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, Louisiana. 

25 Straight University „ New Orleans, Louisiana. 

26 Jefferson College St. Michael, Louisiana. 

27 Bowdoin College Brunswick, Maine. 

28 St. John's College - Annapolis, Maryland. 

29 Loyola College.. ._ Baltimore, Maryland. 



254 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

30 Rock Hill College Ellicott, Maryland* 

31 St. Charles College Ellicott, Maryland' 

32 Mount St. Mary's College Emmettsburg, Maryland* 

33 Wesleyan Maryland College ... Westminster, Maryland. 

34 Amherst College Amherst, Massachusetts. 

35 Boston College < Boston, Massachusetts. 

36 Harvard College - Cambridge, Massachusetts. 

37 Tufts College, College Hill, Massachusetts. 

38 Williams College Williamstown, Massachusetts. 

39 College of the Holy Cross .Worcester, Massachusetts. 

40 Michigan University - Ann Arbor, Michigan. 

41 Hillsdale College Hillsdale, Michigan. 

42 Kalamazoo College Kalamazoo, Michigan. 

43 Olivet College .Olivet, Michigan. 

44 University of Mississippi Oxford, Mississippi. 

45 Pass Christian College Pass Christian,_ Mississippi. 

46 University of Missouri Columbia, Missouri. 

,47 McGee College College Mound, Missouri. 

48 St. Louis University St. Louis, Missouri. 

49 Washington University .. ...St. Louis, Missouri. 

50 Dartmouth College Hanover, New Hampshire. 

51 Rutgers College New Brunswick, New Jersey. 

52 College of New Jersey Princeton, New Jersey. 

53 Seton Hall College S. Orange, New Jersey. 

54 Alfred University _ Alfred, New Jersey. 

55 Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute Brooklyn, New York. 

56 St. Joseph's College _ Buffalo, New York. 

57 St. Lawrence University _ Canton, New York. 

58 Hamilton College Clinton, New York. 

59 St. Johns College „ Fordham, New York. 

60 Madison College Hamilton, New York. 

61 Cornell University Ithaca, New York. 

62 N. Y. City College. New York, New York. 

63 College of St. Francis Xavier _ ..New York, New York. 

64 Columbia College New York, New York. 

65 Manhattan College New York, New York. 

66 University of New York City New York, New York. 

67 Union College Schenectady, New York. 

68 Baldwin University Berea, Ohio. 

69 St. Xavier College - Cincinnati, Ohio. 

70 Mt. St. Mary's of the West Cincinnati, Ohio. 

71 Keynon College Gambier, Ohio. 

72 Western Reserve College Hudson, Obio. 

73 Mt. Union College Mt. Union, Ohio. 

74 Oberlin College Oberlin, Ohio. 

75 Antioch College Yellow Springs, Ohio. 

76 Hiram College Hiram, Ohio. 

77 Willamette University .. Salem, Oregon. 

78 Andalusia College Andalusia, Pennsylvania. 

79 Augustian College of Villanova ..Delaware county, Pa. 

80 Lafayette College Easton, Pennsylvania. 

81 Pennsylvania College ....Gettysburgh, Pennsylvania. 

82 Lincoln University .Oxford, Pennsylvania. 

83 University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

84 La Salle College Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

85 Western University Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 

86 Lehigh University South Bethleham, Pennsylvania. 

87 Washington and Jefferson College Washington, Pennsylvania. 

88 Waynesburg College Waynesburg, Pennsylvania. 

89 St. Vincent's College Westmoreland county, Philadelphia. 

90 Brown University ....Providence, R. I. 

91 University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina. 

92 East Tennessee University Knoxville, Tennessee. 

93 University of Nashville Nashville, Tennessee. 

94 Waco University ...Waco, Texas. 

95 University of Vermont Burlington, Vermont. 

96 Norwich University Norfield, Vermont. . 

97 University of Virginia.. University of Virginia P. O. 

98 Washington and Lee University Lexington, Virginia. 

99 Richmond College Richmond, Virginia. 

100 Roanoke College Salem, Virginia. 

101 Collegeof William and Mary Williamsburg, Virginia. 

102 West Virginia State University Morgantown, W. Virginia. 

103 West Virginia College Flemington, W. Virginia. 

104 St. Vincent's College Wheeling,W. Virginia. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 255" 

105 University of Wisconsin.- Madison, Wisconsin 

106 Racine College Racine, Wisconsin 

107 Ripon College Ripon, Wisconsin 

108 St John's College Prairie du Cnien, Wisconsin 

109 Georgetown Georgetown, D. C 

no University of Deseret Salt Lake City, Utah. 

in Franklyn and Marshall College Loncoster, Pennsylvania. 

The report of the Commissioner of Education enumerates 68. 
agricultural and scientific schools, the more important of which 
are associated with and form parts of older colleges and univer- 
sities. Many of them, however, have been founded on an inde- 
pendent basis. Those scientific institutions which received gov- 
ernment aid by land grants number twenty-four, with 180 profes- 
sors and over 2,000 students. 

The only schools maintained by the Federal Government are 
the United States Military Academy and the United States Naval 
Academy. The former is situated at West Point, on the Hudson 
river, in the midst of scenery unsurpassed for picturesque beauty. 
It was established in 1802, and nearly all the officers of the reg- 
ular army have there received their education and training. The 
superintendent is usually an officer of high rank. His military 
staff consists of an adjutant, quartermaster, treasurer, surgeon, 
and two assistant surgeons. The academic staff consists of the 
commandant of the cadets, who is also instructor of tactics, eight 
professors, and thirty-one assistant professors and instructors. 
The number of pupils is 227. The discipline is strict, and the 
instruction very thorough, including the following branches : Mil- 
itary tactics, engineering, natural and experimental philosophy, 
mathematics, drawing, chemistry, mineralogy and geology, ethics 
and law, the French and Spanish languages, ordnance and gun- 
nery. Candidates for admission to the Academy must be over 17 
and under 22 years of age, and pass an examination in reading, 
writing, the elements of arithmetic, English grammar, geography, 
and the history of the United States. 

The Naval Academy, situated at Annapolis, Md., is under the- 
charge of a superintendent, assisted by eight naval officers 
The academic staff includes 67 professors and assistant professors 
who teach seamanship, mathematics, steam-engineering, astronomy 
and navigation, natural philosophy, ethics and English studies, 
the French and Spanish languages, and drawing. The number 
of pupils is 253. Candidates for admission must be between 14 
and 18 years of age, and must pass an examination similar to 
that which is required for admission into the military academy. 

Notwithstanding the great efforts of communities, associations, 
and individuals, to promote the cause of education in the United 
States, the number of adults who cannot read and write is still 
very large. According to the census for 1870 there are in the 
United States, 5,658,144 illiterates over 10 years of age who can- 
not read or write; that is, between 14 and 15 percent, of the 



256 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

entire population. This proportion places our country, in regard 
to the dissemination of elementary education, far in advance of 
England, France, Italy; but it is sufficiently unfavorable to arrest 
the attention of every intelligent American citizen. The largest 
contingents to this army of illiterates are furnisiied by the colored 
people of the Southern states, formerly held in bondage, and those 
immigrants who come from countries where popular education is 
notoriously neglected. Yet the remainder of native whites who 
cannot read and write is much larger than the number of elemen- 
tary schools in the country would seem to warrant. In some 
places the school accommodations are as yet inadequate, notably 
in the Southern states and more sparsely inhabited districts of 
the new territories. In others, however, educational facilities are 
abundant, but regular school attendance is not sufficiently en- 
forced by those having the care of children. To remedy the 
evils consequent upon such neglect, legislation to compel attend- 
ance is recommended, and has been carried out in some localities. 
The distribution of illiterates is, however, very unequal in the 
various sections of the country. In northern New England, cen- 
tral New York, northern Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, 
southern Michigan, and the larger portion of Iowa, the percent- 
age of illiterates to the whole population is less than 5 per cent. ; 
and varies in the remainder of the states north of the Missouri 
and Ohio river, from 5 to 20. The Broad belt of country extend- 
ing from the Chesapeake Bay through the Carolinas, Georgia, 
Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, southern Arkansas, and 
Texas, has a percentage of illiterates varying from 20 to 60 ; but 
includes extensive tracts, where it rises to over 60 per cent. 

LIBRARIES. 

The x\mericans are a nation of readers. In the northern and 
western states books are found in almost every household, and 
works of a religious or popular character are issued in immense 
editions and sold all over the country. The sales of some works 
have reached the enormous number of 200,000 copies and over. 
The census for 1870 gives the number of libraries in the United 
States as 164,815, containing 45,528,938 volumes. Of these 
libraries 108,800, with 26,072,420 volumes, are private; and 56,- 
015, with 19,459,518 volumes, are public. Large as these num- 
bers may appear, they are far below the truth. The Commissioner 
of the Census remarks, that in respect to certain states, the figures 
returned by the marshals were ludicrously disproportionate. 
Thus, for example, for the state of Connecticut, no returns of 
private libraries were made at all, the deputy marshal reporting 
that no extra information could be obtained. The Congressional 
Library in Washington, probably the largest collection of books 
in the country, contained, in 1870, 199,000 volumes. The num- 




LOSS/VC=-**/Uil£Iil 



GENERAL POST OFFICE AT WASHINGTON. 




TREASURY BUILDING, WASHINGTON. 



V 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 259 

ber of volumes in the libraries, both public and private, was, in 
Pennsylvania, 6,477,840; in New York, 6,310,302 ; in Ohio, 3,687,- 
363 in Illinois, 3,323,914; in Massachusetts, 3,017,813; in Mich- 
igan, 2,174,744; in Kentucky, 1,909,230; in Maryland, 1,613,483; 
in Indiana, 1,125,553; in Virginia, 1,107,313; and in Missouri, 
10,65,638. The libraries of the following states contained from 
500,000 to 1,000,000 volumes : Alabama, District of Columbia, 
Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North 
Carolina, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Vermont, and Wisconsin. 
Wyoming and Arizona contain the least number of books, barely 
exceeding 2,000 in all libraries. \ 

THE PRESS. 

The aggregate of the newspapers and periodicals published in 
the United States, in 1870, was 5,871, issuing the enormous num- 
ber of 1,508,548,250 copies per annum, and having a total circu- 
lution of 20,842,475. The average of copies issued during the 
year was 40 single numbers for every head of the population, and 
one newspaper and periodical was published for every 6,800 in- 
habitants. Of the aggregate number (5,87 1 ) there were 574 dailies, 
107 tri-weeklies, 115 semi-weeklies, 4,295 weeklies, 96 semi- 
monthlies, 622 monthlies, 13 bi-monthlies, and 49 quarterlies. Of 
the various interests represented, politics engrossed by far the 
largest number, viz. : 4,333. The remainder comprised 93 agri- 
cultural journals; 81 devoted to benevolent or secret soci- 
eties; 142 commercial and financial juornals; 503 illustrated, lit- 
erary, and miscellaneous; 407 religious; 6 sporting; 207 technical 
and professional; while 79 contained only advertisements. 

TABLE OF IMMIGRATION FOR TEN YEARS. 

Year ending June 30, 1868 . 288,088 

Year ending June 30, 1869 - 363,074 

Year ending June 30. 1870 ........... 402,920 

Year ending June 30, 1871.... ....... 342,609 

Year ending June 30, 1872™ ....... . .... 422,978 

Year ending June 30, 1873 - - 473> I 4 I 

Year ending June 30, 1874 .-.— -. 327,949 

Year ending June 30, 1875 ---- --244,632 

Year ending June 30, 1876 . .... 189,991 

Year ending June 30, 1877 --- ........ - 165,019 

Year ending June 30, 1878 . . 138,469 



OUR POSTAL SYSTEM. 



The Post Office is one of the most useful and important of 
human institutions. It is, indeed, an immense public blessing. 
We would almost as willingly do without government as without 
the mails. Public mails are altogether a modern affair. Ancient 
governments had their couriers to bear official communications 
with extraordinary dispatch, but they had nothing like our post 
office system for transmitting and delivering the correspondence 
of private citizens. The word post is from the Latin positus, 
because couriers were placed at convenient posts along the route, 
with horses all saddled and bridled, each ready to hasten to the 
succeeding post on the arrival of the courier from the preced- 
ing. 

The first posts of which we have any account,were in the Medo- 
Persian Empire. They were merely a governmental concern. 
Some interesting references thereto are incidentally given in the 
Book of Esther : " And the letters were sent by posts into all 
the king's provinces to destroy, to kill, and to cause to perish all 
Jews, both young and old, little children and women, in one day, 
even upon the thirteenth day of the twelfth month, which is the 
month Adar." " The posts went out, being hastened by the king's 
commandment, and the decree was given in Shushan the palace.'' 
" And he wrote in king Ahasuerus' name, and sealed it with the 
King's ring, and sent letters by posts on horseback, and riders on 
mules, camels, and young dromedaries." " So the posts that rode 
upon mules and camels went out, being hastened and pressed on 
by the king's commandment." 

Of course the Roman emperors had pret,y extensive postal 
arrangements, but they were almost wholly military, being de- 
signed to transmit intelligence between the armies and the capital. 

260 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 26l 

Tiberius is said to have thrown away dispatches with indignation 
if they were more than three days in coming from the most re- 
mote points of Italy. In the East, carrier-pigeons were formerly 
much employed to carry letters, and when well trained their per- 
formances were wonderful. They have occasionally been 
employed in Europe, but where the telegraph operates the pigeon 
may now rest. It is worthy of remark, that when the Spaniards 
discovered Peru, in 1527, they found messengers posted at short 
intervals along the road from Cusco to Quito, to transmit with 
speed the orders of the Inca — a fact which of itself discloses con- 
siderable advancement in civilization. At one period the butchers 
of the large cities of Europe, who rode over the country to buy 
up cattle, were employed to convey letters. The University of 
Paris, and afterwards the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, 
employed private messengers to convey, at appointed times, the 
correspondence of the students ; the messengers commonly went 
afoot. The growth of the occasional and irregular government 
express into a regular, systematic, national establishment, seems 
to have been gradual and slow. 

We see the beginning of the English postal system in the 
statutes of Edward III, but it was not till the reign of Queen 
Anne that it assumed anything like its present form. Virginia has 
the credit of projecting a post office in the Americam Colonies as 
early as 1692. A patent was laid before the Assembly and passed, 
for making Mr. Neal Postmaster General of Virginia and other 
parts of North America. The act, however, did not go into 
practical eifect, the inhabitants being so dispersed. In 17 10 the 
first post office in the Colonies was established by an act of Par- 
liament — the act " for establishing a general post office, for all her 
Majesty's dominions " — the Postmaster Genera! of Great Britain 
being " at liberty to keep one chief letter office in New York, and 
other chief offices at some convenient place or places in each of 
her Majesty's provinces or colonies in America." The appoint- 
ment of Dr. Franklin, in 1753, as Deputy Postmaster General for 
America, and his removal, in 1774, by the British Ministry, for his 
connection with the celebrated Hutchinson and Oliver letters, 
imparts special interest to the history of the Colonial Post Office. 
During the Revolution, our post office affairs were, of course, 



262 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

. badly deranged, and they did not acquire complete system till the 
adoption of our National Constitution, in 1789. 

It was wise in the framers of the constitution to confer upon 
Congress the exclusive power of establishing post offices and post 
roads. To this we owe much of the dispatch, precision and reli- 
ability which our national post office system possesses. This 
system is one of the precious blessings as well as bonds of the 
Union, and one whose value is seldom sufficiently appreciated. 
The German post office establishments were for a long time ex- 
tremely clumsy and inefficient, because they were not made a unit, 
each separate state having its own independent establishment. 
German unity has doubtless emancipated them from this encum- 
bered condition. 

The post office is a great civilizer, and it ought to be trained 
to its highest efficiency. It is very interesting to consider the 
extent and fidelity of its operations in our country. We enclose 
a letter which we have written to a distant friend, or perhaps to 
a distant stranger, in an envelope which cost a trifle over three 
cents, drop it through an aperture in a wall labeled " letter box,'' 
and the chances are many to one that it quietly proceeds, with 
little delay, and perhaps with tremendous speed, to his hand, 
whether he resides in a solitary dwelling upon the borders upon 
a remote western prairie, or amid numerous thousands in the 
bewildering city. If our letter is directed across the ocean, its 
cheap and faithful transmission is more wonderful. If we should 
employ a special messenger to do the errand for us, how very 
much more would it cost. And then the danger of accidents and 
of unfaithfulness would be greatly multiplied. Thanks to 
Government, the operation is as useful as it is wonderful and 
systematic. 

The consideration of postal affairs in general, naturally 
awakens in the mind of every American interesting reminiscences 
of this important branch of our Government, as well as of those 
who have presided over its destinies. The General Post Office 
at the National Capital, with its minor post offices in every portion 
of the country, is one of the most useful and important depart- 
ments of the Government. It is one with which the people have 
more intercourse, and with which they are better acquainted, 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 263 

than with any other. The transmission of letters and other mail- 
able matter to the places where directed, for the people, instead 
of leaving them to do this business for themselves, in the best 
way they can, is, as we know, by no means peculiar to our Govern- 
ment, but is found in every civilized country. 

We have already shown that post offices existed in this country 
long before our present form of Government was established. 
There is, however, but little publicly known of their history, al- 
though the General Post Office is in possession of some very 
interesting and valuable materials on the subject. The first 
action in regard to a post office anywhere in this country ap- 
pears to have been an order of the General Court, in Massachu- 
setts, November 5, 1639, providing that notice be given that 
Richard Fairbank's house, in Boston, be the place appointed for 
all letters which were brought beyond seas, or to be sent thither, 
to be brought to, so that he might take care that they be delivered 
or sent according to directions. This was only about nineteen 
years after the landing on Plymouth Rock of those 101 famous 
Pilgrims who founded the first European settlement in New Eng- 
land. Somewhat later it seems to have become the custom to 
bring letters to the Exchange, in the Town Hall, to run the risk of 
being forwarded by visitors ; but this proved to be so precarious 
a method that the Council, in 1677, appointed John Hayward 
Postmaster for the whole colony. He was " to take in and convey 
letters according to their direction." This is the first recorded 
notice of any attempt in the colonies to convey letters inland by 
post. This primitive postal arrangement was brought about by 
the petition of certain Boston merchants to the court, and the 
subsequent appointment of Hayward. 

By gradual but untraceable growth, local arrangements like 
the above became general in the colonies ; but there was nothing 
like system until 17 10, when the British Parliament authorized the 
Postmaster General " to keep one chief letter office in New York 
and other chief letter offices in each of her Majesty's provinces or 
colonies in America." This was during Queen Anne's reign. 
Post routes were first established in 17 11, to Maine and Plymouth 
once a week, and to New York once a fortnight. Deputy Post- 
masters General for North America were subsequently appointed 



264 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

from time to time by the British Postmaster General. Colonel 
Spottswood was one of these, in 1737, as in that year he appointed 
Benjamin Franklin Postmaster of Philadelphia. He was subse- 
quently employed as comptroller of several post offices. Doctor 
Franklin was appointed Deputy Postmaster General of the Brit- 
ish Colonies in the year 1753, jointly with William Hunter, with a 
salary between them of £600 — "if they could get it." Having 
already held positions in the service, Franklin was not without, 
experience in postal duties. Down to that time the American 
office had never paid anything to that of England. The promise 
of £600 to Franklin and Hunter, to be divided between them, 
if they could make that amount out of the profits of the office, 
was a powerful incentive to exertion. Franklin's fertility of re- 
sources and initiative mind enabled them, after some time, to 
accomplish their object, The improvements in the mails which 
he introduced were at first so expensive that the office sunk ^900 
in four years. But after that it began to pay both him and the 
Crown a handsome revenue. In the year 1754, he gave notice that 
the mail to New England, which used to start once a fortnight in 
winter, should start once a week all the year, " whereby answers 
might be obtained to letters between Philadelphia and Boston in 
three weeks, which used to require six weeks." 

In the year 1774, when Franklin was removed, to punish him 
for his active sympathies with the colonists, the office was yielding 
a clear revenue to the British treasury of ,£3,000 per annum, 
just three times as much as the yield from the Post Office of Ire- 
land at the same time. Speaking of this progress of the office 
under his management and of his dismissal, Franklin quietly ob- 
serves : " Since that imprudent transaction they [the British 
Ministry] have received from it — not one farthing." One of the 
first acts of the colonists, under their separate organization, was 
to place him at the head of their Post Office Department. The 
Continental Congress ordained, on the 26th of July, 1775, that a 
Postmaster General be appointed for the United Colonies. Un- 
der this ordinance, Benjamin Franklin was unanimously chosen 
Postmaster General, being the first under the revolutionary organ- 
ization on whom the honor was conferred. It is a singular coin- 
cidence that this eminent philosopher, who cradled our postal 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 265 

system in its infancy, also led the way, by first bringing the elec- 
tric fluid within the power of man, for the electric telegraph, 
the other great medium for transmitting intelligence. Franklin 
was allowed $1,000 per annum for himself and $340 for a secretary 
and comptroller. 

But the necessities of the revolutionary struggle demanded 
the abilities of Franklin for another sphere of action. On the 7th 
day of November, 1776, Dr. Franklin was succeeded by his son- 
in-law, Richard Bache, who remained in the office till the 28th of 
January, 1782, when he was succeeded by Ebenezer Hazard, who 
was the last head of the General Post Office under the Confeder- 
ation, he holding the office until the inauguration of President 
Washington's administration. He was also the compiler of the 
valuable historical collections bearing his name. 

The Articl&s of Confederation of 1781, gave to Congress " the 
sole and exclusive right and power of establishing and regulating 
post offices from one state to another, throughout all the United 
States, and exacting such postage on the papers passing through 
the same as may be requisite to defray the expense of said office." 

The colonists were careful to preserve the opportunities for 
epistolary communications between the citizens of the colonies. 
An act was early passed by the deputies from the colonies to the 
Continental Congress to secure this end. As early as 1778 the 
Confederated Congress passed resolutions setting forth the import- 
ance of the establishment of post offices and post routes, and also 
its exclusive right to establish them. On the 28th of January, 
1782, as we have shown, this body elected Ebenezer Hazard 
Postmaster General to succeed Mr. Bache, the son-in-law and 
former assistant of Dr. Franklin. The records of the time fur- 
nish but meager details as to the operations of the postal estab- 
lishment during the official terms of these two gentlemen, a 
period of over twelve years. The meager yearly receipts show that 
its energies slumbered. This was owing, in a great measure, to the 
stagnation of business, resulting from the war of the Revolution, 
and the consequent inactivity of correspondence, but other causes 
are also believed to have contributed to its inefficiency. A more 
potent authority than that of the Confederated Congress was re- 
quired to impart to it due vigor, and this the Constitutional 



266 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Government, which went into operation on the 4th of March, 1789, 
supplied. 

To find the basis of our present postal establishment, we have 
only to look in the Federal Constitution, where it is stated that 
' Congress shall have the power to establish post offices and post 
roads." These few words are the foundation of all our laws 
relating to post offices, postmasters, post roads, transportation of 
the mails, and everything else appertaining to the subject. It is 
difficult to get too exaggerated an idea of the vastness of this great 
governmental institution for the diffusion of intelligence among 
the people. It not only reaches out its arms to the remotest 
boundaries of our own country, but, by the agencies of ships, 
stretches over the seas, and extends to every part of the civilized 
world. 

The Constitution reserving to the National Legislature the 
right "to establish post offices and post roads," Congress enacted 
a law, in 1789, providing for the appointment of a postmaster 
general and defining his duties. What is now called the Post 
Office Department was established by this act as the " Post Office," 
and subsequently as the "General Post Office." The act, passed 
September 22, 1789, and temporarily establishing the post office, 
was the first act of Congress, under the new form of government, 
relating to the subject. It briefly declared that " there shall be 
appointed a postmaster general," and that his powers and salary, 
and the compensation to the assistant or clerk and the deputies, 
and the regulations of the office, should be the same as they were 
under the resolutions and ordinances passed by the Congress of 
the Confederation. The Postmaster General was made subject 
to the direction of the President in all matters pertaining to his 
office. It will be seen that this act refers the origin of our post ' 
office system to the old Confederation, and beyond. It was the 
post office system which we have traced from its first perceptible 
beginnings, that was continued by the act of September 22, 
1789. 

On the 26th of September, 1789, President Washington com- 
missioned Samuel Osgood, previously a delegate in Congress from 
Massachusetts, to administer the office, which was then located 
in the City of New York, it having been customary to keep it 




WHITE HOUSE AT WASHINGTON. 




PATENT OFFICE, WASHINGTON. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 26g 

where Congress held its sessions. Thence it was taken to Phila- 
delphia in December, 1790, from which place it was removed to 
Washington, with the other executive bureaus, in the year 1800. 
Mr. Osgood was the first Postmaster General appointed after the 
Federal Constitution went into effect in the spring of 1789. 
When the new Government commenced operations, there were but 
seventy-five post offices in the Union, and only eighteen hundred 
and seventy-five miles of post road, on much of which the mails 
were conveyed but once a fortnight. The entire annual revenue 
of the office was $37,935, and its expenditures $32,140. The amount 
paid for the compensation of postmasjters was $8,198 ; and for the 
transportation of the mail, $22,081. These statistics, commenc- 
ing with the year 1790, are the earliest reliable ones we have of 
the operations of the postal system under the act of September 
22, 1789. 

In 1792, a" General Post Office " was permanently established, 
under the immediate direction of a Post Master General, who was 
authorized to appoint an assistant and deputy postmasters at all 
places where found necessary, and to provide for carrying the mail 
of the United States "by stage carriages or horses." From this 
primitive beginning, the operations of the General Post Office have 
expanded to a degree fully up to the requirements of the increased 
population and intelligence of the people. Other laws have from 
time to time been enacted for the regulation of this important 
department. 

The magnitude of the interests confided to the post office 
department is such, that the Postmaster General has become a 
Cabinet officer, and is not only required to regulate vast concerns 
of his department, but, in addition, to assist in deliberations which 
decide the home and foreign policy of the Government. Previous 
to 1829, the Postmaster General was not recognized as a member 
of the President's Cabinet. The precedent was established by 
President Jackson, who invited Postmaster General Wm. T. Barry, 
of Kentucky, to a seat in his Cabinet. Of course Mr. Barry ac- 
cepted the position, and thus became the first chief of the postal 
establishment who took a seat at the council board of the Presi- 
dent. He was appointed Postmaster General March 9, 1829, and 
was succeeded by Amos Kendall, May 1, 1835, who, since 1829, 



270 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

had been Fourth Auditor of the Treasury. In 1835 Mr. Barry 
was appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to Spain, but died at 
Liverpool, England, on his way to Madrid. 

The Hon. John A. J. Creswell, of Maryland, was the twenty- 
third Postmaster-General of the United States. He was nom- 
inated and confirmed March 5, 1869, and resigned June 24, 1874.. 
Hon. Marshall Jewell, of Connecticut, U. S. Minister to Russia, 
was recalled and appointed his successor. 

THE HISTORY OF POSTAGE STAMPS. 

The introduction of the postal system, as it at present exists 
in all countries on the globe, has been credited to England, when, 
in 1840, covers and envelopes were devised to carry letters all 
over the kingdom at one penny the single rate. This plan was 
adopted through the exertions of Sir Rowland Hill, who has been 
aptly termed the " father of postage-stamps." Il now appears, 
however, that there is another aspirant for the introduction of the 
stamp system In Italy, as far back as 18 18, letter sheets were 
prepared, duly stamped in the left lower corner, while letters were 
delivered by specially appointed carriers, on the prepayment of 
the money which the stamp represented. The early stamp repre- 
sented a courier on horseback, and was of three values. It was 
discontinued in 1836. Whether Italy or Great Britain first intro- 
duced postage-stamps, other countries afterward began to avail 
themselves of this method for the prepayment of letters, although 
they did not move very promptly in the matter. 

Great Britain enjoyed the monopoly of stamps for three years, 
and, though the first stamps were issued in 1840, she has made 
fewer changes in her stamps than any other country, and has 
suffered no change at all in the main design — the portrait of 
Queen Victoria. In other countries, notably in our own, the 
Sandwich Islands, and the Argentine Republic, the honor of por- 
traiture on the stamps is usually distributed among various high 
public officers; but in Great Britain the Queen figures on her 
stamps, and not even the changes that thirty-five years have made 
in her face are shown on the national and colonial postage-stamps. 

The next country to follow the example of England was 
Brazil. In 1842 a series of three stamps was issued, consisting. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 27 r 

simply of large numerals, denoting the value, and all printed in 
black. Then came the cantons in Switzerland and Findland, 
with envelopes which to-day are very rare, and soon after them, 
Bavaria, Belgium, France, Hanover, New South Wales, Tuscany, 
Austria, British Guiana, Prussia, Saxony, Schleswig, Holstein, 
Spain, Denmark, Italy, Oldenburg) Trinidad, Wurtemburg, and 
the United States. Other countries followed in the train, until, 
at the present moment there is scarcely any portion of the globe, 
inhabited by civilized people, which has not postage-stamps. 



MAILABLE MATTER. 

Mailable matter is divided into three classes, viz. : — 

1. Letters. 

2. Regular printed matter. 

3. Miscellaneous matter. 

First Class. — This class embraces all correspondence, wholly 
or partly in writing, except ^^-manuscript and corrected proof- 
sheets passing between authors and publishers ; local or drop- 
letters and U. S. postal cards. 

Second Class. — This class embraces all matter exclusively in 
print, and regularly issued at stated periods from a known office 
of publication, without addition by writing, mark or sign, and 
addressed to regular subscribers. 

Third Class. — This class embraces all pamphlets, occasional 
publications, transient newspapers, magazines, handbills, posters, 
unsealed circulars, prospectuses, books, book-manuscript, proof- 
sheets, corrected proof-sheets, maps, prints, engravings, blanks, 
flexible patterns, articles of merchandise, sample-cards, phono- 
graphic paper, letter envelopes, postal envelopes and wrappers, 
cards, plain and ornamental paper, photographic representations 
of different types, seeds, cuttings, bulbs, roots, scions, and all 
other matter which may be declared mailable by law, and all 
other articles not above the weight prescribed by law, which are 
not from their form or nature, liable to destroy, deface, or other- 
wise injure the contents of the mail-bag, or the person of any one 
engaged in the postal service. 

The weight of any package to be sent in the mail shall not ex- 



272 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ceed four pounds, except documents printed by order of Congress 
or emanating from any of the Executive Departments. 

Packages containing liquids, poisons, glass, explosive chemicals, 
or any other matter liable to deface or destroy the contents of the 
mail, or injure the person of any one connected with the service, 
must be rigidly excluded from the mails. If such matter be found 
in any post office, or 'in any mail pouch or sack, it must be re- 
tained by the postmaster, and the- Department (Third Assistant 
Postmaster General) notified of the fact, when instructions will be 
given as to its disposition. If found by a postal clerk or route 
agent, it must be delivered to the post office at the end of the 
route, where it will be treated as above directed. 

All books, pamphlets, circulars, prints, etc., of an obscene* 
vulgar or indecent character ; all letters or circulars concerning 
lotteries,* so-called gift concerts, or other similar enter- 
prise offering prizes, or concerning schemes devised and intended 
to deceive and defraud the public, for the purpose of obtaining 
money under false pretenses, must be withdrawn from the mails by 
postmasters at either the office of mailing, or the office of deliv- 
ery. Postmasters will promptly notice violations of this section, 
and when the party by whom such matter is mailed is known with 
any degree of certainty, the attention of the United States attor- 
ney for the district must be called to the case, and the evidence 
necessary for conviction, including the matter in question, placed 
in his hands. (See sections 148 and 149 of the law.) The case 
must also be reported to the special agent of the Department for 
the district, and all the facts at once communicated to the Depart- 
ment (Second Assistant Postmaster General, Division of Mail Dep- 
redations and Special Agents). Should the party by whom the 
matter is mailed not be known, it must be sent to the Third As- 
sistant Postmaster General, in a securely sealed package, and a 
letter advising him of the transmission of the package sent by the 
same mail, but in a separate envelope. 

And all letters upon the envelope of which, or postal card upon 
which scurrilous epithets have been written or printed, or disloyal 

""Circulars advertising lottery schemes are not permitted transmission through the mails. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 273 

devices printed or engraved, must also be rigidly excluded from 
the mails. Such matter must be forwarded to the Dead-Letter 
Office, marked as " unmailable." 

To inclose or conceal a letter, or other thing (except bills and 
receipts for subscription), in, or to write or print anything, after; 
its publication, upon any newspaper, pamphlet, magazine, or other 
printed matter, is illegal, and subjects such printed matter, and the 
entire package of which it is a part, to letter postage, and also sub- 
jects the offender to 2, fine of five dollars for every such offense 
and in such cases if the person addressed refuse to pay such let- 
ter postage, the package must be returned to the office at which it 
was mailed, in order that the postmaster may cause the offender to 
be prosecuted for the penalty. 

A business card printed or impressed on the wrapper or envel- 
ope of any printed matter, or a simple mark designed to call at- 
tention to any article in such printed matter, does not subject it 
to letter postage. 



RATES OF POSTAGE, &c. 

Letters. — The law requires postage on all letters (including 
those to foreign countries when prepaid) to be prepaid by stamps 
or stamped envelopes, prepayment in money being prohibited. 
All drop letters must be prepaid. The rate of postage on drop 
letters, at offices where free delivery by carrier is established, is 
two cents per half ounce or fraction of a half ounce ; at offices 
where such free delivery is not established, the rate is one cent. 

The single rate of postage on all domestic mail letters throughout 
the United States is three cents per half ounce, with an additional 
rate of three cents for each additional half ounce or fraction of a 
half ounce. 

Postmasters are required to return to the writers, free of cost, 
all letters not delivered or called for, in accordance with the re- 
quest written or printed upon the envelope. Persons mailing 
letters may write on them a request to the postmaster to return 
the letter to them if not delivered in any number of days they 
may choose to mention, and it is made the duty of the postmaster 
to do so. 

18 



274 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Photographic albums are chargeable with postage at the rate 
of one cent for each ounce, or fraction thereof. 

The sender of any article of the Third Class of mail matter 
may write his or her name or address therein, or on the outside 
thereof, with the word "From " above or preceding the same ; or 
may write, briefly, or print, on any package, the number and 
names of the articles enclosed. 

Valuable letters may be registered by the payment of a regis- 
tration fee of ten cents in addition to the regular letter rate of 
postage. 

No matter can pass through the mails free. 

Newspapers published in the county where delivered go free, 
except at letter-carrier offices. 

Exchanges not free. Publishers must pay postage on each 
exchange sent out. Postal cards uncalled for are not sent to the 
dead letter office. 

Postal cards may be forwarded without additional charge, if 
they have not been delivered. If offered for re-mailing after de- 
livery, they must be prepaid at the letter rate. 

Ordinary cards can be transmitted through the mails by affix- 
ing one cent stamp, provided the entire message is printed. The 
address may be written. 

Letters. — Three cents for each half ounce or fraction thereof. 

Drop Letters. — Where delivered by carriers two cents for each 
half ounce or fraction thereof. All other offices one cent for 
each half ounce or fraction thereof. 

Printed Matter and Merchandise. — See rates under act of 
July 12th, 1876. 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUBLIC. 

Greater security will be afforded to the public, by careful 
attention to the following recommendations : 

To mail letters, etc., as early as practicable, especially when 
sent in large numbers, as is frequently the case with newspapers 
and circulars. The trouble of the office is much diminished if 
letters, when mailed in large numbers, are tied in bundles, with 
the addresses all in one direction. 

To make the address legible and complete, giving the name 
of the post office, county and state. The name of the street and 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 275 

number of the house should also be given on letters addressed to 
cities where letter carriers are employed ; while the letter will 
eventually reach its destination without a number, the omission is 
often a cause of hesitation and delay. In the case of letters for 
places in foreign countries, the name of the country as well as 
the post office should be given in full. Letters addressed, for 
instance, merely to " London," without adding " England,' 5 are 
frequently sent to Canada, and vice versa, thereby causing delay, 
and often serious loss. 

To see that every letter, newspaper or other packet sent by 
mail, is securely folded and fastened. Avoid using, as much as 
possible, cheap envelopes, made of thin paper, especially where 
more than one sheet of paper, or any other article than paper, is 
inclosed. Being often handled, and even in the mail-bags subject 
to pressure, such envelopes not unfrequently split open, often giv- 
ing cause of complaint against officials who are entirely innocent 
in the matter. 

Never to send money or any other article of value through the 
mail, except either by means of a money-order or in a registered 
letter. Any person who sends money or jewelry in an unre- 
gistered letter, not only runs a risk of losing his property, but 
exposes to temptation every one through whose hands his letter 
passes, and may be the means of ultimately bringing some clerk or 
letter carrier to ruin. 

To provide, in cities where letter carriers are employed, letter- 
boxes at the offices or private residences, thereby saving much 
delay in the delivery of mail matter. 

To see that every letter contains the full name and post office 
address of the writer, with county and state, in order to secure the 
return of the letter, if the person to whom it is directed cannot 
be found. A much larger portion of the undelivered letters could 
be returned if the names and addresses of the senders were always 
either fully and plainly written inside or embossed on the en- 
velopes. Persons who have large correspondence find it most con- 
venient to use "special request envelopes," but those who only 
mail an occasional letter can avoid much trouble by writing a re- 
quest to " return if not delivered," etc., on the envelope. 

When dropping a letter, newspaper, etc., into a street letter- 




276 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

box, or into the receptacle at a post office, always see that the 
packet falls into the box and does not stick in its passage ; ob- 
serve also, as a finality, whether the postage stamps remain 
securely in their places. 

Postage stamps should be placed on the upper right hand 
corner of the address side of all mail matter. 

Cut postage stamps, stamps cut from stamped envelopes, mu- 
tilated postage stamps, and internal revenue stamps, cannot be 
accepted in payment of postage. Letters deposited in a post 
office having such matter affixed are held for postage. 

Postmasters are not obliged to accept in payment of postage 
stamps or stamped envelopes, wrappers, etc., any currency, which 
may be so mutilated as to be uncurrent, or the genuineness of 
which cannot be clearly ascertained. They are not obliged to 
receive more than twenty-five cents in copper or nickel coins. 
They are not obliged to affix stamps to letters, nor are they obliged 
to make change except as a matter of courtesy. Neither should 
they give credit for postage. 

To use,- or attempt to use, in payment of postage, a postage 
stamp or stamped envelope, or any stamp cut from any such 
stamped envelope which has been before used, in payment of 
postage, is punishable with a fine of fifty dollars. 

In using postal cards, be careful not to write or have anything 
printed on the side to be used for the address, except the address ; 
also be careful not to paste, gum, or attach anything to them. 
They are unmailable as postal cards when these suggestions are 
disregarded. 

No card is a " postal card " except such as are issued by the 
Post Office Department. Cards issued by private parties as postal 
cards, containing any writing in addition to an address, are sub- 
ject to letter postage. 

To insure a letter being forwarded in the mails, it must have 
not less than three cents in postage stamps affixed. The word 
" Paid," endorsed on a letter, is not regarded at the office of de- 
livery ; letters so marked, and not having any stamp affixed, are 
treated as unpaid. 

The double rate of six cents for each half ounce or fraction 
thereof, is chargeable on letters reaching their destination which 



Wilflfelftl 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY, 279 

have not had one full rate prepaid at the mailing office. If a one 
or two cent stamp has been affixed at the mailing office, the amount 
should be deducted. 

Letters cannot be carried out of the mail except in postage- 
stamped envelopes. There is no objection to a person who is not 
acting as a common carrier, carrying a sealed letter, whether in a 
stamped envelope or not ; but to continue the practice, or receive 
money for so doing, would subject the party to a penalty of one 
hundred and fifty dollars. Newspapers, magazines, and periodi- 
cals may be carried out of the mail for sale or distribution to 
subscribers, but if they are put into a post office for delivery, the 
postage must be paid thereon. 

After a letter has passed from the mailing office, the delivering 
of it cannot be delayed, or prevented by the alleged writer; but 
if the writer thereof request the return of a letter placed in a post 
office which has not left in the mail, the postmaster may deliver it ? 
provided he is furnished with proper evidence that the party apply- 
ing is the writer, and if the application is made before the stamp 
is canceled, it may be returned without canceling the stamp. 

When a letter carrier delivers a letter at a designated address, 
in the absence of any instructions to the postmaster to the con- 
trary, it is a legal delivery, and such letter cannot be remailed 
except it is prepaid anew ; but parties may insure their letters be- 
ing forwarded without additional charge, by advising the post- 
master in writing. To leave word with a hotel clerk, boarding- 
house keeper, or office clerk, cannot be accepted as a notice to th^ 
postmaster. 

A subscriber to a newspaper or periodical who changes his resi, 
dence and post office, should at once notify the publisher and havs 
the publication sent to his new address. 

Printed matter, merchandise and other third-class matter can, 
not be forwarded from the office to which it is addressed* unless 
the postmaster is furnished with stamps for the requisite postage. 
Neither can a postmaster regard a request to return endorsed 
on such matter, except he is furnished with postage as above. A 
request to return written on such matter would subject the 
packages to letter postage. 

The delivering of letters is not controlled by any statutory pro- 



2% Q FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

vision, but by the rules and regulations of the Post Office Depart- 
ment; and the object of the Department is to insure and facilitate 
such delivery to the persons for whom they are intended. In the 
case of money-orders and registered letters, the parties applying 
for them, if not known, should be required to prove their identity 
in the same manner as in banking institutions, where parties pre- 
senting drafts, checks, etc., who are not known, are required to 
prove their identity. In the case of advertised letters, parties 
.applying should be questioned as to the place or places from 
whence they may be expecting correspondence. In the general 
delivery of a post office, the postmaster should exercise a sound 
discretion in the delivery of letters to persons claiming to be the 
persons named in the address, and who may not be known to him. 

To enclose any written matter in printed matter subjects the 
mailing party to a fine of five dollars, unless the party addressed 
pays letter postage on the package. 

When the mail does not arrive at a post office after closing Sat- 
urday night, or on Sunday, it is not necessary to keep the office 
open on Sunday ; but when a mail arrives after closing on Satur- 
day or on Sunday, the office should be kept open for one hour or 
more on Sunday after the arrival and assortment thereof, if the 
public convenience require it. 

Letters addressed to initials or fictitious names are not deliver- 
able, unless the address contains a designated place of delivery, 
thus : A letter addressed A. B., station G., New York, is not de- 
liverable ; but a letter addressed A. B., stating street and number, 
■or a box number, is deliverable. 

All packages mailed at less than letter rates of postage should 
be wrapped so that their contents can be readily ascertained with- 
out destroying the wrapper. Matter contained in sealed envel- 
opes notched at the ends, defeats the object of the law, and is 
therefore made subject to letter postage. 

Nothing whatever should be written on the contents, or on the 
covers of packages of third-class matter, but the address of desti 

nation, thus : — Messrs. Jno. Doe & Co., 

Booksellers and Stationers, 

998 Penna. Avenue, 

Washington, D. C 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 281 

(n the care of Messrs. John Jones & Co., may be also written, 
but to add the words " one newspaper," " printed matter," " from 
Richard Roe," or anything whatever, will subject such packages 
to letter postage. There is, however, no objection to a card 
printed or impressed on the wrapper, or to a mark on a newspa- 
per calling attention to an article therein. 

Samples may be marked in pencil or in ink, with letters or 
figures by which they may be distinguished in a descriptive letter^ 
mailed at letter rates of postage, such marking not conflicting with 
the spirit of the law, which intends that no additional information 
that could be conveyed in writing should accompany matter pass- 
ing at less than letter rates; but to mark a price thereon does 
convey additional intelligence, and would subject a package so 
marked to letter postage. 

The postage on manuscript for magazines, periodicals and 
newspapers, is three cents for one haJi* ounce, or fraction thereof. 
Manuscript music is also subject to letter postage. 

Each post office box or drawer, in all post offices, is restricted 
to the use of one family, firm, or company, and the rent therefor 
must be paid at least one quarter in advance. A person renting 
a post office box is entitled to have the letters of his family, firm, 
or company, put into it. Letters addressed to his friends stopping 
temporarily with him, may also be placed in the box, if directed 
to his care or to the number of the box. But letters addressed to 
other persons residing in the same place, and living and doing 
business separate and apart from a box-holder, should not be 
placed in the box. 

In every case of loss by mail, the Department should be imme- 
diately informed of all the circumstances connected with it, such 
as the name of the office in which the letter was posted and the 
date of mailing ; whether by the writer himself or by another per- 
son ; the names of the writer and the person addressed; the 
amount and a description of the inclosure ; the office to which 
addressed ; whether mailed direct or for distribution ; if the latter, 
to what distributing office it was mailed ; and whether registered 
<or unregistered, with any other particulars that may aid in making 
a thorough investigation. Address communications on this sub- 



28*2 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ject, to the Chief Special Agent Post Office Depatment, Washing- 
ton, D. C. 

Only letters or matter subject to letter postage can be regis- 
tered. 

Packages of any description of mail matter may weigh not ex- 
ceeding four pounds. 

Packages of mutilated currency, addressed to the Treasurer of 
the United States for redemption, may be registered free of 
charge for registry, but the postage thereon must be prepaid at 
letter rates. 

LATEST POST OFFICE LAW. 



Post Office Department, 

Washington, D. C, July 13th, 1876. 

The following Section of a Law has been passed by Congress 
and approved by the President : 

Sec. 15. That transient newspapers and magazines, regular 
publications designed primarly for advertising purposes, or for 
free circulation at nominal rates, and all printed matter of the 
Third Class, except unsealed circulars, shall be admitted to and 
be transmitted in the mails, at the rate of one cent for every two 
ounces, or fractional part thereof; and one cent for each two 
additional ounces or fractional part thereof; and the sender of 
any article of the Third Class of mail matter may write his or her 
name or address therein, or on the outside thereof, with the 
word "From" above or preceding the same, or may write, briefly, 
or print on any package, the number and names of the articles 
enclosed. Publishers of newspapers and periodicals may print 
on the wrappers of newspapers or magazines sent from the office 
of publication to regular subscribers, the time to which subscrip- 
tion therefor has been paid ; and addresses upon postal cards 
and unsealed circulars may be either written, printed, or affixed 
thereto, at the option of the sender. 

Sec. 16. That all Acts or parts of Acts in conflict with the 
provisions of this Act are hereby repealed. 

On unsealed circulars, and all mailable matter of the Third 
Class, other than that designated in the foregoing Section, postage 
will be charged as heretofore, — one cent for each ounce 01 
fraction thereof. 

JAMES N. TYNER, Postmaster General. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 283 



FOREIGN MAILS. 



The exchange of correspondence between the United States 
and foreign countries is regulated by postal treaties establishing 
the rates and conditions of exchange, or by and in pursuance of 
legislation by Congress. 

The International Postal Treaty concluded at Berne, Switzer- 
land, October 9, 1874, embraces, in the Postal Union established 
by it, the United States, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Belgium, 
Denmark (including Iceland and the Faroe Islands), Egypt, Spain 
(including the Belearic Isles, the Canary Islands, the Spanish 
possessions on the northern coast of Africa, and the postal estab- 
lishments of Spain upon the western coast of Morocco*), Great 
Britain (including the island of Malta), Greece, Italy, Luxem- 
bourg, Norway, The Netherlands, Portugal (including the island 
of Madeira and the Azores), Roumania, Russia (including the 
Grand Duchy of Finland), Servia, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey 
and France, and went into operation on July 1, 1875, except with 
France, — its operation, in the case of that country, having been 
suspended until January 1, 1876.! 

The provisions of the treaty extend to letters, postal cards, 
newspapers, and other printed papers, stitched or bound books, 
pamphlets, music, visiting cards, catalogues, prospectuses, an- 
nouncements, and notices of various kinds, whether printed, 
engraved, lithographed, or autographed, photographs, legal and 
commercial documents, and patterns of merchandise. 

Registration of any of the above classes of correspondence is 
permissible, the postage payable on registered matter being the 
same as that on similar matter not registered. 

Prepayment of Postage on postal cards, registered matter,, 
newspapers and other printed papers, is compulsory. 

Unpaid Letters will be charged in the country of destination 
with double the rate for prepaid letters. 



* The Spanish possessions on the northern coast of Africa are, Centa, Penon de la 
Gomera, Alhucemas, Melilla and the Chafarine Islands. The postal establishments 
npon the western coast of Morocco are Tangier, Tetuan, Larrache, Rabat, Mazagan,, 
Casa Blanca, Saffi, and Mogadore. 

t Montenegro has been admitted into the Postal Union. 



284 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Newspapers and other printed papers unpaid or insufficiently 
prepaid cannot be forwarded. 

Other articles unpaid or insufficiently prepaid will be charged 
on delivery as unpaid letters, after deducting the value of the 
stamps or stamped envelopes employed. 

The Maximum Weight for patterns of merchandise is two 
hundred and fifty grammes, or eight and three-fourths ounces, 
and the maximum weight of other articles, except letters, is one 
thousand grammes, or two pounds three ounces. 

Books, Newspapers, Printed Papers, and other similar arti- 
cles, must be placed under bands, or in an envelope open, or 
simply folded so as to admit of easy examination, and must con- 
tain no manuscript writing, figure, or mark whatever, except as 
follows : — 

Proofs of printing or of music may bear corrections made with 
the pen, relating exclusively to the text, or to the execution of the 
work, and the manuscript of the proofs may be annexed to them. 

Circulars, notices, etc., may bear the signature of the sender, 
with his trade or profession, and may also indicate the place of 
origin and the date. 

Books may bear a manuscript dedication, or a complimentary 
inscription from the author. 

Passages in printed text to which it is desired to call attention, 
may be marked with a simple stroke of the pen. 

Printed or lithographed stock and share lists, prices-current, 
and market reports may have the prices added in writing, or by 
means of any impression whatever. - 

No other manuscript additions are allowable, nor even those 
produced by typographical characters, if the latter tend to take 
from the packet its general character. 

Such of the above-mentioned articles as shall not fulfill the 
foregoing conditions will be considered as unpaid letters, and 
charged accordingly, with the sole exception of newspapers, and 
printed papers, such as circulars, notices, etc., which will not be 
forwarded in such cases. 

Patterns of Merchandise must be placed in bags, boxes, or 
envelopes, removable, so as to admit of easy examination. They 
must not have any saleable value, nor bear any manuscript writing 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 285 

other than the name, the trade or profession of the sender, the 
address of the person for whom intended, a manufacturer's or 
trade mark, or numbers and prices. 

It is forbidden to introduce these articles into a letter, or a 
packet of any other kind, save in the case in which they form an 
integral part of a particular work. 

Patterns which do not conform to the requirements of the 
treaty will be charged as letters, except those which are valuable. 
The latter will not be forwarded, nor those the conveyance of 
which would be attended with risk or danger. 

Legal and Commercial Documents, under the treaty, em- 
brace acts and deeds of all kinds drawn up by public function- 
aries, invoices, the various documents on the service of insurance 
companies, copies or extracts of deeds under private seal, written 
upon stamped or unstamped paper, scores or sheets of manuscript 
music, and, in general, all manuscript papers and documents 
which have not the character of an actual and personal corres- 
pondence. Such documents must be sent under a movable band, 
and be made up so as to admit of easy examination. If not ful- 
filling the conditions above enumerated, packets of this character 
will be treated as unpaid letters, and charged accordingly. 

articles excluded from the mails. 

The treaty prohibits the transmission, in a letter or other 
packet sent by mail, of gold or silver money, jewels or precious 
articles, or any article liable to customs duty. 

For Rates of Postage und«er the treaty, see the table of 
foreign postage in this book. 

postal cards. 

The object of postal cards is to facilitate letter correspondence 
and provide for the transmission through the mails, at a reduced 
rate of postage, of short communications, either printed or written 
in pencil or ink. They may therefore be used for orders, invita- 
tions, notices, receipts, acknowledgments, price-lists, and other 
requirements of business and social life ; and the matter desired 
to be conveyed may be either in writing or in print, or partially 
in both. 

In their treatment as mail matter, they are to be regarded by 
postmasters the same as sealed letters, and not as printed matter? 



286 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

except that in no case will unclaimed cards be returned to the writers 
or sent to the Dead Letter office. If not delivered within sixty days 
from the time of receipt, they will be burned by postmasters. 

The postage of one cent each is paid by the stamp impressed 
on these cards, and no further payment is required. 

No card is a "postal card " except such as are issued by the 
Post Office Department. An ordinary printed business card may 
be sent through the mails when prepaid by a one-cent postage 
stamp attached; but such card must contain absolutely no written 
matter except the address ; otherwise it will be treated as not fully 
prepaid, and refused admission into the mails. 

In using postal cards, be careful not to write or have anything 
printed on the side to be used for the address, except the address ; 
also be careful not to paste, gum, or attach anything to them. 
They are unmailable as postal cards when these suggestions are 
disregarded. 

THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES ARE UNMAILABLE. 

Packages containing liquids, poisons, glass, explosive chem- 
icals, live animals, sharp pointed instruments, sugar, or any other 
matter liable to deface or destroy the contents of the mail, or 
injure the person of any one connected with the service. All 
letters upon the envelope of which, or postal card upon which 
obscene, scurrilous, or abusive epithets have been written or 
printed, or disloyal devices printed or engraved, and letters or 
circulars concerning lotteries so called, gift concerts, or 

other similar enterprises offering prizes, or concerning schemes 
devised and intended to deceive and defraud the public. Also, 
all obscene, lewd, or lascivious books, pamphlets, pictures, papers, 
prints, or other publications of an indecent character. 

MONEY ORDERS. 

Postal conventions for the exchange of money orders have 
been concluded with the .following foreign countries, viz. : Swit- 
zerland, Great Britain ancT Ireland, Germany, Canada and Italy. 

The exchange of money orders between the United States and 
each of the countries mentioned, is effected through the agency 
of " International Exchange Offices," of which New York is the 






Washington Monument. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 289 

office on the part of the United States. Hence, an international 
money order cannot be drawn by a postmaster in either country 
directly upon a postmaster in the other, but must be drawn upon 
the international exchange office. 

The postmaster at any foreign money order office in the United 
States — the same being designated by the Postmaster General — 
will furnish a blank form of application, on which the sender must 
enter all the particulars of the amount (in United States money), 
names, address, etc., and must state the full name and exact resi- 
dence of the person to whom the order is to be made payable. 
The postmaster will then issue an international order on the post- 
master at New York, giving all the particulars furnished in the 
application, and transmit the same, together with the coupon. 

The certificate attached to each order will, by the issuing 
postmaster, be given to the sender, the same serving as his re- 
ceipt; but no "advice" will be issued, as in domestic money 
orders, inasmuch as the order itself, instead of being delivered to 
the applicant for transmission, is forwarded directly to New York. 

The postmaster at New York, upon the receipt of a foreign 
money order from a United States office, will certify the same to 
the foreign international exchange office, through which payment 
is then made to the proper party. The coupon attached to the 
order will, by the postmaster at New York, be returned to the 
issuing office for the information of the sender, and will state the 
exact amount transmitted, and other particulars. 

As the value of gold varies in the United States, the post- 
master at the issuing office must not fill up, and cannot give the 
sender the exact value of the order in foreign money ; but this 
must be left to the postmaster at New York. 

Upon the receipt of a certificate from a foreign international 
exchange office, the postmaster at New York draws an interna- 
tional money order on the foreign money order office nearest to 
the residence of the person who is to receive the money, and the 
postmaster at the latter office notifies the person, who, on apply- 
ing for the same, will, on due identification, receive payment and 
sign a receipt. 

One pound sterling (^i) is equal in value to $4.86 in gold, 
and one thaler (German) is equal to 71 cents gold. 

One dollar (gold) is equal to 5 francs 15 centimes (Swiss). 
19 



29O FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

POSTAL MONEY ORDER SYSTEM 

How to Obtain Money Orders. — Orders may be given at any 
office authorized to transact this business, for one dollar up to 
fifty dollars. The following blank, with explanatory notes which 
accompany it, gives a very plain idea of the process by which 
orders may be obtained : 

Application for Money Order. 
(To be filled by the applicant.) 

No. — , Amount, % . 

Date. , ,186—. * 

Money Order. 

Required for the sum of $ , payable at , State of , 

Payable to , residing at , State of . Sent by 

residing at , State of . Entered in register. 



Postmaster. 



Note. — The applicant must, in all cases give his own Christian 
name in full ; and when the Christian name of the payee is known, 
it should be so stated ; otherwise initials may be used. The 
Christian names of married women must be given, and not those 
of their husbands. 

Names of parties and places, and the sums, to be written in the 
plainest possible manner. 

As there are several places of the same name in the United 
States, remitters must be careful to indicate which of them they 
mean ; and the Postmaster will satisfy himself before writing out 
the order, that the place indicated is the one intended. 

On the back of the application are the rates of commission, as 
follows : 

RATES OF COMMISSION CHARGED FOR MONEY ORDERS, 

On orders not exceeding $20 — 10 cents. Over $20 and not ex- 
ceeding $50 — 25 cents. 

No single order issued for less than $1 or more than $50 ; and 
no fraction of cents to be introduced in an order. No orders to 
be issued on credit. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 29! 

These orders are only payable by the Postmaster at the office 
upon which it is drawn. Payment of all orders should be ob- 
tained before the expiration of ninety days from the date of 
issue. 

The Post-Office Department will not be responsible for the pay- 
ment of claims already collected, no matter who presents the 
order, and if the official forms be mutilated in any way, there may 
be difficulty in obtaining payment. 

Instructions are endorsed on the back of each order, which will' 
enable parties to proceed in the business intelligently. 

FOREIGN MAILS. 

The following are the countries embraced in the General Pos- 
tal Union Treaty concluded at Berne, Switzerland, Oct. 9, 1874, 
which went into operation July 1, 1875. Those marked A are 
the original parties to the Treaty, and those marked B comprise 
countries subsequently admitted under an arrangement providing 
a higher rate of postage to cover the expense of sea-conveyance 
in excess of three hundred nautical miles, &c. : 

CLASS A. 

Austria-Hungary ; Belgium ; Denmark, including Iceland and 
the Faroe Islands; Egypt, including Nubia and Soodan ; France, 
including Algeria ; Germany ; Great Britain and Ireland, includ- 
ing Gibralter and Malta, and the dependencies of Malta (Gozzo, 
Comi;no, and Cominotto) ; Greece, including the Ionian Isles ; 
Italy n Luxembourg; Montenegro; Netherlands; Norway; Portu- 
gal, idcluding the island of Madeira and the Azores ; Houmania 
(Molnavia and Wallachia) ; Russia, including the Grand Duchy 
of Filland ; Servia ; Spain, including the Balearic Isles, the Cana- 
ry I sands, the Spanish possessions on the north coast of Africa 
(Centa, Penon de la Gomera, Alhuceruas, Melilla and the Chaf- 
ferine Islands), and the postal establishments of Spain on the 
west coast of Morocco (Tangier, Tetuan, Larrache, Rabat, Maza- 
gan, Casablanca, Saffii, and Mogadore) ; Sweden; Switzerland; 
Turkey (European and Asiatic) ; United States of America. 

The rates of postage between the United States and the above 

named countries, under Class A, are as follows : 

For prepaid letters, 5 cents per half ounce ; for unpaid letters, 
10 cents per half ounce ; for postal cards, 2 cents each ; for news- 
papers, if not over 4 ounces in weight, 2 cents each ; for books, 
other printed matter, and samples of merchandise, 2 cents for 
each 2 ounces, or fraction thereof; registration fee on all corres- 
pondence, 10 cents. 



29a FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

CLASS B. 

Aden, Arabia ; Brazil; Bermudas; British Guiana; British In- 
dia : Hindostan and British Burmah (Aracan, Pegu, Tenasserim) ; 
Ceylon ; Danish colonies of St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John ; 
French Colonies: — 1. In Asia, French establishments in India 
(Chandermagore, Karikae, Mate, Pondichery, and Yanayon), and 
in Cochin China (Saigen, Mytho, Bien-Hoa, Poulo-Condor, Vingh- 
Long, Hatien, Tschandok), 11. In Africa, Senegal and depend- 
encies (Goree, St. Louis, Bakel, Dagana), Mayotte and Nossibe, 
Gabon, Reunion (Bourbon), Ste. Marie de Madagascar, 111. In 
America, French Guiana, Guadaloupe and dependencies (Desir- 
a-de or Descada, Les Saintes, Marie Galante and the north portion 
of St. Martin), Martinique, St. Pierre, and Miquelon, iv. In Oce- 
anica, New Caledonia, Tahiti, Marquesas Islands, Isle of Pines, 
Loyalty Islands, the Archipelagoes of Gambier, Toubouai, and 
Tuanotou (Low Islands); Greenland; Hong-Kong; Jamaica; 
Japan ; Labuan ; Mauritius and its dependencies (the Amirante 
Islands, the Leychelles and Roderiques) ; Netherland Colonies : — 
1. In Asia, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, (Batavia), Billeton, Celebes, 
(Macassar), Madeira, the Archipelegoes of Banca and Rhio, 
(Riouw), Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, the S. W. portion of 
Timor, and the Moluccas, 11. In Oceanica, the N. W. portion of 
New Guiana (Papua), in. In America, Netherland Guiana, (Su- 
rinam), Curacoa, Aruba, Bonaire, part of St. Martin, St. Eusta- 
tius, and Saba; Persia; Portugese Colonies: — 1. In Asia, Goa, 
Damao, Diu, Macao, and part of Timor, n. In Africa, Cape 
Verde, Bissao, Cacheo, Islands of St. Thomas and Prince's, Aju 
da, Mozambique, and province of Angola ; Spanish Colonies : — 
1. In Africa, Islands of Fernando Po, Annobon and Corisco, n. 
In America, Cuba and Porto Rica, in. In Oceanica, the Archi- 
pelagoes of the Mariana (Ladrone), and the Caroline Islands, iv. 
In Asia, the Philipine Archipelago (Luzon with Manilla, Minda- 
nao, Palawan, Panay, Amar, etc.) ; Straits Settlements (Singa- 
pore, Penang, and Malacca); Trinidad (W. I.). 

The rates of postage between the United States and above 
named places, under Class B, are as follows : 

For prepaid letters, 10 cents per half ounce; for unpaid let- 
ters, 15 cents per half ounce; for postal cards. 4 cents each; 
for newspapers, if not four ounces in weight, 4 cents each ; for 
books, other printed matter, and samples of merchandise, 4 cents 
for each two ounces, or fraction thereof. Registration fee on all 
correspondence, 10 cents. 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A STATE? 



What constitutes a State ? 
Not high-raised battlements or labored mound, 

Thick wall, or moated gate ; 

Not bays and broad-armed ports, 
Where, laughing at the storm, rich navies ride : 

Not starred and spangled courts, 
Where low-bound baseness wafts perfume to pride. 

No : — -men, high-minded men, 
With powers as far above dull brutes endued 

In forest, brake, or den. 
As beasts excel cold rocks and brambles rude : 

Men, who their duties know, 
But know their rights, and knowing, dare maintain, 

Prevent the long-aimed blow, 
And crush the tyrant while they rend the chain : 

These constitute a State ; 
And sovereign law, that State's collected will, 

O'er thrones and globes elate, 
Sits empress, crowning good, repressing ill. 



294 



Mottoes of the united states 



INDIVIDUAL STATES. 



United States. E Pluribus Unum. One of many. 

Alabama [No motto.] 

Arkansas Regnant Populi. The people rule. 

California Eureka. I have found it. 

r^ ~ „ ,~ ( Qui transtulit sustibiet. 

Connecticut. \ ^ TT 

( He who brought us hither will preserve u*. 

Delaware Liberty and independence. 

Florida. In God is our trust. 

Georgia Wisdom, justice and moderation. 

Illinois State sovereignty and national union. 

Indiana [No motto.] 

t owa i Our liberties we prize, and our rights *<• witt 

( maintain. 

Kentucky United we stand, divided we fall. 

Louisiana Union and confidence. 

Maine Dirigo. I take the lead. 

( Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem. 
Massachusetts < By her sword she seeks the calm repose of 

( liberty. 
Maryland Industry the means, and plenty the result. 

( Si quaeris peninsulam amcenam circumspice. 
Michigan ■< If thou seekest a beautiful peninsula, behold 

( it here. 
_, ( Salus populi suprema lex esto. 

I The welfare of the people is the first great law. 

Mississippi [No motto.] 

N. Carolina. ..[No motto.] 
N. Hampshire ..[No motto.] 

295 



296 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



New Jersey Liberty and independence. 

New York Excelsior. Higher. 

Ohio Imperium in imperio. An empire within an empire; 

Pennsylvania. Virtue, liberty and independence. 

Rhode Island. In God we hope. 

£, p •' ! ' \ Animus Opibusque Par ati. . '. 

' ( Ever ready with our lives and property. 

Tennessee [No motto.] 

Texas. [No motto.] 

Vermont Liberty and Independence. 

Virginia Sic semper tyrannis. So be it ever to tyrants. 

Minnesota UEtoile du Nord. The Star of the North. 

W <;rmsj<;T-Nr i ^ l ' m ^ as successit barbarum. 

( Civilized life takes place of savage. 

Kansas i Ad astra P er aspera. 

{ By rugged ways (we ascend) to the stars. 
Oregon --Alis volat propriis. She sails with her own wings, 

West ' Virginia \ Montani sem ? er . liberL 

( The mountains are always free. 

Nebraska Popular Sovereignty. 

Nevada Volens et potens. Willing and able. 

Colorado. - Nil sine Numine. Nothing without Divine aid. 




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THE DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF 

VOTERS. 



$ 



>N a Republican torm of Government, every act and feature 
of our laws is traceable directly to those who by their votes 
enacted them, or indirectly to those who by their neglect to 
vote suffered the passage of a bad or injudicious bill and allowed 
it to become a statute, and thus wronged thousands, and disgraced 
the country. We say, boastingly, that the " right of suffrage" is 
extended to every citizen of the United States, but the term, as 
applied to the citizens of a Republic, is a contradiction, meaning 
as it does, permission from the ruling power thus to do — when the 
very significance of our form of government is proof that it is as 
much the birthright of every citizen as is the air he breathes. The 
declaration that " all men are created free and equal," gives no 
•man an inherited supremacy over another, either social or politi- 
cal, and imposes certain duties upon every one, duties that are 
inseparable from his citizenship. 

A republican government is a contract or compact between the 
people for mutual protection, defense and security, and since 
every citizen derives actual and positive benefit from this protec- 
tion it is impossible but that he has duties to perform and obliga- 
tions to meet. It is not practicable, of course, for the people to 
assemble in masses and give instructions to the Chief Executive 
personally ; hence, conventions are called, at which some one who 
is known to be honest and faithful to the interests of the common- 
wealth, and especially of the district he represents, is nominated, 
and afterwards elected to meet the general assembly of represent- 
atives, at which the wants, wishes or demands of the people are 
made known, and such measures adopted as shall most easily and 
.speedily carry them out. 

299 



300 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

It is at the polls that our republican principles are most clearly- 
shown, and that every man is the peer of his fellows. His vote is 
the expression of his views, and the strongest manner in which 
he can declare his approval or disapproval of men or measures. 
A selfish consideration of party interests, or a reckless strife for 
power, at the cost of principle, or a narrow personal prejudice 
indulged to the extent of the sacrifice of the interests of the coun- 
try, is unworthy of men to whom so much has been entrusted. The 
candid citizen will hold himself aloof from and above all unworthy 
motives, and, not narrowing his vision to the things of to-day, will 
act with wise reference to the good of his country, and the safety 
and prosperity of generations to come. He will study well and 
carefully the principles of both or all the political parties of the 
times — study and understand thoroughly the platform of his own 
party, to be sure it is right, and be able in every possible way to 
aid it and secure its success, and he will be equally familiar with 
the platform of the party he opposes, to know if it is wrong, 
where it is wrong, in what way injurious to the country, and how 
he can best work to defeat it. No man has a moral right to give 
his vote to -advance a measure that he knows is wrong, or that he 
does not surely know is right. It is a lamentable fact that men 
rush to the ballot box and deposit their votes by thousands, when 
a large majority are so ignorant of the first elements of their duty 
as scarcely to know to which party the man for whom they have 
voted belongs, and to know nothing — absolutely nothing, of what 
his life has been, or whether he has any real claim upon them for 
support or merit which qualifies him for the office he is being 
elected to. This can not be justified in a country like our own, 
and is little, if any, less than guilt. 

We are far from asking that every man be a professional politi- 
cian, but that, knowing from his boyhood that he will one day be 
called upon to take this position, and that he cannot avoid a citi- 
zen's responsibilities, however he may neglect a citizen's duties, he 
prepare himself to discharge them honorably, conscientiously, and 
in the fear of God, rather than man. In voting, a man can not 
confine the consequences of his act to himself, but it extends to 
all who come under the influence of those whom he helps to elect. 

It is no proof that a man should be placed in office because he 
asks it, and no proof that he is qualified to discharge its duties 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY 301 

because he assures you, with his hand upon his heart, that he will 
do so. Be guided by candor in this matter rather than impulse ; 
remember that you hold the motive power and wield it for good 
or evil. All political statements should be made with a just and 
careful regard to the influence they will exert, and honor, no less 
than Christianity, demands courtesy from party to party, as from 
man to man. Keep your manhood unsullied and your soul unspot- 
ted with the low, base, treasonable designs of those who will build 
up on the ruins of patriotism and principle a fictitious glory for 
themselves or their cause. It may shine for a season, but it will 
end in darkness. It may triumph to-day but will be cut down to- 
morrow, and the disgrace and dishonor will fall upon all who 
were engaged in its upbuilding. No ranker, baser crime is known 
in civil society than treason, and a political traitor, whether im- 
pelled to the act by cowardice or love of gain, is a criminal of the 
most contemptible sort. 

There is nothing that prepares a man more thoroughly for the 
active duties of life than a careful study of human nature and a 
close observation of the relative position of facts as presented by 
all parties, and the more one reflects and reasons the better he is 
prepared to act. No people can remain free who are ignorant. 
Knowledge as surely constitutes power as light constitutes day ; a 
community in ignorance is a community in degradation. A man 
who allows himself to remain uninformed upon political subject? 
and matters of interest to voters and citizens, must needs expect 
to be the dupe and tool of those who are stronger and more 
designing than themselves. A man may be honest, but if he is 
far behind the age in which he lives, his very honesty will subject 
him to imposition, and with his tin sword rusty in its scabbard, he 
is no match for the man whose sword of Damascus steel is bright 
and keen from constant use. If it were only for your own inter- 
est — if the welfare of none others had been entrusted to you, 
it would still be best that you cultivate your knowledge, both gen- 
eral and special, upon everything which concerns you as a citizen 
and a voter. 

Another point of vital interest is, that you have no right to be 
careless or indifferent upon these matters. You have no right to 
sit down and fold your hands while the battle between right and 
wrong wages around you, and say it matters not who is victorious. 



302 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



You have no right to close your eyes to danger that threatens 
your country and say you are neutral ; for be sure neutrality is 
either cowardice, treason, or ignorance ; and society, both social, 
religious, and political, has far more to dread from an army of 
neutrals than from an army who throw their colors to the breeze 
and declare the ground on which they have taken their stand. 
Never forget for one moment, whether you be leader or private 
in the army, that the majority rule, and that if the majority is 
on the side of wrong, wrong will triumph. Study not only to 
throw the weight of your vote on the side of right, but throw 
your influence there, with all the strength and force you can 
gather. The people have it in their power to rule for good. 
Woe to that nation where ignorance has covered the land with 
mourning and her sons have sold their birthright of liberty for 
a dish of pottage, and see an usurper wear the glory that was 
their heritage, without a sigh or pang of regret. , 

To the voters of America is entrusted the holiest treasure that 
man was ever enjoined to guard — the liberty of our country and 
the protection of our republican principles and institutions. How 
well it has been preserved in the past, the proud position which 
she holds in the rank of nations tells more eloquently than writ- 
ten or spoken words. Whether we shall go on from victory to 
victory, crowned more and still more royally with the luster of 
great deeds, until she shall be a light to the nations who sit in 
darkness, depends upon you who hold in your hands the power 
to make her what you will, and whose votes must decide her 
destiny. 




PENSION LAWS. 



jJ^^jENSIONS for officers, soldiers and sailors disabled in the 
service, and for the widows and children of officers, sol- 
diers and sailors who have died in the service, have been 
liberally and carefully provided by Congress. 

The proper officials to whom all applications should be made, by 
letter or petition, in Washington, are, by a soldier having his dis- 
charge, to the Paymaster General ; when the discharge paper is 
lost, to the second Auditor of the Treasury ; when by those who 
represent a deceased person, to the second Auditor of the Treas- 
ury ; when for commutation of rations, to the same officer ; when 
for pensions, or any matter connected with pensions, to the Com- 
missioner of Pensions. 

Instructions have been prepared for all applicants, by the Com- 
missioner of Pensions for the purpose of preventing fraud or 
misunderstanding. They are, in substance : 

INSTRUCTIONS. 

By the act of Congress approved July 14th, 1862, and amenda- 
tory acts, pensions are granted as follows : 

1 . Invalids, disabled in the military or naval service of the United 
States, in the line of duty 

2. Widows of persons who have been killed or have died in the 
military or naval service of the United States. 

3. Children under sixteen, of the classes of persons on account 
of whose death widows are entitled ; provided said widows have 
died, or have remarried. 

4. Mothers of all classes of persons on account of whose death 
widows are entitled, provided said mothers were dependent on the 
deceased for support and no minor child survived. 

5. Fathers, the same as mothers, in case of the death of the 

latter - 

3°3 



3°4 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

6. Brothers and sisters, under sixteen, provided they were de- 
pendent for support upon the person on account of whose decease 
they claim. 

The First Section of the Act of July 14th, 1862, showing the 
rates of pension to the several classes and grades, is as follows : 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
United States of America, in Congress assembled, That if any officer, 
non-commissioned officer, musician, or private of the army, includ- 
ing regulars, volunteers, militia, or any officer, warrant, or petty 
officer, musician, seaman, ordinary seaman, flotillaman, marine, 
clerk, landsman, pilot, or other person in the navy or marine corps, 
has been, since the fourth day of March, eighteen hundred and 
sixty-one, or shall hereafter be, disabled by reason of any wound 
received or disease contracted while in the service of the United 
States, and in the line of duty, he shall, upon making due proof 
of the fact according to such forms and regulations as are or may 
be provided by, or in pursuance of law, be placed upon the list 
of invalid pensions of the United States, and be entitled to receive,- 
for the highest rate of disability, such pension as is hereinafter pro- 
vided in such cases, and for an inferior disability an amount 
proportionate to the highest disability, to commence as hereinafter 
provided, and continue during the existence of such disability. 
The pension for a total disability for officers T non-commissioned 
officers, musicians, and privates employed in the military service 
of the United States, whether regulars, volunteers, or militia, and 
in the marine corps, shall be as follows, viz. : lieutenant-colonel 
and all officers of a higher rank, thirty dollars per month; major, 
twenty-five dollars per month ; captain twenty dollars per month ; 
first lieutenant, seventeen dollars per month ; second lieutenant, 
fifteen dollars per month ; and non-commissioned officers, musi- 
cians and privates, eight dollars per month. The pension for 
total disability for officers, warrant, or petty officers, and others 
employed in the naval service of the United States, shall be 
as follows, viz. : captain, commander, surgeon, paymaster, and 
chief engineer, respectively, ranking with commander by law, 
lieutenant commanding, and master commanding, thirty dollars 
per month; lieutenant, surgeon, paymaster, and chief engineer, 
respectively, ranking with lieutenant by law, and passed assistant 
surgeon, twenty-five dollars per month ; professor of mathematics, 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 305 

master, assistant surgeon, assistant paymaster, and chaplain, 
twenty dollars per month ; first assistant engineer and pilots, 
fifteen dollars per month ; passed midshipman, midshipman, cap- 
tain's paymaster's clerk, second and third assistant engineers, 
master's mate, and all warrant officers, ten dollars per month ; all 
petty officers, and all other persons before named employed in the 
naval service, eight dollars per month ; and all commissioned offi- 
cers, of either service, shall receive such and only such pension 
as is herein provided for the rank in which they hold commis- 
sions. 



Act of July 4, 1864. 

Various Supplementary Acts have been passed by the] Act of 
July 14, 1862, modifying in some particulars the provisions of pre- 
vious legislation. 

By the Act of July 4, 1864, it is provided that biennial exami- 
nations will hereafter be made by one surgeon only, if he is regu- 
larly appointed, or holds a surgeon's commission in the army. 
Examinations by unappointed civil surgeons will not be accepted, 
unless it can be shown that an examination by a commissioned or 
duly appointed surgeon is impracticable. 

Increased Pensions in Certain Cases. — A pension of twenty-five 
dollars per month is granted to those having lost both hands or 
both eyes in the military service of the United States, in the line 
of duty, and twenty dollars per month to those who, under the 
same conditions, shall have lost both feet, if such parties were 
entitled to a lower rate of pension under the act of 1862. This 
higher pension will date only from the 4th day of July, 1864, in 
case of pensioners already enrolled, or of applicants discharged 
prior to that date. 

Evidence of Muster-in. — In accordance with the nth Section 
of the Act of July 4, 1864, evidence of the muster-in of the sol- 
dier will not be required in any case, but there must be positive 
record evidence of service. Evidence of muster-in in the case 
of commissioned officers is still required. 
20 



306 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Act of June 6, 1866. 
The Supplementary Pension Act, approved June six, eighteen 
hundred and sixty-six, provides increased rates of pensions over 
those granted by the Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and 
sixty-two, in the following cases, viz. : 

1. Twenty-five dollars per month to all those invalids entitled, 
under the Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, 
to a lower rate of pension, on account of service rendered since 
March four, eighteen hundred and sixty-one, " who shall have lost 
the sight of both eyes, or who shall have lost both hands, or been 
permanently and totally disabled in the same, or otherwise so per- 
manently and totally disabled as to render them utterly helpless, 
or so nearly so as to require the constant personal aid and attend- 
ance of another person." 

2. Twenty dollars per month to those invalids who, being enti- 
tled under like conditions to a lower rate of pension, " shall have 
lost both feet, or one hand and one foot, or been totally and per- 
manently disabled in the same, or otherwise so disabled as to be 
incapacitated for performing any manual labor, but not so much 
so as to require constant personal aid and attention." 

3. Fifteen dollars per month to those invalids who, under like 
conditions, " shall have lost one hand or one foot, or been totally 
and permanently disabled in the same, or otherwise so disabled as 
to render their inability to perform manual labor equivalent to 
the loss of a hand or a foot." 

In order to obtain the benefits of the foregoing provisions, pen- 
sioners already enrolled will file an application in accordance with 
form F, appended hereto. Proof in addition to that on file with 
the previous application need not be forwarded, except as shall 
be specially required in each case, after the application is received. 
The applicant need only be examined by a pension surgeon when 
expressly required, on due notice from this office. Applicants not. 
already pensioned, who believe themselves entitled to the benefit of 
the foregoing provisions, will specifically set forth such claim in their 
declarations, carefully stating the nature of the disability on account 
of which such higher rate of pension is claimed. The declaration 
must be made before some officer of a court of record, or before a 
pension notary designated by this office, as provided by the third 
section of the act of July four, eighteen hundred and sixty-four. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 3O9 

The above specified increased rates of pension will be allowed 
only to those disabled since the fourth day of March, eighteen 
hundred and sixty-one, and will date only from the sixth day of 
June, eighteen hundred and sixty-six. 

Teamsters, Artificers, and other Enlisted Men, — not embraced in 
the terms of the Act of Jul/ fourteen, eighteen hundred and 
sixty-two, or of Acts supplementary thereto, are, by the tenth 
section of the Act of June six, eighteen hundred and sixty-six, 
included in the administration of the pension laws, in the class of 
non-commissioned officers and privates. 

Minor Children to be Pensioned, in Certain Cases, instead of the 
Widow. — The eleventh section provides that when any widow, 
entitled to a pension under previous Acts, has abandoned the care 
of a child or children of her deceased husband, under sixteen 
years of age, " or is an unsuitable person, by reason of immoral 
conduct, to have the custody of the same," the pension shall be 
paid to the duly authorized guardian of such child or children, 
while under the age of sixteen years, and not to the widow. The 
proper proof in such case, as provided by this section, is the 
certificate of the judge of any court having probate jurisdiction, 
*' that satisfactory evidence has been produced before such court " 
to the effect above indicated. In presenting an application under 
this section, the guardians of the minor child or children will 
make a declaration in accordance with the appended form G. 

Pensions Granted to Depende?it Fathers and to Dependent Orphan 
Brothers. — By the twelfth section the provisions of the Act of 
July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, are extended so as 
to include the dependent brother or brothers of a deceased officer, 
soldier or seaman, and the dependent father of such deceased 
persons, under like limitations as apply in the case of dependent 
sisters and mothers ; but not more than one pension is granted on 
account of the same person, or to more than one of said classes, 
The forms prescribed for the latter cases may be used, with 
obvious variations, in applications made by dependent fathers or 
on behalf of dependent brothers. 

Limitations as to Number and Date of Pensions. — The thirteenth 
section declares that but one pension shall be granted to any 
person at the same time ; and that when application is not made 
within three years after the death or discharge of the party on 



31 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

whose account a pension is claimed, such pension, if allowed, 
" shall commence from the date of filing the last paper in said 
case by the party prosecuting the same." This limitation applies 
to all classes of pensions. 

Evidence of Marriage of Colored Applicants. — The fourteenth 
section provides that habitual recognition of the marriage relation 
between colored parties — that is, in the absence of the usually 
required proof — when shown by " proof satisfactory to the Com- 
missioner of Pensions," shall be accepted as evidence of marriage 
and the children of such parties shall be regarded as if born in 
lawful wedlock. When the usual proof of marriage can be fur- 
nished, it will be required as heretofore. When only evidence of 
cohabitation and mutual recognition can be adduced, as provided 
in this section, the testimony of two credible and disinterested 
witnesses will be required, who must state how long they have 
been personally acquainted with the parties, and for how long a 
period the latter are known to have recognized each other as man 
and wife. If such acquaintance is deemed to be of too recent 
date to warrant the acceptance of this testimony, or if there is 
reason to doubt, in any instance, that the marriage relation 
existed in good faith, more specific instructions will be issued, 
adapted to the circumstances of the particular case. 



Act of July 25, 1866. 

Provost Marshals, Enrolling Officers, and others Entitled to the 
Benefits of the Pension Laws. — The first section of the Act of 
July twenty-five, eighteen hundred and sixty-six, extends the 
benefits conferred by the pension laws to provost marshals, deputy 
provost marshals, and enrolling officers disabled in the line of 
their official duty as such, and to the widows or dependents of 
such officers in like manner. 

Declarations will be made in accordance with the instructions 
issued under the Pension Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred 
and sixty-two, and supplementary Acts. The grade of such 
officers, for the purpose of determining the rates of pensions un- 
der this section, is fixed as follows : Provost marshals will rank as 
captains ; their deputies as first lieutenants ; and enrolling officers 
as second lieutenants. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 3H 

Increased Pensions to Widows, and Orphan Children Under Six- 
teen Years of Age. — The second section of this act allows to 
those who are or shall be pensioned as widows of soldiers or 
sailors two dollars per month additional pension for each child 
(under sixteen years of age) of the deceased soldier or sailor by 
the widow thus pensioned. 

On the death or remarriage of such widow, or on the denial of 
a pension to her, in accordance with the provisions of section 
eleven of the Act of June six, eighteen hundred and sixty-six, the 
same amount to which she would otherwise be entitled, under this 
and previous provisions, is allowed to the minor children. The 
number and names of the children, with their ages, must be 
proved by the affidavits of two credible and disinterested wit- 
nesses. The provisions of this section only include the children 
of the widow, and not those of her deceased husband by a previous 
marriage. The widows of minor children of officers are not enti- 
tled to this increase. Declarations for an increase under this 
section, if for the widow, will be made in accordance with form. 
H, appended hereto ; and if for minor children, according to 
form I. The pension certificate must be sent with all applica- 
tions filed subsequently to September four, eighteen hundred and 
sixty-six. 

Increase of Pe?isions under Acts prior to July 4, 1862. — All pen- 
sioners under Acts approved prior to July fourteen, eighteen 
hundred and six,ty-two, are, by the third section of the present 
act, granted the same rights as those pensioned under acts ap- 
proved at or since that date, so far as said Acts may be applicable, 
with the exception of soldiers of the Revolution or their widows. 
This section applies only to pensioners who were such at the date 
of the approval of this Act. 

Declaration of claimants under this section will be made in 
accordance with the forms previously issued under Act of July 
fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, and subsequent pension 
acts, with the necessary modifications, and the pension certificates 
will be returned. 

Invalid Pensions of Clai?nants Dying while their Applicatiofis are 
Pending, the Evidence deing Completed. — The fourth section of this 
act is construed in connection with the tenth section of the Act 
of July four, eighteen hundred and sixty-four, and the sixth sec- 



3 12 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

tion of the Act of June six, eighteen hundred and sixty-six, to 
which it is supplementary. If an applicant for invalid pension 
dies while his claim is pending, the evidence having been com- 
pleted, the pension, under the provisions of this section and of 
those sections of previous acts above referred to, is disposed of as 
follows : 

i. If he left a widow, or minor child, or children under sixteen 
years of age, or other dependent relatives, and died of wounds 
received or of disease contracted in the service or in the line of 
duty, no invalid pension certificate will issue, but such widow or 
dependent relatives will receive a pension, in their own right, 
taking precedence in the order prescribed by law in other cases. 

2. If the claimant left a widow or dependent relatives, but did 
not die of wounds received, or disease contracted in the service 
and in the line of duty, so that neither widow nor dependent rela- 
tives would be entitled to a pension on his account, then the cer- 
tificate will be issued in his name, and the pension paid to the 
widow or to the dependent relatives, as the case may be, in the 
same order in which they would have been pensioned, if entitled, 
as set forth in the preceding paragraph. 

3. If the claimant left no widow or dependent relatives, the 
certificate will issue in his name, and the pension will be drawn 
by his executor or administrator. 

Certai?i Accrued Rights Rese7-ved under Repealed Enactments. — 
The fifth section reserves all rights that may ha* r e accrued under 
the fifth section of the pension Act of July four, eighteen hun- 
dred and sixty-four, and the third section of the pension Act of 
March three, eighteen hundred and sixty-five, though repealed by 
the first section of the Act of June six, eighteen hundred and 
sixty-six. 

Widows Remarrying while their Claims are Pending, — Are en- 
titled, under the sixth section, if their claims are otherwise valid, 
to receive pensions to the date of remarriage, if the deceased 
officer, soldier or sailor, on whose account they claim, left no 
legitimate child under sixteen years of age. 

Joseph H. Barrett, 
Commissioner of Pensions. 
Pension Office, August 4, 1866. 



our government and history 3i3 

Act of July 27, 1868. 

Section i. — Dependent Relatives. — In this section precedence is 
given to the dependent relatives hereinafter mentioned, in the fol- 
lowing order, to wit : First, mothers ; secondly, fathers ; thirdly, 
orphan brothers and sisters under sixteen, who shall be pensioned 
jointly; and the persons enumerated shall each be entitled in their 
-order, after the death of the one preceding. 

Sect. 2. — Invalids disabled Subsequent to Passage of this Act. 
— This section specifies as to pensions by reason of disabilities 
incurred subsequent to the passage of this Act, and enumerates 
the circumstances under which said disabilities must have been 
contracted. 

Sect. 3. — Unclaimed Pensions. — This section provides that pen- 
sions remaining unclaimed for fourteen months after the same 
have become due, shall be adjusted at the Pension Agency instead 
of at the Office of the Third Auditor ; and the failure of any pen- 
sioner to claim his or her pension for three years, shall be deemed 
presumptive evidence that the same has legally terminated. On 
a new application, with evidence satisfactorily accounting for such 
failure, the pensioner may be restored to the rolls. 

Sect. 4. — Increase of Pensions of Widows and of Children by a 
Former Wife. — This section gives an increase of two dollars per 
month for each minor child of a deceased soldier, to commence 
•from the .death of their father, and continue until they severally 
attain the age of sixteen years ; and provides that the children of 
a former marriage shall be " entitled to receive two dollars per 
month, to commence from the death of their father, and continue 
until they severally attain the age of sixteen years, to be paid to 
the guardian of such child or children for their use and benefit : 
Provided, however, That in all cases where such widow is charged 
with the care, custody, and maintenance of such child or children, 
the said sum of two dollars per month for each of said children 
shall be paid to her for and during the time she is or may have 
been so charged with the care, custody, and maintenance of such 
•child or children, subject to the same conditions, provisions and 
limitations as if they were her own children by her said deceased 
husband. 

Sect. 5. — Widows and Minors not Debarred, etc. — By this sec- 
tion no widow or guardian to whom an increase of pension has 



3 I 4 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

been or may hereafter be granted on account of minor children, 
shall be deprived thereof by reason of their being maintained or 
educated at the expense of the State or of the public. 

Sect. 6. — Extension of Limitation. — This section provides that 
all pensions applied for within five years after the right thereto 
shall have accrued, and which«havebeen or may be granted under 
the Act of July 14, 1862, or Acts supplementary thereto, shall 
commence from the discharge or death of the person on whose 
account the pension has been or shall be granted ; and in cases of 
insane persons and minors, who were without guardians or other 
proper legal representatives previous to said limitation, applica- 
tions may be filed in their behalf after its expiration. This section 
applies solely to cases in which the title to pension has accrued 
subsequent to March 4, 1861. 

Sect. 7. — Arrears. — In which notification of title to arrears of 
pension, under the foregoing section is provided for ; and also that 
no claim agent or other person shall be entitled to compensation 
for services in making application for such arrears. 

Sect. 8. — Widow's Pension to Children, etc. — In which the re- 
quirement of the certificate of the court that satisfactory evidence 
has been adduced of the abandonment of the care of the minor 
child or children of a deceased soldier by his widow, or of her 
unsuitableness to have custody of them is dispensed with. The 
furnishing of satisfactory evidence thereof to the commissioner 
shall be sufficient to cause the suspension of said widow's pension. 

Sect. 9. — Pending Claim may be Completed by Heirs. — In which, 
if any person entitled to a pension has died since March 4, 1861,, 
his heirs or legal representatives shall be entitled to receive the 
accrued pension : provided no widow or minor child survives the 
applicant. 

Sect. 10. — Remarriage. — This section provides for pension to 
the widow or dependent mother, from the death of soldier to the 
date of claimant's remarriage, (provided no children under six- 
teen survive.) 

Sect. ii. — Extension of Time. — This section provides for the 
continuance in force of the Act of July 4, 1864, from the 4th July, 
1867, for five years. 

Sect. 12. — Loss of an Eye. — This section allows twenty-five 
dollars as a pension for total loss of sight from wounds received or 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY 



315 



disease contracted in the service, though the pensioner may have 
had only one eye when entering the service. 

Sect. 13. — Pensions by Reason of Right Accrued since Revolu- 
tion. — By this section all persons pensioned by reason of services 
rendered since the war of the Revolution, and prior to March 4, 
1 86 1, are placed on the same footing with those pensioned under 
Acts passed since that time ; and grants eight dollars per month 
to the widows of revolutionary soldiers and sailors now pensioned 
at less than that amount. 

Sect. 14. — Limbs to Officers. — By this section captains in the 
army and lieutenants in the navy, and those of less rank, who 
have lost a leg or an arm in such service, shall be entitled to 
receive an artificial limb upon the same terms as privates in the 
army. 

Sect. 15. — Special Acts. — By this section all pensions granted 
by special Acts shall be subject to be varied in amount, according 
to the provisions and limitations of the pension laws. 

Sect. 16. — Repealing Clause. — By this section all Acts and 
parts of Acts inconsistent with the foregoing provisions of this 
Act be and the same are hereby repealed. 




NATURALIZATION LAWS. 




JATURALIZATION is the act by which an alien, or for. 
eigner, becomes invested with the rights and privileges of 
a native-born subject or citizen. In the United States, 
a person duly naturalized is entitled to all the privileges and im- 
munities of a native-born citizen, except that he must have been 
a resident of the United States for seven years, to enable him to 
occupy a seat in Congress, and that he is not eligible to the office 
of President or Vice-President, or, under the Constitution of some 
of the States, to that of Governor. 

Congress having the power, under the Constitution of the 
United States, to establish a uniform rule of naturalization, has 
provided by various enactments, as follows, viz. : Any alien, hav- 
ing arrived in the United States after the age of eighteen years, 
may be admitted to the rights of citizenship, after a declaration, 
upon his part, or oath or affirmation, before the Supreme, Supe- 
rior, District, or Circuit Court of, or any court of record having 
common law jurisdiction in, any of the United States, or of the 
territories thereto belonging, or before a Circuit or District Court 
of the United States, or the Clerk or Prothonotary of any of the 
aforesaid courts, two years at least before his admission, that it is his 
bona fide intention to become a citizen of the United States, and 
to renounce forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign 
prince, potentate, State, or sovereignty whatever, and particularly 
by name, the prince, potentate, State, or sovereignty, whereof such 
alien may at any time have been a citizen or subject ; if such 
alien has borne any hereditary title, or been of any of the orders 
of nobility in the kingdom or State from which he came, he must, 
moreover, expressly renounce his title or order of nobility, in the 
court in which his application is made, which renunciation is to 
be recorded in such county ; and the court admitting such alien 

316 




SCENE IN THE TROPICS. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 3I9 

must also be satisfied that he has continuously resided in the 
United States for five years, at least, immediately preceding his 
naturalization, and also within the State or Territory wherein such 
court is at the time held, at least one year immediately previous 
to such naturalization ; and that during such, five years, he has 
been of good moral character, attached to the principles of the 
Constitution of the United States, and well disposed to the good 
order and happiness of the same ; the oath of at least two citizens 
of the United States, is requisite to prove the fact of such residence ; 
and, at the time of his application to be admitted to citizenship, 
he must make, upon oath or affirmation, the same declaration of 
renunciation and abjuration of allegiance to any foreign power, 
and also, make oath or affirmation to support the Constitution of 
the United States ; all of which proceedings are to be recorded 
by the Clerk or Prothonotary of the proper court. 

If any alien, having legally filed his declaration of intention to 
become a citizen and taken the necessary oath or affirmation, die 
before he is actually naturalized, his widow and children are enti- 
tled to all the rights and privileges of citizens, upon taking the 
required oaths or affirmations. 

Any alien, arriving in the United States under the age of eight- 
een years, and continuously residing therein until the time of his 
application for citizenship, may, after reaching the age of twenty- 
one years, and having been a resident within the United States 
for five years, including the three years of his minority, be admit- 
ted a citizen, without making the formal declaration of intention 
required in other cases ; but at the time of his admission, he must 
make such declaration, and further satisfy the court, upon oath or 
affirmation, that, for the three years immediately preceding, it had 
been his bona fide intention to become such citizen, and in all 
other respects must comply with the naturalization laws of the 
United States. 

Severe penalties for counterfeiting any evidence of citizenship, 
or disposing of a certificate of naturalization to any person other 
than the one for whom it was issued, are imposed by act of Con- 
gress. 

It is to be observed, in this connection, that as the various States 
have the right under the Constitution of the United States, of de- 
fining and fixing the qualifications of their respective citizens, 



320 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



persons who are aliens and not citizens of the United States may 
yet be citizens of a particular State, under its enactments, entitled 
to right of suffrage and other privileges and immunities enjoyed 
by and belonging to the citizens of such particular State. 

Some of the States have also interfered, by legislative enact- 
ment, to require a naturalized citizen to reside in such State a 
certain length of time after his naturalization, before he can enjoy 
the right of suffrage therein. 

It has been held, that, if a subject of a foreign power, at the 
time of leaving the dominion of such power, actually owed mili- 
tary duty or service to such power, by formal enactment or con- 
scription, he is not protected, in the event of his return within the 
dominion of such power, by his certificate of naturalization within 
the United States, from the discharge of such duty or service, but 
is bound to render the same, upon demand therefor made after 
such return. 

It is but just, however, to add, that this opinion is strongly com- 
bated, and can by no means, at present at least, be considered as 
embodying the settled opinion of the proper authorities, or of the 
people of the United States. 




PRE-EMPTION LAWS. 




PRE-EMPTION right is the right of a squatter upon the 
lands of the United States to purchase, in preference to 
'others, when the land is sold. Such right is granted to the 
following persons : Any citizen of the United States ; any person 
who has filed his declaration of intention to become a citizen ; 
any head of a family ; any widow ; any single woman of the age 
of twenty-one years or over , and any person who has made a 
settlement, erected a dwelling-house upon, and is an inhabitant of 
the tract sought to be entered — -provided such settlement was made 
since June i, 1840, and previously to the time of application for 
the land, which land must, at the date of the settlement, have had 
the Indian title extinguished, and been surveyed by the United 
States. 

A person bringing himself within the above requirements by 
proof satisfactory to the Register and Receiver of the land district 
in which the land may lie, taken pursuant to the rules hereafter 
prescribed, will, after having taken the affidavit required by the 
Act, be entitled to enter, by legal subdivisions, any number of acres, 
not exceeding one hundred and sixty, or a quarter-section, to in- 
clude his residence ; and he may avail himself of the same at any 
time prior to the day of the commencement of the public sale, 
including said tract, where the land has not yet been proclaimed. 

Where the land was subject to private entry, June 1, 1840, and 
a settlement shall thereafter be made upon such land, or where 
the land shall become hereafter subject to private entry, and aftei 
that period a settlement shall be made, which the settler is desir- 
ous of securing, notice of such intention must be given within 
thirty days after such settlement ; and, in all such cases, the proof, 
affidavit and payment must be made within twelve months after 
such settlement. 

21 3 2 i 



322 FOOTPRINTS OF THE. AGES-.. 

The tracts liable to entry are embraced under the following de- 
signations : first, A regular quarter-section, notwithstanding the 
quantity may vary a few acres from one hundred and sixty ; or a 
quarter-section, which, though fractional in quantity by the pas- 
sage of a navigable stream through the same, is still bounded by 
regular sectional and quarter-sectional lines ; second, a -fractional 
section containing not over one hundred and sixty acres, or any 
tract being a detached or a nomalous survey made pursuant to 
law, and not exceeding such quantity; third, two adjoining half- 
quarter sections (in all cases to be separated by a north and south 
line, except on the north side of township, where the surveys are 
so made as to throw the excess or deficiency on the north and 
west sides of the township), of the regular quarters mentioned in 
the first designation ; fourth, two half-quarter or eighty-acre sub- 
divisions of a fractional or broken section, adjoining each other, 
the aggregate quantity- not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres ; 
fifth, a regular half-quarter and an adjoining fractional section, or 
an adjoining half-quarter subdivision of a fractional section, the 
aggregate quantity not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres ; 
sixth, if the pre-emptor do not wish to enter one hundred and sixty 
acres, he may enter a single half-quarter section (made by a north 
and south line), or an eighty-acre subdivision of a fractional sec- 
tion ; seventh, one or more adjoining forty-acre lots may be entered, 
the aggregate not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres; and, 
eighth, a regular half-quarter, a half-quarter subdivision, or a frac- 
tional section, may each be taken, with one or more forty-acre 
subdivisions lying adjoining, the aggregate not exceeding one 
hundred and sixty acres. Forty-acre tracts, or quarter-quarter 
sections, may be entered in the same manner that eighty-acre, or 
half-quarter sections, have been. 

Only one person upon a quarter-section is protected, and he the 
one who made the first settlement, provided he conform to the 
other provisions of the law. A person who has once availed himself 
of the provisions of the Pre-emption Act, cannot, at any future 
period, or at any other land-office, acquire any other right under 
it. No person, who is the proprietor of three hundred and twenty 
acres of land in any State or Territory of the United States, or 
who quits or abandons his residence on his own land to reside on 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 323 

the public land in the same State or Territory, is entitled to the 
benefit of the Pre-emption Acts. 

The approval of the tracts by the local land-office is the evi- 
dence of the survey; but the land is to be construed as surveyed, 
when the requisite lines are run on the field, and the corners es- 
tablished by the deputy-surveyor. No assignments or transfers of 
pre-emption rights are recognized at the land-office ; the patents 
issuing to the claimants, in whose names alone the entries are 
made. 

The following description of lands are not liable to entry : first, 
lands included in any reservation by any treaty, law or proclama- 
tion of the President of the United States, and lands reserved for 
salines and for other purposes ; second, lands reserved for the sup- 
port of schools ; third, lands acquired by either of the last two 
treaties with the Miami Indians in Indiana, or which may be 
acquired of the Wyandot Indians in Ohio, or any other Indian 
reservation, to which the title has been, or may be extinguished at 
any time during the operation of the Pre-emption Acts, by the 
United States ; fourth, sections of lands reserved to the United 
States, alternate to other sections granted to any State for the con- 
struction of any canal, railroad, or other public improvement ; 
fifth, sections or fractions of sections included within the limits 
of any incorporated town ; sixth, every portion of the public lands 
which has been selected as a site for a city or town ; seventh, every 
parcel or lot of land actually settled and occupied for the pur- 
poses of trade, and agriculture ; and eighth, all lands in which are 
situated any known salines or mines. 

Persons claiming the benefit of the Pre-emption Acts are 
required to file duplicate affidavits, such as are specified by law, 
and to furnish proof, by one or more disinterested witnesses, of 
the facts necessary to establish the requisites mentioned in the 
first paragraph of this article ; such witnesses having first been 
duly sworn or affirmed by some competent authority. 

If adverse claims are made to the same tract, each claimant is 
to be notified of the time and place of taking testimony, and 
allowed to cross-examine the opposite witnesses, and to furnish 
counter-proof, itself subject to cross-examination. If, by reason 
of distance, sickness, or infirmity, the witnesses cannot personally 
appear before the register of the land-office, their depositions, 



324 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

taken in conformity with the following regulations, may be 
received. 

The notice to adverse claimants must be in writing, and served 
in time to allow at least one day for every twenty miles which the 
party may have to travel in going to the place of taking evidence. 
The proof, in all cases, should consist of a simple detail of facts 
merely, and not of broad and general statements. If the pre- 
emptor be "the head of a family," the witnesses must state the 
facts constituting him such ; whether he be a husband having a 
wife and children, or a widower, or an unmarried person under 
twenty-one years of age, having a family, either of relatives or 
others, dependent upon him, or hired persons. All the facts rel- 
ative to the settlement in person, inhabitancy, or personal resi- 
dence, the time of its commencement, the manner and extent of 
its continuance, as also those sharing the apparent objects, must 
be stated. It must be stated that the claimant made the settle- 
ment on the land in person ; that he has erected a dwelling upon 
the land ; that he lived in the same, and made it his home, etc. In 
the event of a decision by the land-officer against the claimant, he 
may appeal to the Commissioner of the Land-Office at Washing- 
ton. 

No entry will be permitted until the affidavit required of the 
claimant is taken. Duplicates thereof must be signed by the 
claimant, and the fact of the oath being taken must be certified 
by the register or receiver administering the same ; one copy to 
be filed in the Register's office, and the other to be sent to the 
Land-Office at Washington. 

A purchaser of public land is only required to make written 
application to the Register of the local land-office for the tract de- 
sired to be entered, and to pay to the Receiver the purchase- 
money therefor. Blank forms of such application are furnished 
gratuitously at the Land-Office where the tract is desired to be 
entered. 



SOLDIERS' HOMESTEAD LAW 

OF 1872. 




HE following is the full text of the Amendatory Soldiers' 
Homestead Bill, approved by the President on the 3d of 
April, 1872. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
United States of America in Congress assembled, That every pri- 
vate soldier and officer who has served in the army of the United 
States during the recent rebellion for ninety days or more, and 
who was honorably discharged, aq|i has remained loyal to the 
government, including the troops mustered into the service of the 
United States by virtue of the third section of an act entitled 
"An act making appropriations for completing the defenses of 
Washington, and for other purposes," approved February 13th, 
1862, and every seaman, marine and officer who has served in the 
navy of the United States, or in the marine corps, during the re- 
bellion for ninety days, and who was honorably discharged, and has 
remained loyal to the government, shall, on compliance with the 
provisions of an act entitled, " An act to secure homesteads to 
actual settlers on the public domain, and the acts amendatory 
thereof, as hereinafter modified, be entitled to enter upon and 
receive patents for a quantity of public lands (not mineral) not 
exceeding one hundred and sixty acres, or one quarter section, to 
be taken in compact form according to legal subdivision, including 
the alternate reserved section of public lands along the line of 
any railroad or other public work not otherwise reserved or ap- 
propriated, and other lands subject to entry under the homestead 
laws of the United States : Provided, the said homestead settler 
shall be allowed six months after locating his homestead within 
which to commence his settlement and improvements : And pro- 
vided also, the time which the homestead settler shall have served 
in the army, navy or marine corps aforesaid shall be deducted 

325 



326 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

from the time heretofore required to perfect title, or if discharged 
on account of wounds received, or disability incurred in the line 
of duty, then the term of enlistment shall be deducted from the 
time heretofore required to perfect title, without reference to the 
length of time he may have served : Provided, however, that no 
patent shall issue to any homestead settler who has not resided 
upon, improved .and cultivated his said homestead for a period of 
at least one 'year after he shall commence his improvements as 
aforesaid. 

Section 2. That any person entitled under the provisions of 
the foregoing section to enter a homestead, who may have hereto- 
fore entered under the Homestead law a quantity of land less 
than one hundred and sixty acres, shall be permitted to enter un- 
der the provisions of this act so much land as, when added to the 
quantity previously entered, shall not exceed one hundred and 
sixty acres. 

Section 3. That in the c^e of the death of any person who 
would be entitled to a homestead under the provisions of the first 
section of this act, his widow, if unmarried, or in case of her 
death or marriage, then his minor orphan children, by a guardian 
duly approved and officially accredited at the Department of the 
Interior, shall be entitled to all the benefits enumerated in this 
act, subject to all the provisions as to settlement and improve- 
ments therein contained: Provided, that if such person died 
during his term of enlistment, the whole term of his enlistment 
shall be deducted from the time heretofore required to perfect the 
title. 

Section 4. That where a party, at the date of his entry of a 
tract of land under the Homestead laws, or subsequently thereto, 
was actually enlisted and employed in the army or navy of the 
United States, his services therein shall, in the administration of 
said Homestead laws, be construed to be equivalent, to all intents 
and purposes, to a residence for the same length of time upon the 
tract so entered : Provided, that if his entry has been canceled by 
reason of his absence from said tract while in the military or 
naval service of the United States, and such tract has not been 
disposed of, his entry shall be restored and confirmed : And pro- 
vided further, that if such tract has been disposed of, said party 
may enter another tract subject to the entry under said laws, and 



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OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY 



329 



his right to a patent therefor shall be determined by the proofs 
touching his residence and cultivation by the first tract and his 
absence therefrom in such service. 

Section 5. That any soldier, sailor, marine, officer or other per- 
son coming within the provisions of this act may, as well by an 
agent as in person, enter upon said homestead : Provided, that 
the said claimant in person shall, within the time prescribed [six 
months from date of entry] commence settlement and improve- 
ments on the same, and thereafter fulfill all the requirements of 
this act. 

Section 6. That the commissioner of the General Land Office 
shall have authority to make all needful rules and regulations to 
carry into effect the provisions of this act." 




HOW TO ACQUIRE TITLE TO GOVERN- 
MENT LANDS. 




f^HERE are two classes of public lands subject to entry; 
one at $1.25 per acre, known as minimum, and one at $2.50, 
known as double minimum, the latter being the alternate 
sections along the lines of railroads. Title may be acquired by 
purchase at public sale, or by " private entry," and in virtue of 
the Pre-emption and Homestead Laws. 

At Public Sale. — Lands are offered at auction to the highest 
bidder, pursuant to proclamation or public notice. 

Private Entry. — Lands subject to private entry, are those which 
have been once offered at public sale without finding purchasers. 
In order to acquire title to these lands, a written application must 
be made to the Land Register of the District in which the land is 
located, describing the tract desired. The Register certifies the 
fact to the Receiver, stating price, and the applicant then pays 
the money and takes a receipt, and at the close of the month the 
Register and Receiver make return of the sale to the General 
Land Office, when a patent or full title issues on due surrender ol 
the receipt, and will be delivered at the option of the purchaser, 
at the General Land Office in Washington, or by the Register at 
the District Land Office. 

Land Warrants. — When lands are to be located with land war- 
rants, application must be made as in cash cases, accompanied by 
an assigned warrant. When the tract is $2.50 per acre, $1.25 per 
acre must be paid in addition to the warrant. Receipts are given 
and patents delivered, as in the preceding case. At the time of 
location, a fee of 50 cents for a 40 acre warrant, and a correspond- 
ing amount for larger ones, must be paid to the Register, and a 
{ike sum to the Receiver. 

330 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 33I 

Agricultural College Scrip. — This may be used in the location 
of lands at private entry, but is only applicable to lands subject to 
entry at $1.25 per acre, and is restricted to a technical " quarter 
section," and to three sections in each township of land. The 
proceeding to acquire title is the same as in cash and warrant 
cases, the fees being the same as on warrants. This scrip may be 
used in payment of pre-emption claims. 

Pre-emptio7is. — Any person being the head of a family, or widow, 
or single man over 21 years of age, and a citizen of the United 
States, or a person who has filed his declaration to become such, 
by settling upon and improving any of the "offered," " unoffered," 
or unsurveyed lands of the United States, may obtain a pre-emp- 
tion right to purchase 160 acres so occupied, at the regular gov- 
ernment price, whether it be $1.25 or $ 2 -5o per acre. Where the 
tract is " offered " land, the settler must file with the District Land 
Office his statement as to the fact of settlement, within thirty days 
thereafter, and within one year must make proof to the Land 
Office, of his actual residence and cultivation, and secure the land 
by payment in cash or Land Warrant. Where the land has been 
surveyed and not offered at public sale, the statement must be 
filed within three months after settlement, and payment made 
within 21 months. Where settlement is made upon unsurveyed 
lands, the settler is required to file a statement within three months 
after the survey, and pay within eighteen months thereafter. No 
person is entitled to more than one pre-emption right. 

The Homestead Privilege. — The Homestead laws give to every 
citizen the right to a Homestead of 160 acres minimum, or eighty 
acres double minimum. To obtain Homestead, applicant must 
swear that he is the head of a family, or over the age of twenty- 
one, a citizen, or has declared his intention to become such ; and 
that the entry is for his exclusive use and benefit, and for actual 
settlement and cultivation. When an applicant has made actual 
settlement upon the land he desires, he must make affidavit of the 
fact before the Land Register, and pay fees amounting on 160 
acres of minimum land to $18, or an equal sum for eighty acres 
of double minimum, for which he gets a receipt ; and after five 
years' occupation and cultivation of the land, he is entitled upon 
proof of such cultivation to a patent or full title to the Home- 
stead. Any loyal person in the naval or military service of the 



33 2 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

United States, may acquire a Homestead by reason of his family 
occupying land and making the application in his stead. All offi- 
cers, soldiers and sailors, who have served in the army or navy for 
ninety days and remained loyal, may enter 160 instead of 80 acres 
of double minimum lands. The fees above for entering Home- 
stead apply to surveyed lands in Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Mis- 
souri, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Dakota, Alabama, Mississippi, 
Louisiana, Arkansas, Florida, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. In Cal- 
ifornia, Nevada, Oregon, Colorado, New Mexico, Washington Ter- 
ritory, Arizona, Idaho, Utah, Wyoming and Montana, the fees are 
$22 instead of $18. A settler having riled a pre-emption declara- 
tion, may change his filing into Homestead, and receive the benefit 
of the Homestead laws. If a Homestead settler does not wish to 
remain five years on his land before obtaining title, he may pay 
for it in cash or Land Warrants. Lands obtained under the 
Homestead laws are exempt from liability for debts contracted 
prior to the issuing of the patent. 

United States Land Offices are located at Fort Des Moines, 
Council Bluffs, Fort Dodge and Sioux City, Iowa ; Menasha, Falls 
of St. Croix, Stevens' Point, La Crosse, Bayfield and Eau Claire, 
Wisconsin ; San Francisco, Marysville, Humboldt, Stockton, Vi- 
salia, Sacramento and Los Angeles, California; West Point, Beat- 
rice, Lincoln, Dakota City and Grand Island, Nebraska; Taylor's 
Falls, St. Cloud, Du Luth, Alexandria, Jackson, New Ulm and 
Litchfield, Minnesota ; Oregon City, Roseburg and Le Grand, Or- 
egon ; Topeka, Junction City, Humboldt and Augusta, Kansas ; 
Carson City, Austin, Belmont and Aurora, Nevada; Vermilion,. 
Springfield and Pembina, Dakota; Denver City, Fair Play and 
Central City, Colorado ; Boonville, Ironton and Springfield, Mis- 
souri; Mobile, Huntsville and Montgomery, Alabama; New Or- 
leans, Monroe and Natchiloches, Louisiana; Detroit, East Sagi- 
naw, Ionia, Marquette and Traverse City, Michigan ; Little Rock, 
Washington and Clarksville, Arkansas ; Boise City and Lewiston, 
Idaho ; Chillicothe, Ohio ; Indianapolis, Indiana ; Springfield, 
Illinois; Jackson, Mississippi; Tallahassee, Florida; Olympia and 
Vancouver, Washington Territory; Helena, Montana; Prescottj, 
Arizona; Salt Lake City, Utah. 



THE LAW OF NATIONS. 




NATIONS, like individuals, are bound by certain laws 
which govern and control their relation and conduct to 
each other. It is, or should be, based upon the divine 
precept, " Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do 
ye even so to them." No other rule is just, and nations are as 
strongly bound to obey it as an individual. This, however, is not 
enough ; and sad as is the commentary, in other and more human 
laws they find a stronger protection. There is no tribunal but 
that of public opinion to enforce upon nations an observance of 
the courtesy due each other, but, in this age, there is not a civilized 
government on earth that does not stand sufficiently in awe of 
this to openly respect its compact with other nations. 

There can, of course, be no court for the adjustment of 
national misunderstandings ; and each nation is therefore a law 
unto itself, and the chief judge of its own wrongs and grievances; 
hence, when difficulties and disputes arise between them, and 
neither reason nor charity will lead to a peaceful settlement of 
their troubles, war is resorted to, and by force of arms, or supe- 
riority of numbers, one is forced to yield its claims to the other, 
and often to relinquish justice. A nation's strength is not always 
a nation's glory, since it may have been acquired by the most dis- 
honorable means ; and a nation's greatness is not always a nation's 
honor, since it may have been reached in such a way as to be its 
shame. In the ages when the most bloody and cruel war begat 
heroes, and the most treacherous and cowardly acts often crowned 
them with laurels, it was enough that a nation was victorious ; it 
mattered little whether that victory, or the terms dictated to the 
conquered, were honorable or otherwise, and some of the most 
noted of the ancient Roman and Grecian warriors were distinguished 
for cruelty, tyranny and treachery. To violate a treaty was, with 

333 



334 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Rome, but to proclaim that it was more to her interest to break 
than to keep it — or that she was strong enough to-day to with- 
draw what she conceded through weakness yesterday. Every 
nation has, as much as every family, the right to regulate its own 
domestic or internal affairs ; and no other nation has a right to 
interfere, no matter what its laws or customs may be, or how bar- 
barous or inhuman ; and they may alter or abolish them, in part 
or altogether, as they chose, but it must be done with proper con- 
sideration for the rights of others, and care that it does not inter- 
fere with or injure them. 

All political divisions are protected under and by the law of 
nations, as the States of a confederacy or union are protected by 
the constitution that is binding upon all alike ; and any nation or 
kingdom guilty of wilfully violating treaties, or resorting to dis- 
simulation to free itself from honest obligations, or wantonly 
making unprovoked war upon a neighbor would forfeit its claim 
to the protection of the law of nations, and all governments would 
be bound to see that justice was done to the wronged .party. 
Every government is free to act as it sees fit in making treaties, 
and in using its discretion and judgment as to what is best for 
itself. 

Every nation has an exclusive right to the use, for navigation, 
or other purposes, of the rivers flowing through its own territory, 
to sea, lake or inland bay, and to its own sea coast for three miles 
from shore ; and all her vessels, of whatever description, going be- 
yond that line, are considered in foreign waters, and must be pro- 
vided with passports from their government, which is neither 
more nor less than an official certificate that the ship is from the 
country under whose flag she sails, and gives permission to visit 
certain ports or countries, and to navigate certain waters without 
molestation. It gives a minute and truthful description of the 
vessel, her officers, crew, lading, capacity, guns, etc., and asks of 
all powers that the vessel be allowed to pass on her journey with- 
out disturbance ; and any molestation or insult to her is an insult 
to the nation whose flag she bears, and one requiring the fullest 
apology and the most ample amendment according to the law of 
nations. 

Every nation has its agent or representative at the national 
capital, at the court, or legislative assemblage of each other ; and 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 335 

the failure of a nation to send a minister to a court, or assembly 
of national interest, is often a sign of non-recognition of that 
power. These officers are divided into four classes : ist, Am- 
bassadors or Papal Legates ; 2d, Envoys Extraordinary and Min- 
isters Plenipotentiary; 3d, Resident Minister, accredited to 
sovereigns or independent nations; 4th, Charge d' Affaires, ac- 
credited to the minister of foreign affairs. An ambassador holds 
the highest rank, and acts in the place of the sovereign who em- 
ploys him, and his word is absolute, so far as his government is 
concerned ; and is entitled to all the honors which would be paid 
to the ruler he represents personally ; and he is not answerable or 
held accountable to the country he visits for any crime or atrocity, 
but it can be exacted of his own government that he be re-called 
and punished. 

In times of peace, special agents sent out in case of an emer- 
gency, or for a special purpose, is styled an envoy. A plenipo- 
tentiary is a minister who is authorized to act for his sovereign in 
any negotiations, and to arrange terms and treaties at the close of 
war. The ministers of the United States are required to keep 
their government notified of everything which is of interest or im- 
portance to it, to see that justice is done to their countrymen, that 
they are not oppressed or wronged, and to encourage every move- 
ment which tends to the enlightenment of the race, and to improve 
their condition. A charge d' affaires ranks lowest in the class of 
foreign ministers — is, indeed, a deputy simply, and intrusted by 
the ambassador to take charge of the business with which he in- 
trusts him. A consul is a commercial agent, who is sent by his 
government to reside abroad, and his business lies usually in 
seaport towns. The consul must carry with him a certificate of 
his appointment, must be publicly recognized and receive from 
the government under which he proposes to reside a written per- 
mission to perform his special duties. He is not entitled to 
the immunities of a minister and may be discharged at the will of 
the government to whom he is sent ; but an ambassador can 
only be withdrawn, at the will of the sovereign he represents. The 
refusal to receive a consul is never considered a breach of eti- 
quette, but a refusal to receive a minister would be an open insult 
to his government, and denote great dissatisfaction, if not actual 
hostility. It is not customary, nor admissible, to open war upon 



33^ FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

any nation without a certain preliminary course. It is preceded 
by setting forth the wrongs and grievances upon which it is based, 
and asking peaceful redress and not until every other means have 
been tried, and every other measure resorted to without success, 
is war justified by the law of nations. In the United States the 
power to declare war is intrusted to the national legislature. 
When once war has been declared, every subject is considered or 
treated as if responsible for the acts of his government, and en- 
mity and hostility exists, not only between the active armies, but 
between the individuals who comprise the nations, and indirectly 
they support the war, since the taxes levied upon them, paid, it 
may be reluctantly, yet paid, are the only means by which the 
armies could be sustained or war carried on. 

A blockade is the surrounding of a place with hostile troops or 
ships in such a manner as to prevent escape and hinder supplies 
of ammunition and provision from entering, with a view to com- 
pelling a surrender by hunger and want, without regular attacks. 
No neutral nation is permitted to afford aid or relief to the inhabi- 
tants, and all supplies in a state of transmission for such relief, are 
subject to confiscation. A mere declaration of blockade is not 
sufficient, nor is it binding upon neutral powers, unless they have 
first been notified, and the port or country surrounded in such a 
manner as to prevent ingress or egress. 

A truce is a temporary suspension of hostilities by the mutual 
agreement of the two armies, and at the close of it, war may be 
at once resumed, and it maybe general, or only partial. A partial 
truce suspends hostilities only at one point, while a general truce 
extends over all the dominion of the hostile nations. 

A declaration of war is a total prohibition of commercial inter- 
course between the citizens of the two opposing powers, and any 
contracts made between them are null and void; neither is it 
lawful to insure the property of, or remit money to, a citizen of 
the other country. 

An embargo is an injunction to vessels not to leave port, and 
can only be issued by the supreme rulers of a country, and im- 
plies that there is threatening and immediate danger. 

Letters of marque and reprisal are sealed commissions granted 
by a government to its citizens, licensing the seizure of an enemy's 
property, or of the person of those who belong to a government 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 337 

which has refused to do justice to the country granting it; and 
war-vessels owned by private individuals, and thus licensed, are 
privateers. 

A treaty is a solemn compact between nations, made by com- 
missioners who represent the sovereign or chief magistrate, and 
the country which they represent pledges its national honor and 
truth before the world to keep sacred the stipulations of such 
treaty . and this is as closely binding upon the respective gov- 
ernments as are contracts upon private citizens. In this age a 
nation would be irredeemably disgraced who would wilfully out- 
rage or violate a treaty. 

It is the tendency and design of the law of nations to cuU' 
tivate the principles of justice and humanity, and to unite in the 
encouragement of the rational usages of the Christian world. 



SALARIES OF FEDERAL OFFICERS. 

President $50,000 Chief Justice U. S $10,500- 

Vice-President 10,000 Associate Justices, each 10,000 

Cabinet Officers, each 8,000 

MINISTERS TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 

Austria, Brazil, China, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Spain, each, $12,000 

France, Great Britain, Germany and Russia, each 17,500 

Chili and Peru, each 10,000 

MINISTERS RESIDENT. 

Argentine Republic, Belgium, Bolivia, Columbia, Denmark, Ecuador, 
Greece, Hawaiian Islands, Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden and 
Norway, Switzerland, Turkey, U. S. of Columbia, Venezuela, each, $ 7,50O 

Central American States, and Uruguay and Paraguay, each 10,000 

MINISTERS RESIDENT AND CONSULS -GENERAL. 

Hayti $7,500 Siberia $4,000 

SALARIES OF GOVERNORS OF THE STATES. 

New York $10,000 Kansas, Indiana, Minnesota, 

California 7,000 Mississippi, Tennessee and 

Louisiana 8,000 New Jersey, each $3,000 

Nevada 6,000 Illinois, Iowa, Maine, each,. . 2,500 

Kentucky, Massachusetts, Connecticut 2,000 

Missouri, North Carolina, West Virginia 2,700 

Pennsylvania, Texas, Vir- Delaware ... 1,333 

ginia, Wisconsin, each .... 5,000 Oregon 1. 500 

Maryland 4,500 Michigan, Nebraska, New 

Alabama, Georgia, Ohio, and Hampshire, Rhode Island 

South Carolina, each 4,000 and Vermont, each 1,000 

Arkansas and Florida, each. 3,500 



THE FUTURE OF OUR COUNTRY. 




^JfHE history of America has not, like that of the Old World, 
the charm of classical or romantic associations ; but in 
useful instruction and moral dignity it has no equal. It is 
only a century since this fair and flourishing republic was a 
colony of England, scarcely commanding the means of existence 
without the aid of the mother country, who was herself oppressed 
by European wars. Our puritan forefathers began in the rough 
fields of Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut, on a 
broad, comprehensive principle, which has gone forth to fraternize 
the world. Our history, therefore, like that poetical temple of 
fame reared by the imagination of Chaucer, and decorated by the 
taste of Pope, is almost exclusively dedicated to the memory of 
the truly great. Within, no idle ornament encumbers its bold 
simplicity. The pure light of Heaven enters from above, and 
sheds an equal and serene radiance around. As the eye wanders 
about its extent, it beholds the unadorned monuments of brave 
and good men, who have bled or toiled for their country ; or it 
rests on votive tablets inscribed with the names of the blessed 
benefactors of mankind. The puritans of England — the resolute 
conquerors of the lakes and forests of the New World — occupied, 
in the first period of their social existence, the depressed position 
of a European colony; but the spirit of liberty which had led 
them to these wild regions, and the gifts of a magnificent and 
fertile nature, were sufficient to prepare them for their high des- 
tiny. This rude apprenticeship lasted more than one hundred 
and fifty years before the hour of change struck ; and in the night 
of the 1 8th of April, 1775, the cannons of Lexington called a 
new-born nation to regenerate the world. The people rose as 
one man, and turning the ploughshares that tilled the soil into 

338 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 339 

swords to defend it, they threw themselves upon their unjust op- 
pressors, and proclaimed at Philadelphia the immortal principles 
of self-government, that made tyrants tremble and every generous 
heart palpitate with joyful hope. At that moment a new name 
was inscribed on the catalogue of great nations. If not great in 
national importance, it was great by the moral influence it imme- 
diately exercised on the world. The long and bloody but success- 
ful Revolutionary War broke the chains of the thirteen colonies, 
and offered to the astonished world the most sublime spectacle of 
ancient or modern times — the fusion of all races, tongues and 
sects, in the one political religion of liberty. 

In our necessarily brief record of these wonderful ev«ts and 
their grand results, we have as historians tried to be faithful, and 
as chroniclers have endeavored to present facts unbiased by pre- 
judice, and with strict regard to truth. We view the Union from 
no sectional stand point, but looking over its broad area from east 
to west, from north to south, we say, with as fervent love as ever 
swelled the heart of patriot for country, it is ours ! God bless 
America ! God bless and preserve our Union ! and if too much of 
pride and exultation mingles with our emotions, we find in her 
glory and honor our only apology. We naturally ask what is to 
be the future of our country — what its population — how rapid its 
growth — what of the generations to come, and for what length of 
time the present rate of increase can be maintained ? Some close 
their eyes to the brightness which surrounds them, and with 
retroverted vision, and gloomy forebodings, point to the ruin and 
decay which cover the land where once flourished the mightiest 
kingdoms of the world ; while, passing to the opposite extreme, 
hopeful and sanguine men will tell you there are no limits to our 
growth and prosperity. In favor of our present ratio of increase 
it may be urged, that with a population of only 40,000,000, we 
have sufficient territory to accommodate 1,000,000,000, and yet 
not be so densely populated as China, India, or Japan. An 
eminent mathematician has estimated that, starting at the present 
year, with a population of 43,000,000, the same ratio of increase 
that has prevailed for the last century, would give the United 
States, in the year 2000, a population of one and a quarter 
billion, or very nearly the present population of the entire globe. 
Startling as is the proposition, it is not improbable. 



340 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

We have abundant resources to support this, or even a greater 
number in comfort. To-day not one-half of our entire territory- 
is settled, and not one-half of that settled is cultivated, while even 
this does not produce to exceed, on an average, more than one- 
half it is capable of producing under a higher system of agricul- 
ture, and with better machinery ; yet we have enough even now, to 
very nearly or quite sustain the population which we shall have 
ten centuries hence. Those who are living in dread of a famine 
in consequence of the great rush of emigration, would do well to 
consider the following facts. Most of the immigrants come 
from a hard, stern school, in which they have learned lessons of 
close economy, industry and patient perseverance, preparing them 
to win from our most sterile lands a richer harvest than rewarded 
their efforts on the best of their own acres. With simplicity of 
habit, they possess great power of endurance. Having in their 
hearts an irrepressible love of freedom, a hungering and thirsting 
after the liberty with which the generous Republic endows all her 
sons alike, whether hers by birth or adoption, they become at 
once the staunchest defenders and the most unbounded admirers 
of our institutions. 

. If agriculture is in its infancy, so also is the development of 
our mineral resources, abundant and unlimited, even to the 
necessities of all the anticipated increase of population. Christ- 
ianity and education elevate the masses of the people, and give 
them the wisdom requisite for the duties of citizens and states- 
men, and it is only through the influence of those two agents that 
we shall escape the fate of Republics which rose and fell before 
our own had an existence, or its birth was foretold. 

So long as numberless church spires pierce the clouds in 
every city, town, vale and prairie throughout the land, and every- 
where are found institutions of learning — from the classic halls 
that have been the literary alma mater of generations of philoso- 
phers to the log school-house on the far frontier, we have little to 
dread from political power. Neither civil nor religious oppres- 
sion can be brought to bear heavily upon a people thus guarded 
and protected. No Republic, except our own, ever attained such 
triumphs in the test of the great principles upon which it was 
founded, and perhaps no people ever possessed such advantages 
for perfecting an experiment that has so often proved a disastrous 
failure with other nations. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



34i 



It is impossible for us to be too careful in guarding every source 
by which corruption can creep into our councils and obtain power 
in our midst. The contest with bigotry, prejudice and superstition, 
with the religious intolerance of other ages and other nations, 
will not only be sharp, but long. If " the price of liberty is 
eternal vigilance," it is still worth all it costs. It is not the inter- 
vention of foreign foes we have to dread so much as masked 
treason in our midst. The world looks on in silence. Freedom, 
crushed again and again by the hand of tyranny in the Old World, 
has found a place of refuge, a shelter, a home, an altar in the 
New. Her triumphant shouts reach the shores of distant king- 
doms, and the reverberating echo startles crowned heads from their 
fancied security. 

There is no standing still — no folding of idle hands — no loiter- 
ing in pleasant places by the way. " Onward ! " is the cry ; " On- 
ward!" is the motto — onward the purpose. Millions of acres 
are yet to be brought under cultivation ; exhaustless wealth of 
iron, and coal, and copper, and lead lie in the unexplored depths 
of the earth. Ophir ne'er possessed more abundant riches of 
gold and silver than await the persevering industry of the 
miner in this fair land. Our territories offer homesteads for all 
who will come. 

The ordinary mind is overwhelmed with the magnitude of the 
view thus presented and shrinks from the task of predicting the 
future of such a country, but dwells in ever-brightening hope of 
the glory thereof. 




34 2 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



HOW OUR GOVERNMENT IS SUPPORTED. 



The subject of revenue for the support of government has 
been a question much discussed by statesmen of all time. It is 
now conceded by most that indirect taxation is easier collected 
and more satisfactory to the people than the direct. The burden 
is the same in both, but the people do not see them in the former 
as they do in the latter. The United States have adopted the 
indirect method of raising revenue, while the State governments 
use the direct. The indirect method is a tax upon imported 
goods. 

There are other sources of income besides the one mentioned. 
The sale of public lands has been a source of large revenue, 
though the desire to encourage emigration in order to develop the 
unsettled parts of our country has led the government to offer its 
lands at a nominal price. 

The Post-office Department has been, and is, a large source of 
income, being nearly self-supporting. 

Tonnage laid upon both foreign and American vessels doing 
business with our ports ; the forfeiture of smuggled goods, and of 
vessels laden with them ; prizes taken in war, and fees required 
to pay officials when their services are employed, are all a source 
of revenue. 

When all these are insufficient to defray expenses, as in case 
of a great war, direct taxes are laid on the property and business 
of the country. This is called Internal Revenue. The necessity 
of levying direct taxes by the General Government does not often 
occur; but during and after our great civil war in order to meet 
the extraordinary expenses and to sustain the credit of the gov- 
ernment our direct taxes became very large. In 1861 Congress 
passed the " Internal Revenue law," by which twenty millions of 
dollars were levied on houses and lands in the states and terri- 
tories. 

By subsequent acts almost every kind of property and busi- 
ness, as well as houses and lands, were taxed. Licenses were 
required for persons to carry on their professions, trade, or busi- 
ness ; incomes were taxed ; deeds, mortgages, notes, bonds, bank 
checks, contracts, and papers of almost every kind were null and 
void unless a revenue stamp were affixed to them. Manufactur- 
ers were obliged to pay a certain percentage on whatever goods 
they produced. To carry out these provisions the country was 
divided into revenue districts, corresponding as much as possible 
with congressional districts. An officer was appointed by the 
Treasury Department, called the Commissioner of Internal Reve- 
nue, whose duty was to supervise the work of assessing and collect- 
ing the " Internal Revenue." Each district had its chief officer, his 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 343 

deputies, assessors, and collectors, through whom the money 
reached the Treasury at Washington. 

As soon as it was possible after the war closed, the Internal 
Revenue law was modified so as to lift many of its burdens from 
the people. 

In times of peace our government relies chiefly for its income 
upon duties or customs. Duties are a sum of money that is paid 
by importers for the privilege of selling their goods in this coun- 
try. These are levied by Congress, and are increased or dimin- 
ished from year to year as the wants of the government require. 

Tariff is the rate or scale of duties, and there are two ways of 
imposing them according to the views of the Congress legislating. 
They are called specific and ad valorem. Ad valorem signifies 
according to the cost of the article in the country from which they 
are imported. Specific means a definite sum without regard to 
the cost. There are many articles imported upon which there is 
no duty. These are called " free goods." 

Duties are primarily levied to raise a revenue to pay the 
expenses of the government ; but there is another object that 
has many advocates — the encouragement and protection of home 
industry. It is stated in one of the first acts of the first Con- 
gress : " Whereas it is necessary for the support of the govern- 
ment, for the discharge of the debts of the United States, and the 
encouragement and protection of manufacturers, that duties be laid 
on goods, wares, and merchandise imported." It was considered 
for the best interests of the country that our feeble industries and 
manufactures, by imposing a high tariff on the same kind of for- 
eign goods that are produced here, would be an advantage to the 
country at large. 

A high or protective tariff has and always had very many 
strong advocates, and, on the contrary, a low or revenue tariff 
only has had, and still has, as many powerful advocates as the for- 
mer, which is the true theory of government, and for the best 
interests of the people is a question that future statesmen will 
have to determine. 

Duties or customs are mostly collected at seaboard cities, as 
foreign goods mainly come by water. The places where these 
are collected are called Custom Houses, and the officers who col- 
lect them Custom House officers. 

Custom House buildings are erected by the government at an 
expense of many millions of dollars all along our seaboard cities, 
and in many of our large inland ones. The greater part of the 
duties are collected in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Balti- 
more, Charleston, Savannah, New Orleans, and San Francisco. 
Ports of entry are places designated by government for vessels to 
present their goods for examination and for collection of duties. 



344 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

If they are delivered at some other place, where there is no cus- 
tom house, they are called ports of delivery. 

When duties have been paid on foreign goods, and are after- 
wards exported, the duties that have been paid are refunded to 
the owner. 

The money thus returned is called a drawback. 

To collect the duties of our government, it requires a number 
of officials larger than our standing army. It takes about 30,000 
officials of all grades. At the head of these officers is the Com- 
missioner of Customs. He superintends the Bureau of Customs 
in the Treasury Department. He is appointed by the President, 
by the consent of the Senate. 

. The whole army of Custom House officials are under his con- 
trol and surveillance. 

The account of officers employed in the collection of duties 
pass through his bureau for examination and adjustment. He 
directs the form of keeping accounts, prepares the forms of all 
papers used in his department of revenue, and brings suits when 
necessary for recovering moneys that are due from officers of the 
department. This bureau was organized in 1849. Previous to 
this time its business was under the supervision of the First 
Comptroller of the Treasury. 

Collectors are the next highest in rank. Wherever there is a 
port of entry a collector is appointed to superintend the collec- 
tion of duties. He is appointed by the President and Senate, 
.All the subordinate officers of his collection district are nominated 
by him, and are appointed by the Secretary of the Treasury if 
there are no objections. They are required to give heavy bonds 
for the faithful fulfillment of their official trusts. Their duties are 
various and responsible. They are required that all the goods 
upon which Congress has levied a duty that come into their dis- 
trict shall pay the amount assessed. They receive all reports, 
manifests, sign the clearances of vessels that leave their port, and 
■examine all documents and cargoes of both foreign and domestic 
vessels as they enter or depart from their respective ports. They 
must estimate the duties on cargoes, receive the moneys or bonds 
securing their payment, and grant all permits for landing the 
goods. He transmits, quarterly, ail the moneys collected, and an 
accurate statement of all the transactions of his office. The 
accounts pass to the Bureau of Customs, and the money to Treas- 
urer of the United States. 

Surveyors are next in authority to the collector, and are 
appointed in the same manner. They superintend the weighers, 
gaugers, measurers, and inspectors, and visit all vessels that arrive 
in port, and make a report of the same to the collector. 

The naval officer is another of the superintendents that are 
appointed in the same mode as collectors and surveyors. His 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 345 

duties run in a measure parallel with collector. He examines the 
accounts of the collector and audits them, certifying to, their cor- 
rectness. He receives copies of all manifests and entries and 
computes the duties on them, keeping a separate record of them. 
He countersigns permits, clearances, certificates, and other docu- 
ments issued by the collector. He audits the collector's 
accounts, examines his bond, and certifies to them if correct. 
Surveyors and naval officers are appointed only for the larger 
ports. 

The compensation of these officers depends upon the amount 
of business done. 

In all the large seaboard cities they receive a large compensa- 
tion, part in salary and part from the receipts of smuggled goods, 
as they or any person who discovers smuggled goods, and can 
prove them such, receives one half of the value of the same, while 
the balance is turned over to the government treasury. 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTE. 

This institution was founded by James Smithson, sc noble- 
hearted and wealthy Englishman. He bequeathed to the United 
States Government the sum of $541,379.63 for the purpose of 
the " Increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." 'The 
bequest was formally accepted by an act of Congress, July 1, 
1836. The Smithsonian Institution was established by an act of 
Congress approved Aug. 10, 1846. By this act the President, 
the Vice President, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the 
Treasury, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, the 
Postmaster General, the Attorney General, the Chief Justice, the 
Commissioner of the Patent Office, and the Mayor of Washing- 
ton, during their time of office, and such other persons they may 
elect as honorary members, were made the corporators of the 
establishment, under the name of the " Smithsonian Institution." 
The corner-stone of the building was laid with Masonic cere- 
monies, May 1, 1847, in the City of Washington, in the presence 
•of President Polk and a large concourse of people. It is con- 
trolled by a board of regents, composed of the Vice President 
and Chief Justice of the United States, the Mayor of Washing- 
ton, three members of the House and three members of the Sen- 
ate, with six other persons. This board chooses their own offi- 
•cers and make a yearly report of their proceedings to Congress. 
The princely legacy of Smithson has been sacredly carried out 
by Congress. Rooms in the building have been prepared for the 
reception of objects of art, natural history, geological and miner- 
alogical specimens. These are rapidly filling up, and are classi- 
fied and arranged so as to facilitate their examination and study. 
The Institution is under the superintendence of Prof. Henry, a 
•scientist well known in Europe as well as in America. 



34^ FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

REVENUE CUTTERS 

Are fast-sailing vessels or steamers. Most of them employ 
both sail and steam, in order to obtain the greatest speed. They 
are employed by the government to guard against smuggling, and 
to seize upon vessels that are suspected of carrying goods that 
their owners have evaded paying duties, or are seeking to evade 
the payment of them. They are stationed as guards of the coast 
and near ports of entry and lines of ocean travel. Their officers 
are appointed by the President and Seriate. They look after ships 
going into port, and can board any vessel that comes within 
twelve miles of the coast. They examine the ship's papers and 
every part of the vessel, if they have any suspicion that there are 
smuggled goods on board. The officers of revenue cutters are 
under the control of the Secretary of the Treasury and Collector 
of the Port, and make weekly reports to them. If the officers or 
seamen are disabled in their line of duty, they are entitled to be 
treated in all respects as if they belonged to the navy. These 
vessels carry a pennant and ensign, with such marks upon them 
as the Secretary of the Treasury may designate. They are armed 
with one or more guns, in order to bring to any ship that refuses 
to obey the commander of the revenue cutter. They are author- 
ized to fire upon any vessel, after showing its ensign and pen- 
nant, that refuses to be boarded and examined. 

MINT COINS AND ASSAYS. 

The first step toward the creation of an United States Mint 
was an act of Congress in the year of 1792. Its design and 
principal business has been to coin the precious metals into 
money. The first mint was established at Philadelphia, and it 
was the only mint up to the year 1835. In that year a law was 
passed establishing mints at New Orleans, Charlotte, in North 
Carolina, and Dahlonega, Ga. In 1852 a branch was established 
in California; in 1862 one at Denver, Colorado; in 1863 one at 
Carson City, Nevada; in 1864 one in San Francisco, and another 
at Dallas City, Oregon. They are similar to the principal one at 
Philadelphia, and are under the same rules and regulations. 
Little has been done at any of these branch mints, except the 
ones at Carson City and San Francisco. The mint at Denver 
does not make coin ; its business is confined to assaying and 
refining. The coinage of the silver dollar of 412^ grains, and 
the three-cent silver piece have been discontinued since the act 
of 1873, until the passage of the Silver bill of 1878. The coin- 
age of the Silver Dollar of our Fathers since then has been 
renewed, and has been made a legal tender for all debts, unless- 
otherwise stipulated. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



347 



The following is a table of coins and their weight, as made at 
the mints : 



W't by sin- 


Fine- 


gle pes. 


ness. 


Grains. 




5i6 


900 


258 


900 


129 


900 


77.4 


900 


64-5 


900 


25.8 


900 


420 


900 


412^ 


900 


192 


900 


. 96.45 


900 


77.16 


900 


38.58 


900 


77.16 




32 




48 


_ 



Proportionate alloy. 



Deviation of w't. 
allowed. 



Gold— 

Double Eagles 

Eagles 

Half Eagles 

Three Dollars 

Quarter Eagles 

Dollars 

Silver — 

Trade Dollars 

Our Father's Dollar 

Half Dollars 

Quarter Dollars 

Twenty Cents 

Dimes 

Nickel — 

Five Cent 

Three Cent 

Bronze — 
One Cent 



Gold. 
900 p'ts. 
900 " 
900 " 
900 " 
900 " 
900 " 



Alloy. 
100 p'ts. 
100 " 
100 «* 
100 '* 
100 " 
100 •• 

100 p'ts. 
IOO " 
IOO " 

IOO tl 
IOO " 
IOO " 



25 pts nick. 75 copp'r 

25 " " 75 " 

95 pts cop. 5 tin&zinc 



Yz grain 

Yz " 
Yr " 

h r 

\Yz grains 

lYz 

1% 

1Y2 " 

l# " 

iYz " 

2 grains 
4 " 

4 grains 



In silver coins the alloy is pure copper. 

It was the intention of the law that the alloy of gold coins 
should be of copper only, but in parting silver from native gold 
it has, until recently, been found impossible to separate the whole* 
except at an expense too great to be economical. Consequently, 
on the ground of economy, it has been permitted to allow the 
residual silver to be counted as part of the alloy? provided the 
proportion of silver be not greater than one half. The more 
effectual processes discovered of late years have made it possible 
to make the parting nearly complete, and it is now provided that 
silver shall not exceed one tenth part of the whole alloy. 

In the year 1853 an assay office was authorized to be estab- 
lished in the City of New York, where gold and silver bullion, gold 
dust and foreign coin are refined and assayed. The coinage of 
all moneys and the assaying of metals are performed under regu- 
lations prepared by the Secretary of the Treasury. The Assistant 
Treasurer of the United States is treasurer of this assay office, 
and the Secretary of the Treasury appoints such clerks and work- 
men as are necessary for the management of its business. Pure 
gold is worth about $20 an ounce, troy, and pure silver about 
$1.30 an ounce. Gold is worth a fraction more than 15 times as 
much as silver. The coinage of -the United States mints up to 
June 30, 1877, was about $1,250,000,000. 



348 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

THE UNITED STATES MINT.— 1878. 

Items of Interest to Business Men and the People Generally. 

The two cent pieces were abolished five years ago. 

There are five times as many one cent pieces used as threes. 
" Less than $10,000 of one cent pieces were coined last year. 

No five or threes (nickel) were coined last year for circulation. 

The old-fashioned silver dollar has not been made for five 
years prior to 1878. 

The shipping of silver coins from the mint began about a year 
ago. 

Silver is purchased at the mint to a limited extent. It is paid 
for in gold. 

Nickel and bronze coins are only made in the United States 
mint in Philadelphia. 

The eastern, middle and western states take most of the nickel 
and bronze coins. 

Double eagles are being made for the depositories because 
they are more salable. 

No silver is coined in subsidiary coin for depositors. The 
government coins for itself alone. 

In the south the people are now using one cent pieces and 
threes and fives very extensively. 

Five times as many five cent pieces as one are sent away, and 
five times as many ones as threes. 

There is no coinage charged in gold. The only charge is for 
parting, refining and toughening. 

No silver is exchanged for notes at the mint. This is done by 
transfers which come through Washington. 

Five cent pieces are circulated considerably in New Orleans. 
Pennies were recently sent to that city, which were the first ever 
called for. 

A large amount of the $38,000,000 in small coin circulated 
within the year 1877 were manufactured during the same period, 
and consequently the coins are new. 

The government has issued over $38,000,000 of small silver 
coins since the redemption of fractional currency began. 

In brisk times the mint pays out from three to five thousand 
dollars a day for the accommodation of people making change 
and for shipment through the country. 

No trade dollars have been made this year. Several millions 
were coined in 1877. Their coinage was suspended in Decem- 
ber. They were only coined to a limited extent for circulation. 

Nickel and bronze are kept at par by redeeming them in 
greenbacks. They are deposited in the mint in sums of not less 
than twenty dollars, receipted for, and checks sent to the 
depositors. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



349 



No silver five cent pieces have been made since 1873. In 
fact, they have been abolished as well as the silver three cent 
piece. The nickel threes are still issued, although but few are 
used. 

From five to ten thousand dollars of eagles, half eagles, and 
three dollar pieces are made every year in order to keep up the 
history of the coin. About $2,000 of ones are made for the same 
purpose. 

The mint shipped over the country in 1876 about $500,000 in 
small coins, consisting of one, three, and five cent pieces. They 
went chiefly west and east. In 1877, only about $386,000 in these 
small coins were shipped. 

The greatest demand for silver coins is for the half dollars. 
The quarter dollar is the second favorite, and the dime is the 
third and last on the list. The demand for half dollars is twice 
as large as for quarters, and five times more halves are required 
than dimes. 

More trade dollars were coined from April, 1873, to Decem- 
ber, 1877, than there were coined of the dollar of the fathers for 
the eighty-one years preceding. The trade dollar was intended 
for the China trade, and nearly all that have been coined have 
gone to China, Japan and India. 

The following table represents the most significant features 
regarding the reduction of the national debt : 



Year. 



i860 

1861 

1862 

1863 

1864 

1865 ■ 

Do, Aug. 31. 

1866- 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 

i873 

1874 

1875 ■ 

1876 

1877 

1878 



Total interest- 
bearing debt. 



$64,640,838 
90,380,873 
365,304,826 
707,531,634 
1,359,930.736 
2,221,311,918 
2,381,530,294 
2,332,231,207 
2,248,067,387 
2,202,088,727 
2,162,060,522 
2,046,455,722 
1,934,696,750 
1,814,794,100 
1,710,483,950 
1,738^930,750 
1,722,676,300 
1,710,685,450 
1,711,888,500 
i,794,735.65o 



Annual 
interest 
charged. 



$3,433,687 

5,092,630 

22,048,509 

41,054,148 

78,853,487 

137,742,617 

150,977,697 

146,068,196 

138,892,451 

128,489,598 

125,523,998 

118,784,960 

in,949,330 

103,988,463 

98,049,804 

98,796,004 

96,855,690 

95,104,269 

93,160,643 

94.654,472 



Debt bearing 
no interest. 



$i58,59ii390 
4H,767,456 
455,437,271 
458,090,180 
461,616,311 

439,969,874 
428.218,100 
408,401,782 
421,131,510 
430,508,064 
416, 5 65*, 680 

430,530,431 
472,069,332 
509,543,128 
498,182,411 
465,807,196 
474,764,031 
455,875,682 



Debt 


per 


capita. 


$1 


9i 


2 


74 


15 45 


33 3 1 


5o 


21 


76 98 


78 


25 


74 32 


69 


26 


67 


10 


64 


43 


60 


46 


56 


81 


52 


95 


SO 49 


49 


10 


47 44 


45 


48 


43 


31 


4i 


67 



Int'r'st 

per 
capita. 

I 11 
16 
67 

1 25 

2 32 

3 97 

4 29 
4 12 
384 
3 48 



2 00 
1 97 



Note. — The slight increase of the interest charge for 1878 is owing to the 
interest charge on bonds sold for resumption, less the amount saved by refund- 
ing at low rates. 



35© FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

THE BALANCE OF TRADE, 1878. 

WHAT OUR EXPORTS CONSIST OF. 

The immense increase of American exports within the last 
three years, changing the balance of trade from $116,000,000 
against us, to $261,000,000 in our favor, has been widely pub- 
lished and commented upon, and people are asking, of what do 
these exports consist. It would require a reproduction of the 
entire report of the Bureau of Statistics to answer this question in 
detail, but a general glance at the articles of commerce will 
satisfy the curiosity of all but statisticians. 

In the first place, within the last two or three years, since the 
troubles in Europe commenced, the exports of fire-arms and 
ammunition have been enormous. Turkey alone purchased 
$27,000,000 worth of guns and cartridges. Large amounts were 
sold to Russia, and other European nations purchased in smaller 
quantities. 

American petroleum is sent to every civilized nation. 

American car-wheels, cars, and locomotives are found on almost 
every railroad in the world. 

American hardware goes to Denmark, Germany, France, Great 
Britain, Spain, Italy, Austria, the British possessions in India, 
Africa, and Australia, the West Indies, Brazil, and other South 
American nations, and the Sandwich and other Pacific Islands. 
Our nails are used in every civilized country, and have the largest 
shipments of any single article of manufactured iron. 

Glassware is sent from the United States to all the countries 
named above, in large quantities, and the shipments are rapidly 
increasing. 

American cutlery is being sold in competition with the famous 
English and French manufacturers, and holds its own. 

Pumps are sent from the United States to South America, the 
Pacific Islands, and the West Indies. 

Coal goes to the British possessions, the West Indies, and the 
Sandwich Islands. 

American paint is used in South America, the Islands of the 
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, Mexico, and a market is being 
opened for it in Europe. 

Our clock and watch makers are stealing the markets that have 
heretofore sold only Swiss and English goods, and have become 
known everywhere in the world. 

But the largest shipments are of agricultural implements, sew- 
ing machines, scales, plated ware, and saws. From the port of 
New York alone more than a million and a half dollars worth of 
sewing machines were shipped last year, and during the first six 






OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 35l 

months of this year $806,741 worth of them were shipped. Dur- 
ing the first six months of 1878 there were shipped from New 
York, $961,027 worth of reapers, $137,109 worth of plated ware, 
$120,000 worth of scales. The increase in the shipments of 
plated ware in two years has been 143 per cent, of reapers 50 per 
cent, and of scales 57 per cent. The increase in the exports of 
other articles has been in the same proportion. The shipments 
of beef, cheese, butter, preserved meats, hops, and cotton goods 
have all increased over 50 per cent within two years ; and boots 
and shoes, leather goods, iron implements, and other articles of 
American manufacture have increased in the same ratio. 

THE WORLD'S PROGRESS IN THIS CENTURY. 

Few phenomena are more remarkable, yet few have been less remarked, than the degree 
in which material civilization — the progress of mankind in all those contrivances which oil 
the wheels and promote the comfort of daily life — has been concentrated into the present 
century. It is not too much to say that in these respects more has been done, richer and 
more prolific discoveries have been made, grander achievements have been realized, in the 
course of the sixty or seventy years of our own life-time than in all the previous life-time of 
the race, since States, Nations, and Politics, such as history makes us acquainted with, have 
had their being. 

Consider only the three momentous matters of light, locomotion, and communication, 
and we shall see that this generation contrasts surprisingly with the aggregate of the progress 
■effected in all previous generations put together since the earliest dawn of authentic history. 
The lamps and torches which illuminated Belshazzar's feast were probably just as brilliant, 
and framed out of the same materials, as those which shone upon the splendid fetes of Ver- 
sailles when Marie Antoinette presided over them, or those of the Tuilleries during the Im- 
perial magnificence of the first Napoleon. Pine wood, oil, and perhaps wax, lighted the 
banquet-halls of the wealthiest nobles in the eighth century before Christ and in the eigh- 
teenth century after Christ there was very little difference, except in the finish of workman- 
ship and elegance of design — little, if any, advance, we mean, in the illuminating power or 
in the source whence that power was drawn— between the lamps used in the days of the Pyra- 
mids, the days of the Coliseum, and the days of Kensington Palace. Fifty years ago, that is, 
we burnt the same articles, and got about the same amount of light from them, as we did 
four thousand years ago. Now we use gas of which each burner is equal to fifteen or twenty 
candles ; and when we wish for more, can have recourse to the electric light or analogous 
inventions, which are fifty-fold more brilliant and far-reaching than even the best gas. The 
streets of cities, which, from the days of Pharaoh to those of Voltaire, were dim and 
gloomy, even where not wholly unlighted, now blaze everywhere with something of the bril- 
liancy of the moonlight. In a word, all the advance that has been made in these respects 
has been made since many of us were children. We remember light as it was in the days of 
Solomon, we see it as Drummond and Faraday have made it. 

The same may be said of locomotion. Nimrod and Noah traveled just in the same way, 
and at just the same rate, as Thomas Acsheton Smith and Mr. Coke, of Norfolk. The char- 
iots of the Olympic Games were just as fast as the chariots that conveyed our nobles to the 
Derby, " in our not youth, when George the Third was King." 

When Abraham wanted to send a message to Lot, he dispatched a man on horseback, who 
galloped twelve miles an hour. When our fathers wanted to send a message to their nephews 
they could do no better, and go no quicker. When we were young, if we wished to travel 
from London to Edinburg, we thought ourselves lucky if we could average eight miles an 
hour — just as Robert Bruce might have done. Now in our did age we feel ourselves aggrieved 
if we do not average forty miles. 

Everything that has been done in this line since the world began — everything, perhaps, 
that the capacities of matter and the conditions of the human frame will ever allow to be 
done — has been done since we were boys. The same at sea. Probably when the wind was 
favorable, Ulysses, who was a bold and skillful navigator, sailed as fast as a Dutch merchant- 
man of the year 1800, nearly as fast as an American yacht or clipper of our fathers' day. Now 
we can steam twelve and fifteen miles an hour with wonderful regularity, whether wind and 
tide be favorable or not ; nor is it likely that we shall ever be able to go much faster. But the 
progress in the means of communication is the most remarkable of all. In this respect Mr. 
Pitt was no better off than Pericles or Agamemnon. If Ruth had wished to write to Naomi, 
or David to send word of love to Jonathan when he was a hundred miles away, they could 
not possibly have done it under twelve hours. Nor could we to our friends fifty years ago. 



35 2 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



UNITED STATES CURRENCY VALUE OF GOLD. 

Showing the currency price in dollars of one hundred dollars in gold in the 

New York market, arranged by months and years, from 

Jan. I, T862, to Jan. 1, 1878. 



> 

n> 



D 
n> 


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cr 


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cr 
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cr 

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ft) 
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f 
1 

1 


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S 


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P 
3 


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w 
73 




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Note. — According to the officially published quotations of the gold market in New 
York, the currency price of $100 in gold reached its maximum on the nth day of July, 
1864, the quotations for the day ranging from $2.76 to $2.85. 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES AND 
TERRITORIES 




MAINE. 



! N the year 1638, the same year in which New Haven was set- 
tled, Ferdinand Gorges procured a charter of the King of 
"T England for all the lands from the borders of New Hampshire, 
on the south-west, to Sagadahoc, on the Kennebec River, on the 
north-east, under the name of the Province of Maine. It remained 
a separate province till 1652, when it became a part of Massachu- 
setts. Various attempts were made, between 1785 and 1802 to 
form it into an independent State ; but these efforts failed. In 
1819 a large majority of the people were in favor of separating 
from Massachusetts. A convention was called, a Constitution 
prepared and adopted, and, in 1820, Maine was received into the 
Union. It is by no means an agricultural State, but its extensive 
fisheries and great lumber trade have greatly enriched it, and its 
progress in morality has, perhaps, been superior to that of any 
other State. 

The staple export of the State is lumber, of which vast quanti- 
ties are manufactured from the boundless forests. Her water 
power is good, but little attention is yet given to the manufacture 
of woolen or cotton, though the interest in this branch of busi- 
ness is increasing. The State has made steady progress in rail- 
road and other internal improvements. The soil is good and pro- 
ductive; the mineral resources limited. It was settled in 1625, at 
Bristol, by the English. The population is 626,915. 

It forms part of the first judicial circuit and constitutes one 
judicial district. It has thirteen ports of entry, and thirty-two 
ports of delivery. 
23 



353 



354 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

The capital is Augusta, on the Kennebec river. 

The State elections are held on the second Monday of Sep^ 
tember ; and the Legislature meets on the first Wednesday oi 
January in each year. 





NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

jjflffi^HIS State was a part of Massachusetts up to the year 1680. 
jyjk It was, however, settled in 1624, the first settlement being 
formed at Dover by the English. In 1680 it was erected 
into a separate colony, and its first legislative assembly met that 
year. John Mason was its first Governor. It suffered severely from 
Indian wars, and its progress, during the first years of its existence, 
was slow. In 1742 it contained only six hundred persons liable 
to taxation. Its first Constitution was formed in 1683. It suffered 
from the effects of an insurrection in 1686, although prior and 
subsequent to this affair, it seems to have been one of the most 
peaceful and quiet of the colonies. It is distinguished for its 
excellent pastures, towering hills, and fine cattle. The White 
Mountains are the highest in New England. This State took a 
prominent and active part in the Revolution. It ratified the 
Constitution June 21, 1788, since which time it has been highly 
prosperous. 

The soil is sterile, and a very large proportion is devoted to 
grazing purposes. New Hampshire has but one navigable river, 
and that but a short distance, but her water power is good and 
the people are largely engaged in manufactures. Fine quarries of 
marble and granite are abundant ; and minerals of almost every 
specie, and a variety of precious stones are found in different por- 
tions of the State. The population, according to last census, was 
318,300. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 355 

It lies in the first judicial circuit; constitutes one judicial dis- 
trict ; and is embraced in one collection district, and therefore 
has but one port of entry. There are three ports of delivery. 

The capital is Concord. The Legislature assembles on the 
first Monday in June, the State election being held the second 
Tuesday in March. 




VERMONT. 

tHE territory of which this State is composed began to be set- 
tled in the year 1 731, but was for some years considered as a 
part of New Hampshire. It was also claimed at one time by 
New York, and a contest arose between that State and New Hamp- 
shire, which was adjusted by the King of England in a manner by 
no means satisfactory to the settlers. The result was a quarrel 
between Vermont and the Crown, in which the Green Mountain 
Boys, led by Col. Ethan Allen, resisted the officers of justice, as 
well as the New York militia, who were called out to sustain them. 
The province appears not to have had even a territorial gov- 
ernment until 1777, at which time a convention of delegates met 
at Westminster, and declared themselves an independent State, 
under the name of New Connecticut. Previous to this time, 
however, they had rendered material aid to the Revolution. In 
May, 1775, Col. Allen, at the head of two hundred and seventy 
men, reduced Fort Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and thus became 
complete masters of Lake Champlain. During the whole period 
of the Revolution the State did good service in the cause of lib- 
erty, although it remained independent. Some time subsequent to 
its declaration of independence its name was changed to Vermont. 
As it was not one of the original States, it did not ratify the Con- 
stitution, but, upon application, was admitted to the Union during 
the second session of Congress, in the year 1791. 



35 6 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



The climate of Vermont is pleasant, and the temperature even. 
The soil, in the valleys, is fertile, and large quantities of maple 
sugar are made. The water power of Vermont is the best in New 
England, but is but little used. Granite, marble and slate are 
found in large quantities. Iron and sulphuret of iron are abund- 
ant. A most liberal provision is made for education. Present 
population, 3305552. 

It has three representatives in Congress; forms part of the 
second judicial circuit, and constitutes one judicial district. One 
port of entry and two of delivery are authorized to be named by 
the President of the United States. 

Montpelier is the capital. The State election is held on the 
first Tuesday in September and the Legislature meets on the 
first Wednesday in October. 





MASSACHUSETTS. 

lASSACHUSETTS was settled in the year 1620, by the 
Puritans. These people, having been severely persecuted 
in England, had previously taken refuge in Holland ; but 
for various reasons they determined, after remaining in Holland 
a season, to emigrate to the New World. They started at a very 
unpropitious season, arriving at New England in the winter. 
The severity of the climate and the scarcity of food at times, ope- 
rated seriously against their comfort and progress. It is said that 
they were frequently threatened with starvation. At one time the 
entire company had but one pint of Indian corn, which being 
divided equally among them, allowed to each person eight grains. 
But, unlike the early settlers of Virginia, they were all working 
men, and good economists. From the time of the landing at 
Plymouth up to 1691, this first settlement was known as the Ply- 
mouth Colony. Meantime another settlement had been formed, 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 359 

styled the Massachusetts Colony. Both were for some years under 
the control of a London company. In 1691 Massachusetts and 
Plymouth Colonies were united, and thenceforward their history is 
one. The people of Massachusetts were, during the early part of 
their colonial existence, sorely vexed, at times, by the Indians, 
especially by the Pequods. They, unfortunately, had imbibed, 
during their own persecutions, too much of the spirit of conscrip- 
tion and, although themselves refugees from religious bigotry, 
sullied much of their history prior to the Revolution by punishing 
what they called heresy in the Quakers and Baptists. During 
1774 and 1775, Massachusetts took a very prominent part in favor 
of colonial rights, and was the first State to manifest the spirit of 
resentment toward Great Britain. 

This State has wisely made education one of its first objects, 
and its public school system is unsurpassed. The public schools 
are supported by direct tax. Harvard College, at Cambridge, is 
the oldest University in the Union. Massachusetts is the third 
State in the Union in manufactures, and first in cotton and woolen. 
Its cotton mills alone furnish employment to 24,988 persons. In 
internal improvements, she is also rich, and in proportion to her 
size, is really the most important State in the Union. Salem is 
the oldest city in New England, celebrated alike for being the 
place where the Pilgrim Fathers landed when they arrived from 
England, and for being the scene of the witchcraft superstition. 
Boston has long enjoyed the title of the Athens of America, and 
is justly celebrated for the high and intellectual character of her 
inhabitants. 

The State has an area of 7,800 square miles. Her population 
in 1870 was 1,457,351, and entitles her to eleven Members of 
Congress. It is in the first judicial circuit, and forms one ju- 
icial district.There are fourteen ports of entry, and twenty-five 
ports of delivery in this State. 

Boston is the Capital, the metropolis of New England, and an 
important center of intellectual and business energy. The Leg- 
islature meets on the first Wednesday in January, and the State 
elections are held on Tuesday after the first Monday in January. 



360 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




RHODE ISLAND. 

Mfi^N June, 1636, Roger Williams, an earnest, enthusiastic advo- 
)x(L cate °f ren gi° us liberty in the broadest sense, having been ban- 
ished by the Puritans of Massachusetts from that colony, went 
to what is now known as Rhode Island, purchased the present 
site of Providence of the Narragansett Indians, and founded a col- 
ony, of which he was at once pastor, teacher, and father. He donated 
land to any whom he thought worthy, and Providence Plantation, as 
it was long called, became an asylum for persecuted Christians of all 
denominations, especially the Baptists. The first settlement in 
Rhode Island proper, was formed by William Codington, in the 
year 1636. Up to 1640 the citizens of Rhode Island made their 
own laws in general convention. But, in 1644, Roger Williams, 
with the aid of Gov. Vane, of Massachusetts, procured a charter 
for two settlements, under the name of Rhode Island and Provi- 
idence Plantations. The Constitution framed under this charter 
was a good one ; and lasted until the year 181 8. For many years 
the legislative assembly of this colony met twice a year. 

Rhode Island is distinguished as the smallest State in the 
Union. It did noble service in the war for independence, but did 
not, for some reason, adopt the Constitution till the 29th of May, 
1790. It has been a highly prosperous State ; is distinguished for 
its good schools and large manufactories. There are no lofty 
mountains — no rivers of imposing length or breadth, and but 
few minerals ; but the Narragansett Bay, which divides the State 
into two parts, is picturesque and beautiful — thickly studded with 
a charming cluster of islands. The State is actively engaged in 
manufactures, and her water-power is unsurpassed. Education 
receives a fair share of interest, and the State'is alive with energy 
and activity. Present population 220,350. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 361 

Rhode Island forms part of the first judicial circuit ; consti- 
tutes one judicial district ; and has an area of but 1,306 square 
miles, or 835,840 acres, and has three ports of entry, and seven 
of delivery. It has two capitals, having been originally formed 
of two separate colonies. These are Providence and Newport. 
The election for State officers is held on the first Wednesday in 
April. The Legislature is held twice in the year, in May and 
January. 




CONNECTICUT. 



N the year 1633, the Puritans of Massachusetts, having heard 
jjjJE. very flattering reports of the valley of Connecticut, resolved to 
make an effort to settle it. Accordingly, a company of them 
sailed for the Connecticut River, taking with them the frame of a 
house. Meantime the Dutch, claiming the territory as theirs, built 
a fort on the river where Hartford now stands, to prevent the emi- 
grants from passing up. The Yankees, however, with that steady 
perseverance which has always marked their course, proceeded on 
their way, paying no attention to the Dutch fort, whose only demon- 
stration was an unexecuted threat to fire on the emigrants if they 
passed it. Landing where Farmington River enters the Connect- 
icut, they founded the town of Windsor. Other settlements were 
subsequently formed at Westfield, Hartford and Watertown. The 
first general court was held at Hartford, in the year 1636. The 
province suffered severely from the depredations of the Pequot 
Indians, with which tribe a great and decisive battle was ulti- 
mately fought on the river Mystic, in the year 1636. This battle 
resulted in the destruction of the Pequot tribe. During this 
year the towns of Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield met in 
convention and formed a government, electing John Haynes the 
first Governor of the colony. 



3 6 2 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



Its course from this period forward was one of great prosperity. 
It stood in the front rank during the war for Independence, and in 
no case was ever known to flinch from duty. It ratified the Con- 
stitution June 9, 1788. 

In minerals, Connecticut is very rich. Marble of a fine quality 
is abundant, as is also granite. But the beryl and the chrysoberyl 
are found near Haddam, and Columbite near Middletown. Gold, 
silver, lead, iron, and copper are found in different parts of the 
State, as also bismuth. 

Her manufacturing and educational interests, as in most of the 
Eastern States, are in a flourishing condition. Yale College, in 
this State, is very old, having been founded in 1700. A curious 
law once existed in Connecticut prohibiting kissing. One trial is 
on record where, under this taw, the parties were proven guilty 
and fined twenty shillings each. It is to be presumed that it is 
long since repealed. Population, 537,454. 

Its area is small, embracing only 4,674 square miles, or 2,991,- 
360 acres. It has four representatives in Congress. It is part of 
the second judicial circuit, and constitutes one judicial district. 
It has five ports of entry, and five collection districts, with 
twenty-two ports of delivery. 

It has had two capitals ever since the first two colonies, estab- 
lished at Hartford and New Haven, were united ; and holds its 
State election on the first Monday in April. The Legislature 
meets the first Wednesday in May. 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 363 





NEW YORK. 



^JAPTAIN Henry Hudson, the famous voyager, discovered 
what is now New York, together with a considerable extent 
of territory contiguous to it, in the year 1609. Although an 
Englishman by nativity, Hudson was at this time employed by the 
Dutch (Hollanders), who, consequently, claimed the territory. 
Meantime the English set up a claim to it, as being part of North 
Virginia. They also claimed it on account of Hudson being an 
Englishman. The Dutch, however, determined to hold it, and in 
16 10 opened a trade with the natives at Manhattan Island, on the 
spot where the city of New York now stands. They erected a fort 
on or near the site of Albany, named the country in general, New 
Netherlands, and the station at Manhattan, New Amsterdam.. 
The Dutch retained the country until the year 1664. 

It seems that, up to this time, they claimed not only the present 
territory of New York, but also that of Connecticut and New 
Jersey. The liberal governments of the surrounding colonies 
stood in great contrast with the despotic one imposed by the 
Dutch Government upon their American colonists. And when,, 
in 1664, the English squadron dispatched by James, Duke of 
York, with instructions to take possession of the province of New 
Netherlands, appeared before New Amsterdam, the inhabitants 
were willing to capitulate without resistance. Peter Stuyvesant, 
their Governor, and an able executive, made vain efforts to arouse 
them to defense, and was forced to surrender. The English 
Government was now acknowledged over the whole of New 
Netherlands, the capital receiving the name of New York, as well 



3^4 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

as the province. From this time forward to the Revolutionary 
War, New York remained in the hands of the English, and was 
under the control of a very arbitrary succession of governors. 
The progress of the colony was steady in numbers, wealth and 
civilization. It took an active part in the Revolution, and 
adopted its Constitution July 26, 1788. After this it outstripped 
every State in the Union in everything pertaining to wealth and 
greatness, save education, in which matter no State can compare 
with Massachusetts. 

The commerce of New York is immense — greater, by far, than 
of any other State — and she possesses one of the finest harbors in 
the world. Almost every variety of industry, and manufacture, 
and art is represented and encouraged, and carried to great per- 
fection. Its internal improvements are carried on on a large 
.scale, and nothing is omitted which would add to the wealth of 
the State or the people. New York city is the most important 
city in the Union. Unfortunately, its situation will prevent it 
from becoming the largest. The hotels of New York are the 
finest in the world. The State is rich in minerals, and mineral 
and salt springs abound. The soil is good, and scientific farming 
is carried to a high degree of excellence. The population is 

4,374,499- 

Its area is 47,000 square miles, equal to 30,080,000 acres. It 
has thirty-three Members of Congress. 

It forms part of the second judicial circuit, and has three judi- 
cial districts , eleven ports of entry, and fourteen ports of deliv- 
ery, with the privilege of eight or nine others il the President of 
the United States deems them necessary. 

The Capital is Albany. The State elections are held on the 
Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and the Legislature 
meets on the first Tuesday in January in each year. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 365 





NEW JERSEY, 

T first, formed a part of the Dutch province of New Nether- 
'^JR lands. But soon after the latter came into the hands of the 
(^English, the Territory of New Jersey was transferred to 
Lord Berkley and Sir George Carteret, by the Duke of York. The 
first permanent settlement was formed at Elizabethtown, in 1664, 
by emigrants from Long Island. Philip Carteret arrived in the 
colony in 1665, and became its first governor. The province had 
very little trouble with the Indians. Many emigrants from New 
England and New York soon arrived, and for a series of years the 
colony advanced in prosperity. It enjoyed the blessings flowing 
from a liberal form of government. 

In the year 1685 the Duke of York became the King of Eng- 
land, under the title of James II, and disregarding his former 
pledges, assumed, in 1688, the government of New Jersey, 
placing it under the control of Sir Edmund Andros, whom he 
had already made Governor of New York and New England. 
This state of things was terminated by the revolution in England, 
but left New Jersey for years in a very precarious condition. In 
1702, its proprietors having resigned their claims, it became a 
royal province, and was united to New York. In 1738 it became 
again a separate provin :e. and so continued until the Revolution,, 
in which it took a very active part in favor of liberty. It ratified 
the Constitution December 18, 1787. Thenceforward its career 
has been a highly prosperous one. 

The scenery of New Jersey is picturesque and beautiful ; and 
its watering places are our most fashionable resorts during the 
summer season. The State is also rich in minerals, and its beds 
of marl and peat are very extensive. Its commerce is limited, but 
its manufactures are excellent and its water power not surpassed. 
A great deal of attention is given to education, and her colleges 
and libraries are in a prosperous condition. 



366 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

It has an area of 8,320 square miles, or 5,324,800 acres. The 
population, by the census of 1870, was 905,794, which gives her 
seven Representatives in Congress. 

This State lies in the third judicial circuit, and forms one ju- 
dicial district. There are six ports of entry and as many collec- 
tion districts ; and also eight ports of delivery 

Its capital is Trenton. The State election is held on the Tues- 
day after the first Monday in November, and the Legislature 
assembles the second Tuesday in January. 




PENNSYLVANIA. 



jJfflr^7?HE Old Keystone State, and one of the most wealthy and 
prosperous in the Union, was settled by the Quakers, under 
the direction of Wm. Penn, at Philadelphia, in the year 1682. 
The founder of this colony showed himself a philosopher, philan- 
thropist, and thorough political economist, at the very commence- 
ment of his labors. He put the province under the government 
of a Council of Three and a House of Delegates, chosen by 
the freemen, who, according to his arrangement, were all those who 
acknowledged the existence of one God. He pursued such a 
course with the natives as won their confidence and esteem. No 
Quaker was ever murdered by an Indian; and to this day the 
"sons of Wm. Penn" are everywhere respected by the savage. 
The treaty Penn made with the Indians was never violated. In 
framing the colonial government, he provided for the largest relig- 
ious liberty, allowing every one to worship according to the dictates 
of his own conscience. Up to 1703, Delaware, as before men- 
tioned, was included in Penn's grant. But about this time he 
procured a new charter %more strictly defining the rights and limits 




CHINESE, GOLD MINING IN CALIFORNIA. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. $6<)> 

of Pennsylvania, and Delaware was detached. For seventy years 
prosperity smiled upon this colony, during much of which time 
Penn was, according to the historian, its governor, magistrate, 
preacher and teacher. It was troubled with no Indian wars till 
1754, when Penn's example and teachings began to be forgotten. 
The population, owing to a considerable influx from Sweden, 
Germany, and some other countries, began, at a later date, to 
assume a more varied aspect ; and when the colonies rebelled 
against the mother country, Pennsylvania contained sufficient 
" fighting " material to lend valuable assistance to the cause of 
liberty. 

Pennsylvania stands first in the abundance and quality of her 
coal and iron, and though no diamond fields have made her a sec- 
ond Golconda, no exhaustless mines of gold ranked her an Eldo- 
rado, yet her more substantial metals have steadily increased her 
prosperity. Her coal, iron, copper, zinc, marble and slate are 
apparently inexhaustible, while in greater or less quantities, all 
the rarer minerals are found in different sections of the country. 
The railroads and canals of Pennsylvania are very important, and 
both in number of miles and cost of construction she stands num- 
ber one. Her school system is excellent, and has received great 
attention. Population, 3,519,601. 

Its area is 46,000 square miles, equal to 29,440,000 acres. 
The population entitles it to twenty-seven Representatives in 
Congress. 

It is in the third judicial circuit ; and forms two judicial dis- 
tricts. There are two ports of entry, and two collection districts. 
Harrisburg is the capital ; the Legislature assembling on the first 
Tuesday in January, the State elections being held on Tuesday 
following the first Monday in November. 




24 



37° FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 





DELAWARE. 



USTAVUS Adolphus, King of Sweden, formed a plan of 
establishing colonies in America as early as the year 1626. 
But as he died on the field of Leutzen, during the German 
war in 1633, without carrying his scheme into effect, his minister 
took it up, and employed Peter Minuets, the first Governor of New 
Netherlands to carry it into effect. In 1638, a small Swedish colony 
arrived under the direction of Minuets, and settled on Christian 
Creek, near the present town of Wilmington. Notwithstanding 
the remonstrances of the Dutch Government of New Netherlands, 
who claimed the territory, the Swedes continued to extend their 
settlements from this time until they pre-empted all the territory 
from Cape Henlopen to the falls of the Delaware. At this time 
the colony was called New Sweden. In 1651, Governor Stuy- 
vesant, to check the aggressive movements of the Swedes, built a 
fort near the present site of New Castle, of which the Swedes 
afterward obtained possession by stratagem. Enraged at this 
movement, the Government of Holland ordered Stuyvesant to 
reduce the Swedes to submission, which he speedily accomplished 
with six hundred men, in 1655. The province was soon after 
annexed to New Netherlands. Delaware was, after it fell into the 
hands of the English, included in the grant made to William 
Penn, in 1692. It remained attached to Pennsylvania till 1691, 
when it was allowed a separate government. It was reunited to 
Pennsylvania in 1692. In 1703 it was again separated, having 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



37 



its own legislature, though the same Governor presided over both 
colonies. The ancient forms of the government were preserved 
through the revolutionary struggle. It ratified the Constitution 
December 7, 1787. 

The direct foreign trade of Delaware is scarcely worthy of men- 
tion, as all its business passes through Philadelphia and New 
York. She sends large quantities of fruit to the North, and both 
the quantity and quality are being improved upon every year. 
The climate is fine, but the sea breeze renders the winters some- 
what severe. The soil is productive, and it is rapidly becoming 
one of the most fertile and prosperous States. Delaware is 
without mineral wealth of any sort, if we except a fine glass sand, 
which is exported to the New England States. The population is 
125,015. 

It is next to Rhode Island in size, containing the small area of 
2,120 square miles, or 1,356,800 acres. 




372 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES.. 




MARYLAND. 



>N 1632, Sir George Calvert (Lord Baltimore) visited America, 
explored a tract of country lying on the Chesapeake Bay, be- 
longing to what was then called South Virginia, and returned 
to England to procure a grant for it. But before the patent was 
made out, he died, and it was given to his son Cecil. The pro- 
vince was named by King Charles I. in the patent, in honor of his 
Queen, Henrietta Maria. A part of the province appears to have 
been included in the grant made sometime afterward to William 
Penn, and to have caused much contention between the successors 
of Penn and Baltimore. 

In March, 1634, Leonard Calvert, the brother of Cecil, arrived 
at the mouth of the Potomac River, bringing with him two hun- 
dred emigrants, most of whom were Roman Catholic gentlemen. 
Leaving the vessel, he ascended in a pinnace as far as Piskataqua^ 
an Indian village nearly opposite Mount Vernon. The Indian 
Sachem gave him full liberty to settle there if he chose ; but not 
deeming it safe, he began a settlement lower down on a branch of 
the Potomac, at the Indian town of Yoacomoc. The settlement 
was called St. Mary's. 

Maryland made a very fortunate beginning. The colonists 
arrived in time to make a crop for that year. Their neighbors in 
Virginia supplied them with cattle, and protected them in great 
part from the Indians, while their own kind and consistent course 
materially promoted their happy relations with the savages. 

The charter granted them was very liberal — ceding to them 
the full power of legislation, without any interference on the part 
of the Crown. In 1635 they made laws for their government, 
which were somewhat modified in 1636. In 1650 they had, like 
Virginia, an upper and lower legislative assembly. Pop., -."cCru. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 373 

Maryland has an area of 11,124 square miles — equal to 7,119,* 
360 acres. The population gives her six Representatives in Con- 
gress. By an act of Congress, passed in 1866, this State was put 
in the fourth judicial circuit, which is composed of Maryland, 
Virginia, West Virginia, North and South Carolina. Maryland 
constitutes one judicial district ; has ten ports of entry, viz. : 
Baltimore, Chester, Oxford, Vienna, Snow-Hill, Annapolis, Not- 
tingham, St. Mary's, Georgetown, and Havre de Grace; and 
twelve ports of delivery. 

Annapolis is the capital. The State election is held on the 
Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature 
meets on the first Wednesday in January. 



DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 

)?jf^j^HE District, originally ten miles square, now embraces an 
3f^ area °f Dut sixty square miles. It is the seat of our Na- 
tional Government, and lies at the head of tide water, on 
the east side of the Potomac River. It includes both the cities 
of Washington and Georgetown. Until the year 178 1 it was 
governed by Congress, but in that year a law was passed giving 
the District the control of its own affairs. At the time that war 
was declared between the Colonies and Great Britain, Philadel- 
phia was the Capital of the new territory, and continued to be 
so until 1783. At that time some difficulty arose between a band of 
dissatisfied soldiers, who marched to the hall where Congress was in 
session, forced the doors of the building, and in a violent and in- 
sulting manner demanded the back pay due them, amounting to a 
considerable sum, and which it was not then in the power of the 
Government to pay. The outrage pressed upon their attention 
the subject, already under consideration, of a better site for the 
Capitol, removed from the seat of war and beyond danger of a 
recurrence of such scenes. It was proposed that it be located on 
the banks of the Delaware or Potomac river, and in December, 
1788, Delaware, through its legislature, offered Congress the 
necessary ground, provided it did not cover to exceed ten miles 
square. The matter was debated in Congress, and the North and 
South, then, as siice, divided upon almost every question, clam- 



374 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ored like two spoiled children for the location of the new build- 
ings. The House of Representatives at one time declared the 
Capital should be in Pennsylvania*, on the Susquehanna, at which 
the South demurred. Germantown was next proposed — voted 
upon by the House, and carried by a vote of 31 to 19. The fur- 
ther consideration of the matter was then postponed until the 
next session of Congress, and so, for the time, Germantown was. 
the Capital. The South was very much excited over the state of 
affairs ; the North was anything but pleased with it, and in De- 
cember, 1789, Virginia ceded a district to Congress on the Poto- 
mac for the purpose of founding there the Capital, and also 
pledged herself to give the sum of $120,000 for the erection of 
public buildings ; at the same time asking the intercession of Ma- 
ryland to induce Congress to accept the gift, and also to pledge 
herself to give $25,000 for the same purpose. Maryland agreed 
to both propositions. In Congress the matter came to a complete 
standstill. Neither the North' nor South would yield, and it re- 
quired the most delicate diplomacy just then to prevent serious 
trouble. The great question which at that time hung suspended 
over the heads of politicians, like the fabled sword, by a single 
hair, was the debt of the States, amounting to $21,000,000 ; and it 
had become in some way a party question, and also become in 
some way, associated with the location of the Capital. It is for- 
tunate that when matters had assumed this ominous form, we had 
wise men at the helm of our Ship of State. Jefferson was Secre- 
tary of State, and Hamilton of the Treasury, and they were 
clearsighted enough to see that there must be a compromise 
between the two sections, or there would be a sad rupture. The 
South must be won over to consent to the General Government's 
assuming the debt, while the North must accept the offer of Vir- 
ginia and Maryland. The thing was at length brought around by 
the utmost tact and delicacy, and the interests of the North and 
South so skillfully balanced that the threatening clouds passed 
over, and again sunshine flooded the land. Commissioners were 
appointed, three in number, to survey the District, and on the 
15th of April of the same year, the corner stone was laid at. 
Jones Point, near Alexandria ; and having located its boundaries,, 
it was christened " Columbia," with appropriate honors. The 
next step was to lay off the new city, which was done by Major L'En- 
fant, and it was called "Washington." The Capitol building is; 



0TJR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



375 



not yet finished, and will cost, when completed, from twelve to 
fifteen million dollars. Georgetown is separated from Washington 
only by Rock Creek. It is a beautiful town, and the inhabitants 
are noted for culture, intellect, and hospitality. The Georgetown 
College," a noted Roman Catholic institution, is located here, as 
also is a fine hospital for sailors, said to be one of the best planned 
and conducted in the Union. The population of Georgetown is 
11,384; that of Washington, 107,204. The population of the 
entire District is 131,000, 




VIRGINIA. 




HE Old Dominion," so distinguished as being the 
native State of the Father of American Liberty, and the 
' Mother of Presidents," really seemed at one time to be 
peculiarly favorable to the birth and development of statesmen. 
It has furnished no less than five Presidents, among whom are 
Washington, Monroe, Madison and Jefferson. It was the first 
Colony, on the Continent, settled by the English. In 1607, a com- 
pany formed under the patronage of James I. obtained a grant to 
make settlements in America, between the 34th and 38th degrees 
of north latitude. In May, 1607, a colony of one hundred and 
five persons, under direction of this company, arrived off the coast 
of South Virginia. Their intention had been to form a settlement 
on Roanoke, now in North Carolina ; but being driven north by 
a violent storm, they discovered and entered the mouth of Chesa- 
peake Bay. Passing up this bay they named its capes Henry 
and Charles, in honor of the king's two sons. They were com- 
manded by Capt. Christopher Newport, an experienced navigator. 
Passing up James River, they arrived at a peninsula, upon which 
they landed and established Jamestown. 



37^ FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

After promulgating a code of laws which had been formed by 
the London company, Capt. Newport sailed for England, leaving 
the colony under the care of Capt. John Smith, whose subsequent 
relations to the settlement became so important, and without 
whose efforts the enterprise would doubtless have proved a fail- 
ure. The colonists seem to have been very poorly adapted to the 
labor required at their hands. Too many of them were gentlemen, 
and came, it appears, only to enrich themselves by gathering gold, 
which, they had heard, was very abundant. 

The State is especially rich in mineral resources, which are yet 
but slightly developed. Gold is found in many parts of it, and its 
copper ore is very rich. Iron is abundant, while immense beds, 
apparently inexhaustible, of both bituminous and anthracite coal 
are found in the mountain region, and in and beyond the valley. 
Salt springs of excellent quality are numerous. Fruits, grain and 
vegetables of every variety are raised in the State, and the soil is 
productive. Her commerce in tobacco, flour, oysters and cotton 
was very valuable previous to the war, and is rapidly improving 
at present ; and in manufactories — cotton, woolen, leather, iron, 
steam engines and machinery, lumber, flour, salt and tobacco, she 
was in advance of many of her sister States. 

There is no better water power in the world than in Virginia, and 
on this account she must some day be one of our first manufac- 
turing States. Her internal improvements are fully medium. The 
free school system has been fairly established, while some of the 
colleges are in a most prosperous condition and unsurpassed for 
the advantages they afford. The Washington-Lee University is 
very old, dating back of the revolutionary war. It was endowed 
and opened by Washington, and after the war of 1861 it was 
reopened by Gen. Lee, who was its president. After his death it 
was given his name, in addition to that of Washington. 

Virginia is also one of the original thirteen States, and had an 
area previous to the division in 1862, of 61,352 square miles, 
equal to 39,265,280 acres, but after West Virginia was set off as a 
separate State, there were but 38,352 square miles left of thy* Q&G.9 
great State, equal to 24,545,280 acres. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY, 



379 



The population in i860 amounted to 1,596,318, which entitles 
the State to twelve Members of Congres. By the division the 
number of Representatives was cut down to nine ; the new State 
receiving three out of the twelve. Population in 1870, 1,224,830. 
■ Virginia lies in the fourth judicial circuit, which by the act of 
1866, was composed of this State, Maryland, West Virginia, and 
North Carolina and South Carolina. There were two judicial 
districts in this State, anterior to the division ; the Eastern and 
the Western. There is now but one. 

There were also twelve collection districts in this State, and 
twelve ports of entry, all of which remain the same as they were 
before West Virginia was cut off, for they were all located on the 
Atlantic coast, or on the bays and rivers running into the Atlan- 
tic Ocean ; there are also ten ports of delivery. 

Richmond is the capital. The State election is held on the 
Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature 
meets on the first Monday in December. 




38o 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




WEST VIRGINIA. 




WfHE State of West Virginia was separated from the " Old 
Dominion " in May, 1861, and a convention met at Wheel- 
ing in November of the same year, to draft a constitution. 
On the 31st of Dec. 1867, Congress passed an act admitting the new 
State into the Union on an equal footing with the original States ; 
allowing them three Representatives in the House. 

The scenery is very beautiful, wild and picturesque ; while at 
Harper's Ferry it is grand beyond the power of the most graphic 
pen to describe. At this place, on the Maryland side, it is said 
that nature, with a mighty chisel and master hand has carved, 
from a bold, protruding rock, a likeness of Washington, so true 
and faithful a likeness of the noble patriot that any one observes 
it at a glance. 

West Virginia covers an area of 23,000 square miles. Wheeling, 
the capital, is situated in Ohio county, on the eastern shore of the 
Ohio River. 

The most valuable mineral in West Virginia is bituminous coal, 
which lies in stratas from four to six feet deep, very near the sur- 
face in almost any part of the country. Iron also is abundant, as 
is timber, of the best varieties. She has not less than 500 miles of 
completed railroad, and enterprise in this direction is active. 
Manufactures are also making rapid progress, and becoming an 
important feature of the State. The population of West Virginia 
is 442,01a. The climate is pleasant and mild, and the soil good — 
all of the country being adapted either to grazing or grain. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. J&I 

It has an area of 23,000 square miles, or 14,720,000 acres. 

This State has now three Members of Congress.. West Vir- 
ginia was subsequently put into the fourth judicial circuit, and 
constitutes one judicial district. Parkersburg, also, was made a 
port of delivery. 

Charleston is the capital. The State election is held on the 
fourth Thursday in October. The Legislature meets on the sec- 
ond Tuesday in January. 

THE CAROLINAS. 



)N the year 1563, the coast of Carolina was explored, and 
named after Charles IX. of France. The first attempt to 
settle it was made by the celebrated and accomplished Sir 
Walter Raleigh, in 1585, twenty-two years before the settlement of 
Jamestown, and thirty-five years before the Puritans landed at 
Plymouth. This effort failed, on account of the incapacity of the 
Governor appointed by Raleigh, and the ill-behavior of the colo- 
nists toward the natives. 

The first successful attempt was made sometime between 1640 
and 1650, under the direction of Governor Berkley. The settle- 
ment was made in Albemarle county, by a few Virginia planters. 
In 1663, a large tract of land, lying between the 30th and 36th 
degrees of north latitude, having the Atlantic Ocean for its east- 
ern boundary, was conveyed by Charles II. to Lord Clarendon 
and associates, under whose auspices a settlement was made near 
the mouth of Cape Fear River, in the year 1665, by emigrants 
from Barbadoes. Sir James Yeomans was appointed Governor. 
A settlement was made at Port Royal, South Carolina, in 1670; 
and in 167 1, a few persons located at what was then called Old 
Charleston, which place was abandoned in 1680, and the founda- 
tion of the present city of Charleston laid, several miles nearer the 
sea. 

All the various settlements here mentioned went under the gen- 
eral name of Carolina, until 157 1, when a division was made, and 
the northern and southern portions were called by their distinctive 
names, North and South Carolina. These States were the scenes 
of many revolutionary tragedies. South Carolina, in particular, 



382 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

although the home of Sumter, and Marion, and Rutledge, was 
replete with tories (royalists), who spared no efforts to annoy the 
infant republic, and play into the hands of the British Govern- 
ment. South Carolina ratified the Constitution May 23, 1788, but 
threatened to break the compact in 1832, and was only prevented 
by the stern will of President Jackson. 




NORTH CAROLINA. 

J^%)OTH the soil and climate of North Carolina are highly 
Lr O/) f avora ble to the production of fruit, grain and vegetables. 
The most important are wheat, corn, rye, oats, potatoes, 
yams, rice, peas, tobacco, cotton, grapes and turpentine. Albe- 
marle Sound fisheries are quite important, and 100,000 barrels are 
taken from these waters alone annually. 

The minerals consist of iron, coal, copper, gold, silver, plum- 
bago, lead, marble, agolmatolite, soapstone, mangonese, limestone, 
whetstone, grindstone, slate, porcelain and pipe clay. A chain of 
silver and lead mines extend through the entire center of. the 
State. Population 1,071,404. 

The manufactures are lumber, iron, paper, spirits of turpentine, 
wool and cotton. The exports of the State are quite extensive, 
and since the close of the war, a very large trade has sprung up, 
which is being rapidly increased. 

Education, encouraged by the people, is making rapid forward 
strides. 

This is one of the original thirteen States, and has an area of 
50,704 square miles, equal to 32,450,560 acres, with a population 
of 1,069,614 (one-third colored), and entitled to eight members 
of Congress. North Carolina, by act of 1866, was located in the 
fourth judicial circuit, which is composed of Maryland, Vir- 
ginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, and is 
divided into three judicial districts, called the districts of Al- 






OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 383 

bemarle, Pamlico, and Cape Fear. The collection districts, and 
the ports of entry and delivery in this State have been so often 
modified and discontinued that there is some uncertainty as 
to the number. There are, as near as we can determine, ten 
districts, ten ports of entry, and nine ports of delivery. 

Raleigh is the capital. There the Legislature meets biennially 
on the first Monday in November. The State election is held on 
the first Thursday in August. 





SOUTH CAROLINA. 

'HE climate of this Italy of the New World, is so beauti- 
ful as to leave nothing to be desired. The soil is so varied 
as to produce all the products of the north and of the 
tropics. Cotton, both long and short staple, rice — swamp and 
upland — sugar, indigo, and tobacoo — oats, wheat, rye, millet and 
corn — peas, buckwheat, Darley, broomcorn, sorghum, beans, guin- 
ea corn, sunflower, sweet and Irish potatoes, hops, flax and hemp 
grow luxuriantly ; while, in a wild or cultivated state, nearly every 
known fruit, berry and nut, are produced abundantly. Manufac- 
tures are not very much engaged in, but the State possesses facili- 
ties for carrying on almost every branch of it. 

With the products of every land growing at their own door, 
with fuel and water power in abundance there is nothing to pre- 
vent her from becoming one of the first manufacturing States in 
the Union. I will quote a paragraph from a recent State publica- 
tion : " We have the cotton growing in our broad fields beside 
streams which furnish mill sites and water power ; we have iron 
ore in abundance, and fuel ready at hand, to make our own metal 
and build our own machinery, we have the clay for stoneware and 
pottery, and the fine kaolin for porcelain silica for glass, fine 
grained and hard woods in our noble forests for all varieties of 



5U 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



cabinet work, and an excellent and ever ready market lor all our 
products." In addition to this they have connection, either by 
water or rail, with all the world ; and railroad stations are of easy 
access from every part of the state. The future of this favored 
State should, and doubtless will be very bright. Its population 
is 705,163. 

South Carolina is one of the original thirteen States, and has 
an area of 29,385 square miles, making 18,806,400 acres, with a 
population, in 1870, of 728,000, (over half colored), which gives 
her five Members of Congress. 

By an act of 1866, South Carolina was located in the fourth ju- 
dicial circuit : it is divided into two judicial districts, called the 
Eastern and Western. 

There are three collection districts in this State and four ports 
of entry, to-wit : Georgetown, Charleston, Beaufort and Port 
Royal ; but no ports of delivery. 

The capital is Columbia. The State elections are held on the 
fourth Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the third 
Wednesday in October. 




§mmm 



GEORGIA. 

ENERAL James Oglethorpe, and a company of twenty- 
one others received, in the year 1732, from George II. of 
England, a grant for all the land between the Savannah 
and the Altamaha rivers. In January, 1732, a company of one 
hundred and fourteen men, women and children, arrived at 
Charleston, S. C, destined for Georgia. They were kindly treated 
by the Charlestonians, and were greatly assisted by them in their 
labor of forming a colony. The first laws made for the province 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 385 

by the twenty-two grantees, prohibited the importation of rum, 
trade with the Indians, and the use of negroes. They also pro- 
vided that lands should go back to the original owners in case the 
purchaser had no male heirs. Although the first, second, and 
third of these provisions were undoubtedly wholesome, the fourth 
was highly objectionable, and tended very much to retard the 
progress of the colony. In the year 1740 General Oglethorpe, as 
commander-in-chief of the forces in Georgia, at the head of two 
thousand men, invaded Florida with the intention of forcibly an- 
nexing it to Georgia ; but he was soon repelled from the territory, 
and returned home bootless. The Spanish, in turn, with two sail 
of vessels and three thousand men, invaded Georgia in 1742, and 
were likewise forced to return home thwarted. The progress of 
this colony was for many years very slow ; the people manifesting 
that indolence and indifference which are anything now but a 
characteristic of Georgians. It was mainly on the side of freedom 
during the revolution. 

The climate of Georgia is fully equal to that of any other 
Southern State, while the soil, rich along the coast and rivers, is 
poor in the pine barrens, but yields abundantly when fertilized. 
In the central part of the State the soil is a red loam, while in the 
western part it is light and sandy, productive when properly- culti- 
vated and cared for, but easily exhausted under a bad system of 
cultivation. Before the late war Georgia was foremost of the 
Southern States in her manufactures, and in every enterprise cal- 
culated to increase her wealth, but during that sad contest she 
was crippled to that extent that she has not yet wholly recovered. 
However, the energy and determination of her people are fast 
improving the financial condition of the State. The rivers are 
navigable for a great extent, and her principal towns are connected 
by railways. Although the last settled of the thirteen States — the 
youngest of the band of sisters — her rapid progress in agricul- 
ture, commerce, manufactures, education and internal improve- 
ments is a credit alike to herself and the Union. 

Georgia has an area of 52,009 square miles, equal ^33,285,760 
acres. She was named after George II. 

The population in 1870 was 1,200,000, which entitles her to 
nine Representatives in Congress. 

25 



386 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

The State is in the fifth judicial circuit, and has two judicial 
districts; also four ports of entry-^Savannah, Brunswick, St. 
Mary's, and Hardwicke ; and two ports of delivery — Augusta 
and Sunbury. 

The capital is Atlanta. The State election is held on the first 
Tuesday in August. The Legislature meets on the second 
Wednesday in January. 




FLORIDA. 



J/ffi^ftHE Peninsula State, diccovered and explored by Ponce 




de Leon, a voyager with Columbus, and whose name was 
suggested to the discoverer by the abundance and beauty 
of its wild flora, was, from 1512 to 181 9, with the exception of the 
interval between 1763 and 1783, a province of Spain. The first 
attempt to settle it was made in the year 1565, at St. Augustine, 
(which is said to be the oldest town in America,) by the Spaniards. 
This effort was attended with many difficulties, the colonists con- 
tending, for the first few years, alternately with the horrors of 
savage warfare and famine, at times being forced to subsist on 
roots and acorns. In 1 819 it was transferred to the United States 
by treaty, which treaty was, after much delay, ratified by Spain, 
and with still more delay by the United States. Possession of 
the colony was granted the Government in July, ,1821. The ter- 
ritory contained, in 1840, a population of 54,477, and on the 3d 
of March, 1845, became a State, and was received into the Union. 
A chain of lakes, some of them beautiful gems, set in rank and 
luxuriant vegetation — tropical vines, flowers of the most exquisite 
color and fragrance, mosses as rare and dainty as the silver frost 
work of an arctic night — extends through the entire center of the 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 389 

peninsula. The State lies upon the border of the tropics, and the 
climate, fanned as is the land by the soft sea breezes from three 
sides, is as mild and pleasant as is possible to imagine, and inva- 
lids are very much benefited by it. All the winter months, so 
rigid and tiresome in the north, the gardens of Florida are a wil- 
derness of the most beautiful flowers, while from the orange trees, 
laden with their bloom and ripening fruit, the mocking-bird car- 
ols forth his richest melody, or the oriole, flitting through the dense 
and glossy leaves from bough to bough, dazzles you like some fiery 
comet that has fallen from its sphere in the cloudless blue above. 

With proper drainage, the marshes, so long and still an object 
of aversion and contempt, might be made the richest land in 
America. The products are grain of different varieties. Cotton, 
sugar-cane, Irish and sweet potatoes, and every variety of fruit 
known in the tropics. The State has little or no foreign commerce, 
and but little attention is paid to manufactures. Railroads con- 
nect most of the principal towns, and these with most of the other 
States. 

It was discovered on Easter Sunday, and from this, and the fact 
that the land was a mass of bloom, it derived its pretty and sig- 
nificant name — "the flowery land." The present population is 
187,748. 

Florida was admitted into the Union, March 3, 1845 ; making 
the twenty-seventh State. This State has an area of 59,268, 
square miles, equal to 37,931,520 acres. She has two Represen- 
tatives in Congress. 

Florida lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial 
districts ; and has seven ports of entry — St. Augustine, Key West, 
Apalachicola, Pensacola, Magnolia, St. John's River, and Fer- 
nandina ; and two ports of delivery — Palatka and Bay Port. 

The capital is Tallahasse. The State election is held on the 
Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature 
meets on the Tuesday after the first Monday in January. 



39° FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 





ALABAMA. 

'AS admitted to the Union on the 14th of December^ 
1 81 9. It has a deep, rich soil, and in many portions a 
healthful climate. It remained till the Revolution a 
mere hunting ground of the savages. From the peace of 1783 to 
1802 it was claimed by Georgia, and lands were sold to settlers 
and speculators accordingly. In the year 1802, Georgia ceded all 
her western territory to the United States for $1,250,000. In i8oo r 
the present State of Alabama became a part of Mississippi Terri- 
tory, from which it was separated when Mississippi became a State 
It was settled in 17 11, at Mobile, by the French, being a part of 
the territory explored by La Salle in his Mississippi tour. 

A band of fugitive Indians, weary and foot-sore, fleeing by day 
and by night from their pursuers, found here their first safe shel- 
ter, and we can imagine how, throwing aside' the suspense and 
anxiety and terror under which they had been so long borne down,, 
they flung themselves down on the green sward, under the branches 
of gigantic trees, and exclaimed in the fullness of their satisfac- 
tion, "Alabama! " Here we rest. 

Some of the richest soil in the world is found here, and with 
but little cultivation the yield is very large. The climate varies 
greatly, and every degree from the temperate to the torrid zone is 
represented. The mineral resources of the State are vast. 
The entire central portion, if not, indeed, the whole of the 
State is underlaid with beds of coal and iron of surpassing 
richness. Lead, marble, ochre, and manganese are found in 
abundance, while chalybeate and sulphur springs are frequent. The 
railroads of the State were almost entirely destroyed by the war- 
but are rapidly recovering their prosperity and wealth. The pop 
ulation of Alabama is 996,992. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



39^ 



It has an area of 50,722 square miles, equal to 32,462,080 
acres, and is entitled to eight Representatives. 

It forms a part of the fifth judicial circuit, and is divided 
into three judicial districts, the Northern, Middle and Southern. 
It has one port of entry (Mobile), and two ports of delivery, viz. : 
Tuscumbia and Selma. 

The capital of the State is Montgomery. 

The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Mon- 
day in November. The Legislature meets on the third Monday 
in November. 





MISSISSIPPI. 

^HE territory comprising the present State of Mississippi and 
Alabama having been divided, that portion lying next the 
river was, in 1817, admitted into the Union as a State 
under the name Mississippi, while the eastern portion was organ- 
ized as a Territory, and named Alabama. The whole of this ter- 
ritory was explored, first by Ferdinand De Soto, and afterward by 
La Salle. It suffered greatly during the wars of the Natchez In- 
dians. The Choctaws, for a long time, retained possession of the 
northern portion of it, and were, to some extent, civilized. Mis- 
sissippi was settled by the French, in 17 16, at Natches. 

The northern part of the State is prairie, with a rich, black soil 
but in the South it is sandy. Cotton has long been the staple 
product, but more attention is now being paid to grain, and other 
branches of agriculture. Peaches and figs yield enormously; in- 
deed the former grow wild in many parts of the State. Until 
lately but little attention has been paid to fruit, though all varie- 
ties grow and produce abundantly. She has no foreign commerce, 
and her exports and imports pass through New Orleans. Missis- 
ippi has more than a thousand miles of completed railroad. One 



39 2 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



main line passes through the center of the State, southward to 
Louisiana, another crosses it from Vicksburg to the Alabama 
line from east to west, the road from Mobile to the Ohio River 
^extends through almost the entire eastern part, and the great line 
from Memphis to Chattanooga passes through the northeast. 
Mississippi is thus well supplied with railroads. The old school 
system was one of the best in the South previous to the war, but 
schools were, of course, sadly broken up then. The new consti- 
tution makes very liberal allowance for educational purposes. 
Population 829,019. 

The Territory of Mississippi became a State in 181 7, making 
the twentieth State. The area is 47,156 square miles, equal to 
30,179,840 acres. The population entitles hier to six Representa- 
tives in Congress. The State lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and 
is divided into two judicial districts, viz. : the Northern and 
Southern districts of Mississippi. She has three ports of entry, 
viz. : Natchez, Vicksburg, and one near the mouth of Pearl river, 
to be established whenever the President may direct ; also three 
ports of delivery, viz. : Grand Gulf, Ship Island and Columbus. 

Jackson is the capital. The State election is held on the 
Tuesday after the first Monday, in November, and her Legisla* 
ture meets biennially on the Tuesday after the first Monday in 
January. 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



393 





LOUISIANA. 

PAIN ceded Louisiana to France in the year 1802, and it 
was bought by the United States of the lattefc power, in 
1803, at a cost of $15,000,000. Governor Clayborne took 
possebsion of it the same year. It was settled by the French, at 
Iberville, in 1699, and was admitted into the Union April 8th, 
1 81 2. it is an important State, in that it holds the keys of 
entrance to the mouth of the Mississippi. 

The surface of the State is low and flat, and the southern por- 
tion so very low that it always overflows when the rivers are high. 
There are a large number of lakes in this portion of the State, 
and the country here is very marshy. Numberless islands lie 
along the gulf coast, some of which are very fertile and beautiful. 
On one of them is an immense salt bed or mine, known to be 
nearly or quite a mile in extent — perhaps more. The depth of 
the strata is unknown, as they have bored down forty feet into the 
pure, solid salt, with no indications of the bottom. 

Tropical fruits grow well here, and in the southern part fruit 
ripens from fall to spring, as well as from spring to fall. Oranges 
grow here in the greatest perfection, and the yield is enormous. 
A single tree often bears 5,000. Apples, peaches, pears, quinces, 
figs, plums, berries of all kinds, and grapes do well. Little 
attention has been paid to manufactures, but cotton and cane 
being staples, they must sometime be encouraged. Schools are 
supported by tax, and no appropriations by the State are allowed 
for the purpose of sustaining or assisting such institutions. A 
University in New Orleans, with law and medical department, is, 
however, partly sustained by the State under the new Constitution. 
Population 726,915. 



394 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



She has an area of 46,431 square miles, equal to 29,715,840 
acres. She has six Representatives in Congress. 

Lousiana forms a part of the fifth judicial circuit, and consti- 
tutes two judicial districts, viz. : the eastern and western districts 
of Lousiana. This state has one collection district, denominated 
the district of New Orleans ; which city is the only port of 
entry. The shores of the river Ohio, and all the rivers emptying 
into the Mississippi, are attached to the district of New Orleans, 
though most of them do not lie in the State. Several of the cities 
and towns on these rivers are made ports of delivery. Collection 
districts are not always confined to one State. 

New Orleans is the capital. The Legislature meets on the 
first Monday in January, once in two years. The State election 
is held on the first Monday in November. 




TEXAS. 



/([jejjONCE De LEON and La Salle explored the territory ov 
itiz^ Texas. After Mexico became independent of Spain, a 
grant which had been made to Moses Austin, a native of 
Connecticut, comprising a large tract of this province, was con- 
firmed by the new Republic ; and, being transferred by Moses 
Austin, at his death, to his son Stephen, was subsequently en- 
larged by a further grant. Emigration from the United States- 
was encouraged, and in 1830 nearly ten thousand Americans were 
settled in Texas. The prosperity of these inhabitants excited the 
jealousy of Mexico, and under the administration of Santa Anna,, 
an unjust, oppressive policy was adopted toward Texas. Remon- 
strance proving useless, the people of the territory declared them- 
selves independent. The revolution began in 1835, by a battle at 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 395 

Gonzales, in which five hundred Texans defeated over one thou- 
sand Mexicans. Other engagements followed, the result of which 
was the dispersion of the Mexican army. Santa Anna now re- 
doubled his efforts, and appearing in March, 1835, with a force of 
eight thousand men, several bloody battles followed. On the 21st 
of April, having under his immediate command one thousand and 
five hundred men, he was met by General Sam. Houston, with 
eight hundred men, and totally defeated, on the banks of the San 
Jacinto. Santa* Anna himself was captured the next day in the 
woods, when he acknowledged the independence of Texas, though 
the Mexican Congress refused to ratify the act. . Active hostilities, 
however, were now abandoned, and the independence of Texas 
was acknowledged by the United States, Great Britain and other 
European countries. It was in this condition of things that 
Texas was annexed to the United States. On the 24th of Decem- 
ber, 1845, it was admitted into the Union, which act was ratified 
by the Texan Legislature July 4th, 1846. But Mexico, still re- 
garding Texas as a revolted province, refused to acknowledge the 
validity of this measure. The result was a war between Mexico 
and the United States, which terminated on the 2d of February, 
1848, in a treaty by which the latter power, in consideration of the 
payment of a debt of $3,500,000, due from Mexico to the citizens 
of Texas, acquired New Mexico, Texas, and California. The 
progress of Texas from this time till the eve of the great Re- 
bellion, was almost unprecedented, no less than twenty-five thou- 
sand Germans having emigrated to that State in five years' time. 
It is said that Texas has the most delicious climate of the 
Southern Empire — that her skies are as clear as the glowing skies 
of Italy — that her sunsets rival all that poet has sung of, and that 
the artist would go mad with despair were he to attempt to trans- 
fer to canvas the beauty in which his soul revels. The low, rich 
lands of southern Texas are covered with boundless profusion of 
the most beautiful vegetation. The climate is so healthy that it is 
claimed that a person born and brought up there would never die, 
unless they went out of the State, and in proof of this a story is 
told of a traveler who met very aged men, who were so hale and 
fresh looking as to excite wonder, while the manner in which they 
were hastening towards the border aroused suspicion, and they 



396 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

were questioned, " Whither away ? " They answered that they 
were tired of living and wished to die, and were going somewhere 
— they cared not where — to seek some happy spot where people 
could die. 

The pasture lands of Texas are the very best, and stock raising 
is made profitable. All §orts of grain grows well here, and forests 
in endless quantity and variety. Decided progress has been made 
in internal improvements ; indeed, quite wonderful when we con- 
sider how young she is, how thinly settled and under what difficul- 
ties she has labored. 

Texas lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and makes two judicial 
districts, the eastern and western. There are three collection 
districts in the State. The respective ports of entry for these 
districts are Galveston, La Salle, and Brazos Santiago. To these 
are attached nine ports of delivery. 

The capital is Austin. The Legislature is composed of a Sen- 
ate, elected for four years, and a house of Representatives elected 
for two years. The sessions of the Legislature are biennial and 
axe held in December. The Governor is elected for four years. 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



399 





TENNESSEE, 

J9?OR some time, was a part of North Carolina. It was 
g) made a territorial government in the year 1790, and was 
admitted into the Union in 1796. The first permanent 
white inhabitants of Tennessee went there in the year 1775, and 
built Fort Loudon, now in Blount county. They were, in 1760, 
attacked by the savages, and two hundred persons were massacred. 
But, in 1767, the natives were reduced to submission by Colonel 
Grant, and a treaty was made with them, which encouraged emi- 
gration. Settlements were formed on Holston River in 1765, 
which, although frequently attacked by the Indians, made very 
fair progress. Colonel John Sevier, with the Tennessee militia 
and a few Virginia soldiers, gained a decisive victory over the 
savages, and from this time forward, though more or less harrassed 
by the Indians, the progress of the State, in population and im- 
provement, was rapid. North Carolina gave up the territory in 
1789, and in 1790 Congress recognized it as a separate province. 
It has great extent of territory, and up to 1861, was considered 
as among the greatest of the agricultural States. 

Its staple products are cotton, tobacco and corn. The mineral 
resources of Tennessee are not yet developed to any extent, but 
they are rich in quality, and limitless in quantity, and will ba a 
source of boundless wealth to the State. In the mountains, easy 
of access, are endless stores of copper, zinc, sandstone, iron, and 



400 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



the very finest marble, waiting since creation's birth for the enter, 
prise that should tear it from the bosom of the earth and give it 
shapes of beauty and utility. Coal of the best quality is abundant, 
and gold is found in some parts of the State. Tennessee has 
nearly or quite two thousand miles of railroad, and though these 
thoroughfares were much injured by the war, the admirable energy 
of the people would not allow them to lie in waste, and they were 
accordingly rebuilt in an excellent manner. Her free schools, 
under the protection of the State, and liberally supported by the 
Government, are in a prosperous condition. 

Population, 1,258,370. 

This State has an area of 45,600 square miles, or 29,184,000 
acres. It had a population in 1870 of 1,257,983. 

The State is entitled to ten Representatives in Congress ; is 
in the sixth judicial circuit ; has three judicial districts ; and has- 
two ports of delivery — Memphis and Knoxville. 

Nashville is the capital. The State election is held on the first 
Monday in August, and the Legislature meets on the first Mon- 
day in October, once in two years. The Legislature consists of 
a Senate of twenty-five members, and a House of Representa- 
tives of seventy-five members. 







OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 4 01 




KENTUCKY 

>N the year 1775, Daniel Boone, with a number of associates 
from North Carolina, settled in this State. The trials and 
adventures of these hardy pioneers, and especially those 
of Boone, constitute one of the most romantic leaves in the 
history of the West. For over two years, previous to 1775, Boone 
was busily employed in surveying Kentucky, building roads and 
forts. One of the latter he erected at Boonsborough, to which 
place he removed his family, in 1775. Boone said that his wife 
and daughter were the first white women who ever stood on the 
banks of the Kentucky River. For a number of years after 
Boone's settlement, he and his associates experienced many diffi- 
culties with the natives — Boone's daughter being at one time cap- 
tured by the Indians, though shortly afterward rescued by her 
father. But, notwithstanding the difficulties with the savages, the 
young territory grew rapidly in population and wealth, and on 
June 1st, 1792, was admitted to the Union. Having a fertile soil, 
and affording excellent pasturage, she has far outstripped most of 
her southern sisters in general improvement. 

The Cumberland Mountains separate Kentucky from Virginia, 
and furnish some very fine scenery — unsurpassed in grandeur or 
loveliness. One of the greatest natural curiosities in the world, 
the Mammoth Cave, is in Kentucky. Its extent is not yet known, 
since it has never been fully explored. Coal and iron are abund- 
ant, but little use has, as yet, been made of them. The best of 
timber and stone abound, and salt wells of fine quality give prom- 
ise of considerable value. The climate is mild and healthy and 
the soil productive. The present population is about 1,321,711. 
26 



402 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



The area of the State is 37,680 square miles, equal to 24,115,- 
200 acres. She is entitled to ten Representatives in Congress, is 
in the sixth judicial circuit and forms one judicial district, has 
one port of entry, Louisville, and two ports of delivery, viz. : Pa- 
ducah and Columbus. Frankfort is the capital. 

The State elections are held on the first Monday in August. 
The Legislature meets on the first Monday in December, and is 
composed of two houses — the Senate consisting of 38 members 
elected for four years ; and a House of Representatives elected 
for two years. 





OHIO, 

g^ HIO was admitted to the Union on the 29th of November, 
IgP 1802, the State containing, at the time, 72,000 inhabitants 
—2,000 more than was required in order for its admission. 
It was settled in the spring of 1788, and one year after it, with a 
vast additional extent of North-western territory, had been ceded, 
by Virginia, to the United States. 

The year 1788 was a famous year for emigration. It witnessed 
the passage of no less than 20,000 persons down the Ohio River. 
The company which settled Ohio consisted of forty persons, under 
General Rufus Putnam. They built a stockade fort at Marietta, 
of sufficient strength to resist the attacks of the natives, cleared 
several acres of ground, and planted a crop. They were joined 
by twenty additional families in the autumn. Both these compa- 
nies were New England people. 

For a number of years they were not troubled by the savages, 
nor did any of their number trouble the Indians, except in one 
or two instances. The earliest settlers of Cincinnati arrived 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 4°3 

there, about twenty in number, in 1760. Until the year 1765, the 
attempts made to settle most parts of Ohio were attended with 
great difficulties, on account of Indian wars. Marietta, however, 
formed an exception to this rule. After the general victory which 
General Wayne achieved over the savages during Washington's 
administration, the population increased rapidly. Unembarrassed 
by any centralizing or aristocratic institutions, possessed of the 
finest natural resources, and vitalized by an enterprising popula- 
tion, Ohio, after its admission into the Union, made an advance- 
ment of which any State might well be proud. 

The great wealth of Ohio lies in her agricultural interests. The 
soil is rich and yields an hundred fold for the labor which is 
bestowed upon it. The principal minerals are coal and iron, 
which are very abundant, while marble and stone of a good qual- 
ity are produced in large quantities. 

The climate is not severe, and is remarkably healthy. Manu- 
factures have not been made a specialty, yet they are of consid- 
erable importance and steadily growing. Ohio has about 4,000 
miles of railroad, which, with its canals, add materially to the 
wealth of the State. She has always been awake to the interests 
and importance of education, and is, in this respect, one of the 
most prominent of our Western States. In i860 there were 317 
newspapers and periodicals published in the State, 24 of which were 
dailies. They had an annual circulation amounting, in the aggre- 
gate, to 71,767,742. 

It has an area of 39,964 square miles, equal to 25,576,960 acres. 
The population in 1870 was 2,622,214, entitling her to twenty 
members of Congress. 

It is in the sixth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial dis- 
tricts, the Northern and Southern. 

This State has three ports of entry — Cleveland, Toledo, and 
Portland ; and four ports of delivery, to be located where the 
President directs. 

The capital of this State is Columbus. The State election is 
now held on the second Tuesday of October. The Legislature 
meets on the first Monday of January, biennially. 



404 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 





INDIANA. 

BOUT the year 1690, a French settlement, the first in In- 
§5^ diana, was made at Vincennes, that place being within the 
territory claimed . at that time by the French, upon 
priority of discovery by La Salle. Indiana was long the residence 
of various Indian tribes, and the theater of Indian wars. By the 
terms of the treaty of the peace of 1763, it, with the rest of the 
North-western Territory, was ceded to Great Britain. It was still 
claimed by the Indians, but, by various treaties, extensive tracts 
were obtained for settlement. The Indians, however, retained 
possession of many parts of the State up to the year 181 2, and to 
that portion known as the Indian Reserve even later. It was 
erected into a Territory in 1809, and on the nth of December, 
181 6, was admitted into the Union. Its population — 1,350,428, in 
the year i860 — is an indication of its progress. 

The climate is mild, but changeable. The soil is rich, but as 
the State is comparatively new in improvements it is not yet all 
brought under cultivation, and has never been half tested as to its 
productive capacity. Its grazing advantages are so great that it 
must in time give its attention largely to stock and dairy products. 
Manufactures must also become an important branch of industry 
of the State, since the fine water power and unlimited coal fields 
strongly suggest and invite it. Nearly all the great railroad lines 
between the east and west cross this State, and in internal im- 
provements Indiana is quite up to the age. Seven lines have a 
terminus at the capital of the State, and a dozen or less lines start 
from any and every given point, and run into Chicago. She has 
made very liberal provision for education, and her schools are 
a' credit to the Government and people. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



405 



Indiana was the nineteenth State in the Union. She has an 
area of 33,809 square miles, equal to 21,637,760 acres. Her pop- 
ulation in 1870 was 1,673,046, which entitles her to thirteen 
Representatives in Congress. Indiana is the seventh judicial cir- 
cuit, and forms one judicial district. There is no port of entry 
in this State ; but there are three ports of delivery, to-wit. : Evans- 
ville, New Albany and Madison, which are attached to the 
New Orleans collection district. 

The capital is Indianapolis. The State election is held on 
the second Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets only 
once in two years, on the first Wednesday in January. 





ILLINOIS. 

'HIS most thriving and prosperous State came into the 
Union on the 3d of December, 181 8. Until 1809 it was a 
part of Indiana, at which time it became a separate terri- 
tory, and so remained till received into the Union. This State 
has been little disturbed by civil divisions or by Indian wars. Its 
most serious troubles arose from the appearance within its bor- 
ders of the Mormons, in 1838, and from attempts made to curb 
their irregularities. This singular people, believing themselves to 
be ill-treated, assembled to the number of 700, under their leaders, 
in a remote part of the State, and proposed fighting for their 
rights. But a body of three hundred troops marched against 
and captured them. The whole sect was ultimately reduced to 
submission and banished the State. The territory was explored 
by La Salle and settled by the French at Kaskaskia (the first 
capital of Illinois, located on the Kaskaskia River, and the present 
site of Vandalia), in 1720. Its growth has been immense. 

Illinois is the richest agricultural State in the Union, with no 
waste or poor soil. The soil of the "bottoms," or river valley, 
extending for five or six miles back from the Mississippi River, is 



4°6 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

made entirely of deposits from the river in times of flood ; and in 
some cases the mold so formed is twenty-five feet deep, and of 
inexhaustible richness. The yield of Indian corn in these valley 
lands is enormous ; amounting often to a hundred bushels per 
acre. In dairy products Illinois is surpassed by but three States 
in the Union — New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio. 

In corn and wheat she has steadily held her position as the 
leading State, for the last fifteen years ; while in all her other 
staples she is constantly increasing. Her prairies are the grandest, 
.richest, most extensive and beautiful in the United States. Her 
lake trade is immense, and her river trade is very consideraDle. 
Manufactures, as compared with agriculture, holds a secondary 
place, yet in this she is not far behind her sister States. Bitu- 
minous coal is found in all parts of the State, lead in the western 
and copper in the northern part, while iron is plentiful. 

Of her railroads it might well be said that they are "legion," 
crossing the State in every possible direction; there are now 
3990 miles, with many more in course of construction. In 
addition to this she has direct communication with the Atlantic 
Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico by water, through a canal which 
unites Lake Michigan to the Illinois River. This canal, formerly 
only capable of carrying the common tow boat, is now being 
deepened and enlarged to accommodate steamers, and when com- 
pleted will be one of the finest ship canals in the United States. 
The educational advantages of the State are in proportion to 
the wealth and advancement of the State. It was settled by the 
French, about the year 1693. The principal city, from a commercial 
point of view, is Chicago, and though its rapid growth and great 
wealth had given it a reputation world wide, the destruction of 
the city by fire Oct. 9, 187 1, rousing as it cHd all the sympathy of 
individuals and nations, gave it a place through this in every 
heart. The harbor is one Of the best on the lakes, and is being 
much improved. It is the largest grain market in the world, and 
although Cincinnati was formerly christened, in an irreverent way, 
" Porkopolis," Chicago long since surpassed it in pork packing 
and shipping. In every respect Illinois is one of the first States 
in the Union. Her population is 2,598,400. 

The area of the State is 55,405 square miles, equal to 35,459,- 
500 acres. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



409 



The State is entitled to nineteen Representatives in Congress, 
and forms a part of the seventh judicial circuit. It forms two 
judicial districts, viz. : the northern and southern. It has one 
port of entry, Chicago, and four ports of delivery, viz. : Alton, 
Quincy, Cairo, and Peoria. The capital is Springfield. The 
State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in 
November. The Legislature meets biennially on the first Mon- 
day in January. 





MICHIGAN 

'AS admitted into the Union January 26th, 1837. It 
had the requisite population (60,000) before this, but 
there were some difficulties in the way of its admission. 
In 1837 it contained 200,000; in 1840, 212,267, and in 1850, 
851,470. The territory, when first discovered by the whites, con- 
tained .a tribe of Indians called Hurons by the French, and 
Iroquois by the Indians themselves. Many of them were converted 
to Christianity, by the untiring labors of Catholic missionaries, as. 
early as 1648. It was not, however, till 1670 that the French took 
possession of the territory. It was a portion of the extensive 
tract explored by the assiduous, daring La Salle. Its progress, 
while it belonged to the French, was very slow. It was not until 
1763, when, by treaty, it was ceded to Great Britain, that much 
was done in the way of civilizing and improving it. Compara- 
tively little, in fact, was done until 1783, when the territory was 
ceded by England to the United States. Until 1800 it was, for 
purposes of Government, considered a part of the Great North- 
western Territory. After Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois had been 



410 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

severally detached, the remainder, in 1805, became a distinct ter- 
ritory, the first Governor of which was General Hull, by appoint- 
ment of President Jefferson. Michigan suffered much from the 
war of 181 2. For about two years nearly the whole territory was 
the theater of sanguinary conflicts. It was exposed to the bar- 
barity of the enemy and their Indian allies. Since then, how- 
ever, its enterprising inhabitants have brought it up to a degree of 
improvement which few States of its age can boast. 

The minerals of this State are copper, silver, iron and slate. 
Her copper mines are the richest in the world, lying in an unbro- 
ken belt of 120 miles in length, and from] three to six in width. 
Michigan's contribution to the material for the Washington monu- 
ment at the National Capital was a magnificent block of pure cop- 
per ore. A number of such blocks have been uncovered weighing 
from one to two hundred tons each. 

The salt springs of the State are very good, yielding a large per 
centage of salt of the first-class. The northern part of the State is 
heavily wooded, and millions of feet of lumber are shipped annu- 
ally. The soil in the southern part is rich and productive. Grain, 
flour, lumber, copper, wool and pork are exported, and owing to 
her excellent harbors which lie along the northern shore, and 
the wealth and enterprise of the State, her commerce must be con- 
siderable. 

The principal towns have railroad communication with all parts 
of the Union. Her system of education is good, and the liberal- 
ity of the State is very encouraging. The population, rapidly 
increasing for the last ten years, numbers 1,184,059. 

The area is 56,243 'square miles, equal to 35,995,520 acres. 
The population entitles her to nine Representatives in Congress. 
By an act of 1866, Michigan was located in the sixth judicial cir- 
cuit, and forms two judicial districts, and has four collection dis- 
tricts and four ports of entry, viz. : Detroit, Port Huron, Grand 
Haven, and Michilimackinac ; also five ports of delivery (if the 
President deems them necessary). 

The capital is Lansing. The State election is held on the 
Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature 
meets biennially on the first Wednesday in January-. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



411 




WISCONSIN 




>AS admitted into the Union May 29th, 1848. It was a 
part of the extensive territory ceded by France to Great 
Britain in the treaty of 1763. At the close of the 
Revolution it was given up by Great Britain to the United States. 
It was erected into a territory in 1836, the portion now forming 
the State of Iowa being detached in 1838. Its natural resources 
are extraordinary, the climate being very healthful, and the soil 
unsurpassed in fertility. It was settled in the year 1669, at Green 
Bay, by the French. 

Wisconsin has a large commerce which, with its rich soil, vast 
lumber fields, extensive mines of copper and lead, and its unsur- 
passed harbors and railroads, must necessarily increase. Its ex- 
cellent water power is of great advantage to manufacturers and 
though yet in their infancy, the day is not far distant when they 
will be developed and be a source of wealth to the State. Her 
internal improvements consist of about 1500 miles of completed 
railroad, and the Portage Canal, which connects the Wisconsin 
with Lake Winnebago, and was constructed by appropriations from 
the Government. Education receives more attention than in many 
older States, and its colleges, seven in number, are all in a fine 
condition. The population of the State is 1,055,133. 

It has an area of 52,924 square miles, equal to 34,511,360 acres 
and eight members of Congress. Wisconsin lies in the seventh 
judicial circuit (which is composed of Wisconsin, Indiana and 
Illinois), and forms one judicial district. It has one collection 
district, one port of entry (Milwaukee,) and five ports of deliv- 
ery, viz. ; Southport, Racine, Sheboygan, Green Bay and De- 
pere. 



412 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

The capital of the State is Madison. The Legislature meets 
on the second Wednesday in January. The State election is on 
the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. 





MINNESOTA 



IES north of Iowa, and extends to the Canadian boundary. 
On the north-east it touches Lake Superior, and, to the 
west, is bounded by Dakota Territory. It comprises the 
head waters of the Mississippi, and abounds in rivers and lakes, 
teeming with fish. Its soil is highly prolific, and its forests are 
among the finest in the world. Its name is derived from Minnis- 
otah, the name of St. Peter's River. Primarily discovered by La 
Salle, it, for some years, belonged to the French, and at a very 
early period was traversed by their traders and soldiers. It was 
ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of 1763, and to the United 
States at the peace of 1783. It received a territorial government 
in 1849, and was admitted into the Union in May, 1858. 

The minerals of the State are not valuable, except its iron and 
coal. Timber is abundant, and the water-power equal to that in 
the best manufacturing States of the East. Lake Superior, on the 
eastern shore, has some fine harbors and affords unexceled ship- 
ping facilities. Its climate is remarkably healthy, its soil rich and 
productive, and its educational advantages very superior. She 
has a permanent school fund of near $3,000,000, and land enough 
donated by the Government to increase the fund to $15,000,000. 
St. Paul is the capital of the State, and a beautiful and rapidly 
growing city. The bluff upon which it is built is terraced, and the 
streets are wide and clean. The population of the State at the 
last census was 439,706. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 413 

It has an area of 83,531 square miles, equal to 53,459,840 
acres. This State is entitled to three members of Congress. 

It lies in the eight judicial circuit, which is composed of Mis- 
souri, Iowa, Kansas, Arkansas and Minnesota. Minnesota forms 
one judicial district, and has no ports of entry or delivery. 

The Legislature meets annually on the Tuesday after the first 
Monday in January. The State election is held on the Tues- 
day after the first Monday in November. 





IOWA. 

fHIS State derives its name from the Indians. It was inclu- 
ded in the Louisiana purchase. It was first settled at 
Dubuque, by the French, in the year 1686. This settle- 
ment, however, does not seem to have been permanent, nor pro- 
ductive of any real good to the territory. In 1833 Burlington was 
settled by emigrants from the Eastern States. It formed a part of 
Missouri from 1804 to 1821, when it was included in Michigan 
Territory; subsequently belonged to Wisconsin Territory, and 
was admitted into the Union March 3d, 1845. It is a highly pros- 
perous State, having a vast extent of rich soil and excellent pas- 
turage. 

The climate is mild and healthy, and the surface of the country 
mostly a fine, rolling prairie. It possesses valuable and extensive 
lead mines, and an excellent quality of coal underlies almost the 
entire State, so near the surface as to be easy of access. Building 
stone is abundant, corn, wheat, oats, hay, rye, barley and buck- 
wheat are grown in all parts of the State, but corn is the staple 
agricultural product, and in 1869 it produced nearly 80,000,000 
of bushels. But little, comparatively, is yet being done in manu- 
factures. Iowa has already 1350 miles of railroad, and Council 
Bluffs is the terminus of all the lines connecting with the Pacific 



414 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Railroad. Like all prairie States, the building of these roads re- 
quires so little outlay of capital that almost every section of the 
State is accommodated. Education is receiving a fair share of 
attention, and the school fund and tax are adequate to meet the 
wants of the schools, and now exceeds two million of dollars. 
The emigration to that State has been great, especially within the 
last few years. It is a large and every way flourishing State. The 
population is 1,191,725. 

Iowa was the twenty-eighth State, on its admfssion, in 1845. 
It has an area of 55^045 square miles, equal to 35,228,800 acres. 
The population entitles her to nine Representatives in Congress. 
This State lies in the eight judicial circuit, and makes one judicial 
district. She has no port of entry, and but three of delivery, to- 
wit. : Burlington, Keokuk, and Dubuque ; all of which are at- 
tached to the collection district of New Orleans, in the State of 
Lousiana. 

Des Moines is the capital. The State election is held on the 
second Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets* biennially 
on the second Monday in January. 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 415 




MISSOURI. 

t 

ftzJfo^HIS great Iron producing State was admitted into the 
W|p Union on the 10th of August, 182 1. It, with all the terri- 
^J^ tory then belonging to the United States, west of the Mis- 
sissippi, was included in the purchase of Louisiana, made in 1803. 
Louisiana afterward was divided into Orleans Territory, Lou- 
isiana proper, and Missouri Territory. In 181 7, Missouri Terri- 
tory was divided into Arkansas, on the south, and Missouri on the 
north ; and it was about this time that the latter took the requi- 
site steps toward forming a State Constitution. It will be remem- 
bered that this is the State, the discussion of the propriety of the 
admission of which raised such a storm in Congress in 1820. 

The soil and climate of Missouri are varied, resembling both 
the North and the South. There are rich valleys, and poor up- 
lands, prairie and timber, marshes and dry sandy tracts. It is 
rich in mineral wealth, which as yet has received little or no 
attention, except its iron, which is already a source of wealth to 
the State. Sandstone and marble are abundant. A very large 
river trade is carried on by the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, 
which constitute their entire means of communication by water. 
The principal manufactures of the State are located in St. Louis, 
which is one of the most important commercial cities in the 
Union. It has railroads which reach all the principal towns in 
the West, and it is also connected by the railroads of Illinois with 
the cities of the East. The State is making abundant provision 
for its schools, and St. Louis is far ahead of other cities in this 
respect. Her schools have an enviable reputation, and are sup- 
ported independent of the State. 



4 J 6 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

This State has an area of 67,38c square miles, equal to 43,123,- 
200 acres. 

Her population in 1870 was 1,715,000, entitling her to thirteen 
Representatives in Congress. 

This State is in the eighth judicial circuit ; and forms two ju- 
dicial districts, the Eastern and Western. It has no port of entry 
and but one port of delivery, Hannibal. 

The capital is Jefferson City. The State election is held on 
the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and the Legis- 
lature meets on the last Monday in December. 





ARKANSAS. 

?HIS State lies south of Missouri, and was once attached to 
it. It has a fine climate and prolific soil. The first settle- 
ment of whites within its limits was made at Arkansas 
Post, in the year 1685. The earlier inhabitants were French. Its 
progress, for many years, was very slow. It was not till about the 
year 1826 that the tide of emigration began to flow from the At- 
lantic States in that direction. Little Rock, the early seat of 
government and the present capital, was laid out in the year 1820, 
during which year the first steamboat ascended the Arkansas 
River. The boat was eight days in going from New Orleans to 
the village of Arkansas — a distance of scarcely one hundred miles 
above the mouth of the Arkansas River. The State once con- 
tained the remnants of several powerful tribes of Indians. By a 
treaty made between the Cherokees and the United States, the 
former agreed to give up all their lands east of the Mississippi 
River, and to retire to a region guaranteed to them in the present 
State of Arkansas. 





JOSEPH SMITH, 
Founder of the Mormon Church. 



BRIGHAM YOUNG, HEAD OF THE MORMON 
CHURCH. 




JOSEPH P. SMITH. 



(Nephew of Jo. Smith, Jr., and one of the Twelve 
Apostles..) 




MRS. ALICE YOUNG CLAWSON. 

(Brigham Young's eldest daughter — an actress. 
Herself and her two sisters are married to H. B. 
Clawson.) 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



419 



The present Constitution of Arkansas was adopted in 1868, 
since which time she can be said to be in a flourishing con- 
dition. With a good soil, so rich as to yield abundantly with small 
outlay of money or labor, with a climate that was all that could 
be asked, it has yet never made rapid progress. It has no manu- 
factures, but will some day rank high amongst our mining States. 
Coal, lead, zinc, iron, manganese, salt and marble are found in 
great quantities ; indeed, in manganese it exceeds every other State, 
and in zinc is exceeded only by New Jersey. Gold and silver 
have been found in several counties, and silver is found in the 
lead mines in considerable quantities. It has quarries of the finest 
oil-stone in the world, and an inexhaustible supply of the most 
exquisitely white alabaster. Its hot springs possess medicinal 
qualities which will, when understood, render them a very popular 
resort for invalids. The new Constitution makes ample provision 
for schools, and education is receiving considerable attention. 
The population of the State is about 600,000. 

It has an area of 52,193 square miles, equal to 33,406,720 acres. 
The population entitles the State to four Representatives in Con- 
gress. 

This State lies in the eighth judicial circuit and forms two ju- 
dicial districts, the eastern and western. It has no ports of entry 
or delivery. 

The capital of the State is Little Rock. She holds her State 
election the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets 
but once in two years, on the first Monday in January. 




420 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 





KANSAS. 

f $L -^OUT t ^ ie development of this young State cluster some 
8^* °*" ***© most important events of American history. Its 
territorial organization, by the passage of the Kansas^ 
Nebraska Bill, in 1854, re-opened the agitation of the slavery 
question, which, seeming to have acquired fresh vigor and viru- 
lence from the sleep it had enjoyed under the Missouri Compro- 
mise, thoroughly aroused the old animosities between the pro-and 
anti-slavery elements of our national politics. From 1854 to 1857 
it was the theater of political tragedies, the bare mention of which 
may well put the blush of shame upon even the most fool-hardy 
partisan. 

The Territory made application to Congress, in 1857, for a place 
in the Union, but the Constitution under which it asked admission 
(the one framed at Lecompton) was known to be a fraudulent 
affair, and hence Kansas was rejected. The discussion of this 
Constitution caused a permanent division of the Democratic party. 
The Constitution was rejected by the people of Kansas by a ma- 
jority of 10,000. Kansas was, however, received into the Union, 
in 1 86 1, under a free State Constitution, formed at Topeka. 

The surface of the country is uniform, with no mountains, 
sloughs, swamps, marsh lands or lakes. The soil is rich and pro- 
ductive, the climate mild and healthy. For all agricultural products 
it is one of the finest States west of the Mississippi. Corn and all 
small grains yield abundantly. It promises also to be a great fruit 
State when older. Rapid progress is being made in internal improve- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



4 2! 



merits, and besides nearly a thousand miles of completed railroad, 
others are being pushed forward to completion with great energy. In 
consideration of her means, age and population, Kansas has done 
a eat deal for education. There is a school fund, public lands 
have been donated, and taxes are levied for the support of the 
public schools. 

Coal, sandstone, limestone and marble are found in all parts of 
the State, and in some sections timber of fine quality is abundant. 
There are a large number of salt springs and sulphur springs also 
abound. Topeka is the capital of the State and signifies " Pota- 
to," great quantities of which grow wild in the vicinity. The last 
census gives its population at 364,477. 

Kansas has an area of 78,841 square miles, equal to 50,187,520 
acres. The population gives her three Representatives in Con- 
gress. This State is in the eighth judicial circuit, and forms one 
judicial district. It has no ports of entry or delivery. 

Topeka is the capital. The State election is held on the Tues- 
day after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets 
on the second Tuesday in January. 




4 22 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




NEBRASKA. 
JgPEBRASKA was organized into a territory in 1850. The 




first settlers were Americans. In the last few years it has 
increased in wealth and population more rapidly than any 
of the adjoining States or Territories. Probably the chief cause 
of this has been occasioned by the Pacific Railroad passing 
directly through the State from east to west. It is impossible, at 
the present time, to estimate the advantage it will be to the State 
in developing its resources. The value of its minerals in the 
western portion of the State is incalculable. It has fair prospects 
of becoming one of the richest mineral and agricultural States in 
the Union. Omaha, the capital, is a city of considerable com- 
mercial importance, being located at the junction of the Missouri 
River and the Pacific Railroad. In 1866 the Territory applied 
for admission into the Union, but, on account of the word 
"white" being used in its Constitution, it was rejected. The 
word was then stricken out, after which it was admitted, February, 
1867, the bill for admission having been passed over the Presi- 
dent's veto. 

Every thing indicates that stock raising and dairy farming will 
be the leading feature in agriculture, the state being better 
adapted to growing grass than grains, yet producing these well, 
especially in the eastern part, where the soil is very fertile. The 
State has no public debt to retard its growth. A generous pro- 
vision has been made for schools, and one-sixteenth of the public 
land of the State, 2,500,000 acres, set apart to be sold for securing 
a school fund. Ninety thousand acres were given to endow a 
State Agricultural College, and a State University was also en- 
dowed with 46,081 acres. According to the last census, the pop- 
ulation is 122,993. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 423 

On its admission, in 1867, it was the thirty-seventh State. It 
has an area of 122,007 square miles, or 78,084,480 acres. It 
forms the ninth judicial district, has no ports of entry or delivery. 

The capital is Lincoln. The State election is held on the sec- 
ond Tuesday in October. The Legislature meets on the Tues- 
day after the first Monday in January. 




NEVADA. 

M/^f HIS Territory having formed a State Constitution, under 
)yjj^ an enabling act previously passed by Congress, was admit- 
ted as a member of the Federal Union, on an equal footing 
with the original States. The State convention was held at so 
late a period of the year that it was necessary to telegraph the 
Constitution, in order that it might be received there in time to 
secure the admission of the State previous to the Presidential 
election. Immediately upon its reception, President Lincoln 
issued a proclamation, dated October 31st, A. D. 1864, in which 
he " declared and proclaimed that the said State of Nevada is 
admitted into the Union on an equal footing with the original 
States," etc. The vote of the State at the Presidential election, 
in 1864, was 16,420. 

Nevada possesses some of the most magnificent scenery in the 
world and some natural curiosities worthy of mention ; amongst 
these is Lake Mono, with water so sharply acid and bitter that it 
can not be swallowed, and cloth fabrics or leather immersed in its 
waters are destroyed in an incredibly short space of time. No 
fish or animal can exist in its motionless depth — no water-fowl 
ever leaves its bosom or dips its wing, or skims lightly over the sur- 
face that is never lashed into fury by the storms, and that only the 
strongest winds can ruffle. It is a very Marah of bitterness — a 
Dead Sea of isolation — locked in by towering crags, surrounded 
by shadow and gloom. 



424 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



The silver mines of Nevada are the richest in the world. For 
the year 1867 it is estimated that Nevada yielded 20,000,000 of 
dollars, of which the Comstock lode yielded 17,500,000. The 
product of this mine for five years amounts to $60,000,000. Salt 
and alkali are abundant. The climate is healthy, divided, as in 
California, into a wet and a dry season. The soil is poor, and agri- 
culture receives little attention. 

Education has been almost entirely neglected, but measures are 
being taken to establish schools on the same plan as in the other 
States. Population last census 42,491. 

It has an area of 63,473 square miles, or 40,622,720 acres. The 
population in i860, while yet a Territory, was 6,857. In conform- 
ity with the Constitutional provision that every State shall have 
one Representative in Congress, Nevada has one. This State lies 
in the ninth judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district, called 
the district of Nevada. 





CALIFORNIA 

>AS admitted into the Union on the 7th of September,, 
1850. The alarming discussion which occurred upon 
the question of admission was what gave rise to the 
compromise measures of 1850, popularly styled the Omnibus BilL 
General Fremont, with a small but dauntless band of rangers,, 
conquered California in 1846, having defeated, on frequent occa- 
sions, vastly superior forces of Mexicans. Its resources as a 
farming country early attracted attention. But when, in February, 
1848, it was published that gold in quantities had been found on 
a branch of the Sacramento, the swarm of emigrants which rushed 
in, comprising representatives from every State in the Union, and 
from nearly all the nations of Europe, was almost incalculable. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 425 

From a small village, San Francisco was rapidly inflated to a 
large city In many places towns sprang up like mushrooms. 
Owing to the fact that its population had been thrown hastily 
together, from so many places, and in consequence of the want of 
a government, California was, for some time, the scene of many 
dark crimes and hideous outrages. Never was the want of whole- 
some legal restraint more keenly felt than here. The Constitution 
of California was framed by a convention of delegates in 1849. 

It is a wild and broken country, mountainous and rugged, 
traversed by both the Sierra Nevadas and the coast range. The 
valleys, long neglected for the mines, are again being cultivated 
and brought to a high degree of fertility and productiveness. 
The gold mines are too well known to need any description. 
They furnish annually to the Government seventy to eighty 
million dollars in gold. The climate of California varies greatly 
— from extreme cold in the north, and at great elevations, to 
tropical warmth and softness in the south. There are heavy 
rains in November and December, which deluge and saturate the 
land. Winter they have none; and at all seasons of the year 
tropical plants grow and blossom in the open air, attaining a size 
that seems incredible. Grape culture is rapidly assuming an im- 
portance which may well warn Europeans to " look to their 
laurels," since the flavor of California wine is pronounced equal 
to that of their best brands. Thousands of tons are now being 
shipped east annually, and their pears, luscious and rich as none 
others in the world are found in the market of almost every city 
in the Union. Almost every known fruit grows here, and it bids 
fair to be the greatest fruit State in America. The commerce of 
California is immense ; and extends to all parts of the globe. In 
the matter of gold alone, from 1858 to 1868, $826,873,738.11 were 
exported, and in the last named year, nearly a million barrels of 
flour. In 1870 there were 800 miles of railroad in operation, and 
many new roads not yet completed. In the matter of education, 
she has been generous and energetic, and, aware of its importance, 
has made ample provision. The school fund is $725,000, and in 
1867 the State expended for educational purposes $1,168,000, 
The last census reports the population 500,223. 



426 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



California was the thirty-first State. It has an area of 188,982 
square mfles, equal to 120,948,480 acres. The Population in 1870 
was 560,285, entitling her to four Representatives in Congress. 

By act of 1866, this State, with Oregon and Nevada, consti- 
tutes the ninth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial districts. 
California has seven ports of entry, viz. : San Francisco, Monte- 
rey, San Diego, Sacramento, Sonoma, San Joaquin and San 
Pedro ; also, one port of delivery, Santa Barbara. California was 
obtained from Mexico by conquest in 1846. 

The capital is Sacramento. She holds her State election on 
the first Tuesday in September. Her Legislature meets on the 
first Monday in December, but meets only once in two years. 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



429 




COLORADO. 




J AS formed from parts of Kansas, Nebraska and Utah. 
Its Territorial government was organized by act Con- 
gress, March 2, 1861. It is situated west of Kansas, 
on the great route from the Pacific to the Atlantic States, and 
on the dividing ridge, or backbone, of the continent. The rivers 
that find their head waters within the territory run southeast 
and south to the Gulf of Mexico, and southwest to the Gulf 
of California. The surface is nearly equally divided between 
a plain, gently descending from the abrupt mountain wall of 
rock constituting the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, 
and the mighty mass of that chain, with its peaks, rising nearly 
three miles above the surface of the sea, now forming an elevated 
plateau, and again sending off spurs and lateral ranges containing 
beautiful valleys, or, in a more lavish and genial mood, taking a 
wide circuit inclosing an immense sunken plain containing hun- 
dreds of square miles of charming, well watered farming land 
called parks. Of these there are seven. It is a magnificent re- 
gion, and contains all the elements of extreme mineral and agri- 
cultural wealth. It has mines of gold, silver, copper, lead and 
iron. Coal abounds in all parts, oil flows from the wells with a 
little encouragement, and salt is easily obtained in some parts. 
An immense soda fountain is found near Colorado City, called 
Fountaine qiij Bouille (boiling fountain) and there are indica- 
tions of cinnebar platina, and precious stones. 

The climate is fine, the general temperature like Southern 
Pennsylvania or Maryland ; and, from the elevation, the air is 
very dry and pure. The plain rises by imperceptible degrees to 



43° FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

5000 feet (about one mile) above the level ot the sea, at the 
foot of the mountains. The numerous valleys, the parks, and 
much of the sloping plain, form as fine an agricultural region, 
with proper irrigation, as any State possesses, and much of the re- 
mainder furnishes excellent pasturage through the entire year. 
Occasionally heavy snow falls and for a few days extreme cold 
prevails, but these are exceptional years ; and it does not lie long. 
Its effects can be guarded against with prudent care. Corn, 
wheat, and other small grains and vegetables reach their greatest 
perfection here. 

It lurnishes excellent manufacturing facilities along the unfail- 
ing mountain streams in the valleys, and will no doubt ultimately 
unite with Montana and Southwestern Dacotah to supply the im- 
mense central part of our domain with all the products of manu- 
facturing genius and skill. 

Denver, the capital and principal city, is situated near the east- 
ern base of the mountains, where these put on their severest and 
sublimest aspect. Clear lakes are set like stars, here and there, 
and the beautiful and grand in scenery are nowhere more strik- 
ing or more agreeably combined. 

The Territory contains 106,475 square miles in area, and the 
population in 1870 numbered 29,706.* 

Several attempts have been made to obtain admission of Col- 
orado as a State into the American Union. An act to enable 
the people to form a constitution and State government was passed 
by Congress, March, 1864. The constitution framed under this 
act, was rejected by the people of the territory. Another consti- 
tution was framed and adopted in 1865, but a bill passed by Con- 
gress for its admission, was vetoed by th* President. Another 
attempt made in 1867 likewise failed by the President's veto; 
since which time it quietly remained under its Territorial gov- 
renment until March 3d, 1875. when it was admitted by Act of 
Congress. 



our government; and history. 431 



OREGON 

5Qft RIMARILY included Washington Territory, and, with the 
latter, comprised the extensive tract lying between the 
British Possessions on the north and California on the 
south ; the Rocky Mountains on the east, and the Pacific Ocean 
on the west. The coasts of this region were discovered by the 
Spaniards in the 16th century. In 1792, Captain Grey, of Boston, 
discovered and entered Columbia River, and thus the United 
States acquired the right of sovereignty over the territory. The 
exploration of the country from the Missouri to the Columbia, by 
Lewis and Clark, government appointees, in 1804-5-6, strength- 
ened this claim. The British, however, laid claim to the northern 
part of the territory, which gave rise to a threatening dispute 
between Great Britain and the United States. But the difficulty 
was adjusted by a treaty in 1846, establishing the boundary of 49 
deg. north latitude. It was admitted into the Union in the year 
1859. The State still contains the Flathead, Pend Oreille, Spo- 
kane, Shoshane, and other tribes of Indians, who are, for the most 
part, in the savage state, though the Christian missionaries have 
done much in the way of civilizing a portion of them. The furs' 
of this region, those of the badger, beaver, bear, fisher-fox, lynx, 
martin, mink, muskrat, etc., have long been a great source of 
revenue. 

The American fur companies established trading posts in Ore- 
gon at an early period, that of Astoria being founded in 18 10, 
under the auspices of the late John Jacob Astor, of New York. 
It was settled, at Astoria, by emigrants from the Eastern States, 
in the year 181 1. 



43 2 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

The mineral resources of Oregon may properly be limited to 
coal and copper, but the quantity of these is to be left unlimited, 
since it is estimated that they are inexhaustible. Gold is also found, 
but not extensively. The climate in the eastern part of the State 
is cold and damp — indeed, one might safely go farther and say 
wet, since rain falls four days out of seven in the summer, and the 
winter is one long rain, known as the "wet season;" yet notwith- 
standing this, the valleys are the most fertile in the world, and 
large crops of grain are raised, in which wheat takes the first place. 
Manufactures have scarce an existence yet, and the commerce of 
the State is almost entirely confined to San Francisco, to which 
place most of her exports are sent. These consist of agricul- 
tural products and lumber. 

In internal improvements also she is still deficient, little or 
nothing having been done for the railroads of the country, except 
to plan one or two lines. The construction of them, however, is 
in the "dim distance." One has been finished from Portland to 
Salem, and it is designed to continue it down through the State 
and to connect it with some road running into San Francisco. 

The common school system is the same as in the Eastern States, 
and a school fund already established and profitably invested, 
which will in a short time support them without resort to taxation 
The population in 1870 was 90,923. 

It has an area of 95,274 square miles, equal to 60,975,360 
acres. The population in 1870 did not reach the number re- 
quired to entitle it to a Member of Congress according to the 
fixed ratio. But every State is entitled to one member, whatever 
its population may be. By the act of 1866, the States of Oregon, 
Nevada and California were constituted the ninth judicial cir- 
cuit. Oregon forms one judicial district, and has one collection 
district, and one port of entry. 

The capital is Salem, where her Legislature meets once in two 
years, on the second Monday of September. The State election 
is held on the first Monday in June 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 433 

THE TERRITORIES. 

m HIO, and all the territory north of the Ohio river, was early 
/g^ erected into a separate government, by Congress, called the 
Northwest Territory. The region south of the river was 
treated in the same manner a little later. In 1800 the Mississippi 
Territory was organized; thus covering all the ground origin- 
ally belonging to the New Republic. These were, as population 
increased, divided into sections, of convenient size for the pur- 
pose of local self government, and States created as fast as the 
requisite number of citizens had collected within such limits; 
and the remainder continued under the preliminary territorial 
rule. 

In 1802, the vast region west of the Mississippi was bought of 
the French government. This extended the National Domain 
from the mouth to the head waters of this river, and westward, 
north of the Spanish possessions, to the Pacific ocean. Many 
new States and Territories have been formed from it. The pro- 
cess of multiplication has not yet ceased in this region. In 1819 
Florida was purchased ; a part of Mexico was obtained in 1848, 
and again in 1853; and the increase of territory continued by the 
acquisition of Alaska in 1867. This policy has become, in a 
manner, traditional, and it is not unlikely that it may be contia- 
ued to some extent in the future. 

The government of the territories is established by act of 
Congress ; the President nominates and the Senate confirms the 
Governor, Secretary, and Judges of courts ; and Congress passes 
all the general laws for the government of the inhabitants. A 
Territorial Legislature is elected by the inhabitants which takes 
charge of all the local interests of the Territory. All these laws 
and organizations are temporary, and pass away when a State 
government is founded. Commonly an act of Congress author- 
izes the election of delegates to a Convention for framing a State 
Constitution ; though the Territorial Government sometimes takes 
the initiative. This constitution is then submitted to the popular 
vote of the citizens in the Territory ; and if they favor it, pre- 
sented to Congress for its approval. If it is in harmony with our 
usages, and republican principles, Congress accepts it. 

28 



434 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



NEW MEXICO. 



jJj^HIS large territory as defined by Spanish or American au- 
thorities, extended from 3^ deg. 30 min. to 42 deg. north 
latitude, and from 23 deg. to about 30 deg. longitude west 
of the city of Washington. It was early settled by Spaniards, and 
formed a territory of the Republic of Mexico until 1848, when it 
was ceded to the United States. In September, 1850, this terri- 
tory was defined by act of Congress, and provision made for its 
organization. 

Right of Suffrage. — Every free white male inhabitant, above 
the age of twenty-one years, who shall have been a resident of 
said territory at the time of the passage of this act, shall be enti- 
tled to vote at the first election, and shall be eligible to any office 
within the said territory ; but the qualifications of voters and of 
holding office, at all subsequent elections, shall be such as shall be 
prescribed by the Legislative Assembly. Within the bounds of 
this territory and Arizona, are residing large tribes of Indians, 
many of a warlike character, roaming over this region and west- 
ern Texas, as well as the northern part of Mexico. 

The high table-lands, of which most of the territory consists, 
are broken by mountain ranges. The Rocky Mountains and the 
Sierra Madres pass through the central portion from east to west. 
The soil is dry, and much of it, owing to its great elevation above 
the sea, is sterile, and agriculture almost entirely neglected. It is, 
however, a fine grazing country, and stock raising will no doubt be 
one of its principal sources of wealth, though its mines are very 
rich, and when properly developed, will command much attention 
and pay abundantly. Gold and silver is especially abundant, and 
it only needs capital to bring the mines into more favorable and 
general notice. 

The country is settled by a wild and lawless people — Spaniards, 
Mexicans, Indians and half breeds of every nationality — and, of 
course, order is but partially observed ; laws can not be enforced ; 
civilization makes but little progress, and society does not improve. 
The climate is mild and healthful, and but a small portion of the 
country wooded. There are several fine salt lakes in the terri- 
tory where the rapid evaporation of the water causes the crystali- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY 435 

zation of the salt so rapidly that it falls to the bottom ; as the 
water is shallow, it is taken out almost pure, and quite a business 
is done in supplying the inhabitants with the article. 

A public school has been established by the Governor of the 
Territory. A Territorial Government exists. The capital is 
Santa Fe. 





UTAH 

5 AS formerly a part of the Mexican territory of Upper 
California, and was acquired by the United States in 
1848, by the the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. It was 
too distant, desolate, and dangerous a region for a settlement by 
Mexicans, and has little known history anterior to the explora- 
tions of Fremont, between 1843 and 1846. 

The first American settlement was made by the Mormons, in 
July, 1847, and was supposed by them to be out of the territory 
of the United States, and beyond the reach of possible interfer- 
ence. Here, in the depths of the desert, they determined to 
build up a peculiar religious society embracing customs abhor- 
rent to the views and institutions of modern civilized States. 
Their success was a surprise to the world, and probably to them- 
selves; the capacity of the depths of the Great American Desert, 
as it was called, for cultivation, exceeding all previous expecta- 
tion. But the war with Mexico, then in progress, threw this, be- 
fore inaccessible, desert into the limits of the American Union ; 
and the discovery of gold in the neighboring territory of Califor- 
nia, throwing them almost midway between the old western set- 
tlements and the new Eldorado, subjected them to contact with, 
and interference by, the tide of modern civilization, as it flowed 
toward the setting sun; and in ten years from their first appear- 
ance in the Great Central Basin of the continent, they came again 
into hostile conflict with the established authorities they thought 



436 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

to have finally escaped. Though their conflict with the United 
States government, imbued with habits and prejudices with which 
they antagonized, was deferred by the troubles which precipe 
tated the Civil War, and their institutions remained substantially 
intact until that was past ; the Pacific Railroad was then built 
through their territory, and, if they are no longer persecuted, and 
their peculiarities opposed by deadly force, the moral influence 
and dissolving powers introduced by numbers is more surely 
wasting away the foundations of their political and religious edi- 
fice. 

Utah was organized as a Territory by act of Congress, Sept. 
9, 1850. Brigham Young, the head of the Mormon church, be- 
came the first governor. In 1854 it was vainly attempted to re- 
move him; and in 1857 an army was sent to enforce Federal 
authority. A final conflict was avoided by compromise. In 1862, 
the Mormons attempted to get admission into the Union as a 
State, with their " peculiar institutions," but failed. A Territo- 
rial Government exists, but has little force or vitality, while the 
Mormons are large in numbers. 

Utah is unique in one respect ; though lying nearly a mile 
above the surface of the sea, and having a complete system of 
lakes and rivers, there is no visible connection of these with the 
ocean. It is a continent embosomed within the depths of a con- 
tinent. The Great Salt Lake is 100 miles long by 50 broad, and 
its waters are very salt — three parts of the water producing 
one of pure salt No fish can live in it. It receives the con- 
tents of many considerable streams. Whether they are kept in 
subjection by evaporation alone, or have a concealed outlet to 
the ocean is unknown. The soil, though in its natural state an 
apparent desert, is extremely fertile when irrigated, and produces 
wheat and other cereals in great profusion. Its mountains are 
believed to be rich in silver and gold ; but the Mormons have 
discouraged mining, and very little has been done in that direc- 
tion. 

Cotton is highly successful in the southern settlements, and 
experiments with flax and silk culture have been very favorable. 
The climate is mild and healthy. 

Utah is a highly promising section of our national domain. 
Its population in 1870 was 86,786 ; its area about 87,500 square 
miles. 




GEORGE A. SMITH, FIRST COUNSELLOR, 
CHURCH HISTORIAN. NEXT TO YOUNG 
IN AUTHORITY. 




ORSON" PRATT, 
ONE OF THE TWELVE APOSTLES. 



ORSON HYDE, 
PRESIDENT OF THE TWELVE APOSTLES, 




THE ARCH OF TRIUMPH, Paris, Erected by Napoleon I. 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 439 



WASHINGTON TERRITORY. 

RGANIZED by act of Congress, passed March 2d, 1853^ 
settled by emigrants from the Northern and Western 
States. It was taken from the, northern part of Oregon, 
"being all that portion of territory lying and being south of the 
47th degree of north latitude, and north of the middle of the 
main channel of the Columbia River, from its mouth to where the 
46th degree of north latitude crosses said river, near Fort Wallah 
Wallah, thence east to Snake River ; thence north to the 49th par- 
allel of latitude, being bounded on the east by the Territory of 
Idaho, and on the north by the British Possessions. Lying on 
Puget's Sound, in north latitude 47 deg., west longitude from 
Greenwich 120 deg. 25 min., having a mean annual temperature of 
50 deg. Fahrenheit. The climate of Washington Territory is 
much milder than in the same parallels of latitude east of the 
Rocky Mountains, while the soil is mostly rich and very fertile, 
producing a large growth of forest trees. Gold and other valua- 
ble minerals also abound in many parts of the territory. 

With the exception of the land around Puget's Sound, the soil 
is rich and productive, and though corn does not grow well here, 
no better wheat is produced in the world, and barley, oats and 
potatoes yield immensely. It is a fine grazing country, and prom- 
ises, in its horses, cattle and wool raising interests, to be of great 
value. It has immense forests, and produces, it is said, the finest 
masts and spars in the world. 

Its mineral resources have not yet been sufficiently tested to 
give a definite idea of their value. Gold and silver are known to 
exist in large quantities, and coal in inexhaustible quantities;, 
enough, it is believed, to supply the Pacific coast for generations 
to come. The capital is Olympia, and lies on the east side of 
Tenalquets River, in Thurston county. The population is 23,925.. 

Puget Sound can float with ease the navies of the world om 
its peaceful bosom. The Northern Pacific railroad will originate: 
here probably another great commercial emporium. Washing- 
ton will, in due time, become a great and wealthy State. 

Its area is about 70,000 square miles. 



44° FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




DAKOTA TERRITORY, 

ORGANIZED by act of Congress, passed March 2d, 1861, 
\ffi comprised a large extent of country, being bounded on 
the east by Minnesota, south by Nebraska, west by the 
27th degree of longitude west of Washington, separating it from 
the Territory of Idaho, and on the north by the British Possess- 
ions, running along the 49th parallel of latitude. It is drained 
by the Missouri River on the south, and by the Red River on the 
North, emptying into Hudson Bay. 

Unquestionably Dakota is one of the very finest of our territo- 
ries, and is unexcelled either in its agricultural, mining, or stock- 
raising facilities and qualifications. Its soil is as rich as that of 
Illinois ; its climate is as fine as that of any of the Middle States, 
its mineral resources are as great as those of any Western Terri- 
tory, while its inhabitants are mostly emigrants from New England 
and the East, thus giving the young territory advantages superior 
to those enjoyed by many other sections of the West. Water is 
everywhere pure and plenty, and timber of the best quality skirts 
all the streams. The wild grasses are pronounced far superior to 
the cultivated grass of the east ; richer, more nutritious, and with 
a far heavier yield per acre ; while left growing, it cures into good 
winter feed, and cattle not only live but fatten upon it. 

There are about twenty-five free schools in the territory, and 
ample means have been appropriated to increase them as fast as 
needed and to encourage their growth and prosperity. Several 
railroads are projected and some in process of construction. The 
population, according to the last census report, was 14,181. The 
capital, Yankton, is a flourishing city. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 44 1 



ARIZONA TERRITORY. 

W^%)Y act of Congress, approved February 24, 1863, Arizona 
Jv(§n) was organized, embracing " all that part of the present 
^^^ territory of New Mexico situate west of a line running 
due south from the point where the southwest corner of the Ter- 
ritory of Colorado joins the northern boundary of the Territory 
of New Mexico, to the southern boundary of said Territory," con- 
taining an estimated area of 131,000 square miles. It is thinly 
settled by natives of Mexico and emigrants from different States 
of the Union, besides containing a large number of Indians of a 
warlike character. The right of suffrage and territorial organiza- 
tion similar to those of New Mexico, with the provision, " that 
there shall neither be slaves nor involuntary servitude in said Ter- 
ritory." This Territory is rich in gold, silver, copper and other 
minerals, while the soil is mostly sterile except in the few valleys 
susceptible of irrigation. Arizona, proper, was acquired by treaty 
with Mexico known as the " Gadsden Treaty," and ratified in 
June, 1864. 

Few marks of civilization are found here, and neither Christ- 
ianity nor education has smoothed away the rough, half-savage 
characteristics of the inhabitants, who are Spanish, half-breeds, 
Indians and miners, gathered from the refuse of all States, many, 
or most of them, desperadoes and outcasts, with here and there, 
in the agricultural districts, an American settler. Their towns are 
closely like the Mexican, with miserable, unburnt brick huts, where 
filth and squalor reign supreme. Scattered through the Territory 
are ruins of fortifications and castles and 'ancient churches whose 
ruins give everywhere proof of their having been devoted to idol 
worship, while here and there, half covered with mould, and almost 
hidden by rank vegetation and tangled vines, which creep over 
them as if in pity for their hideous ugliness, lie the shattered gods 
of the people who once dwelt here, a lordly but barbarous race, 
of whom not a vestige remains. Arizona was formerly a part of 
Mexico.- until purchased by the United States. Population 9,658. 



44 2 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



IDAHO TERRITORY. 




fHIS new Territory, lying on the west side of the Rocky 
Mountains, was organized by act of Congress, approved 
March 3, 1863. Its boundary is as follows: " Beginning 
at a point in the middle channel of Snake River where the north- 
ern boundary of Oregon intersects the same ; then follow down 
the said channel of Snake River to a point opposite the mouth of 
the Kooskooskia, or Clearwater River; thence due north to the 
49th parallel of latitude ; thence east to the new Territory of Mon- 
tana ; thence west along the 42d parallel of latitude to the east- 
ern boundary of the State of Oregon; thence north along said 
boundary to the place of beginning." 

The surface is rough and broken, and the entire eastern, north- 
eastern, and northern parts are mountainous. The Rocky Mountains 
and the Bitter Root Mountains cover fully half of the Territory 
with either broken or continuous ranges, affording magnificent, 
scenery, that in the vicinity of Salmon River being exceedingly 
fine. The gold and silver mines are partially worked, and though 
the yield is good, the want of transportation, either by water or 
railway, is a serious drawback and greatly retards the develop- 
ment of the mineral resources of the Territory. Several thousand 
claims are taken up and worked to some extent, but the enormous 
expense attendant upon it prevents successful efforts to work them 
extensively. 

There are three beautiful lakes of considerable size in Idaho ; 
the Cceur d' Aline, the Pen d 'Oreille, and the Boatman, each are 
about 30 miles long and about 6 to 10 wide, and navigable for 
steamers. The soil of the central, southern and western parts is 
fertile, and produces small grain and vegetables, but corn does 
not do well there. Grass grows abundantly, and grazing will be 
the most popular branch of agriculture. 

The Northern Pacific Railroad will cross the State from east to 
west, but at present the Territory has no railroad. The system of 
education is the same as in the other Territories, but is very limited 
in its operations. Boise City is the capital. Population 14,978.. 



JUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



443 



MONTANA TERRITORY. 




Mffft/HIS new Territory, lying between the 45th and 49th de- 
grees of north latitude and the 27th and 39th degrees of 
longitude west from Washington, was organized by act of 
Congress, approved May 26, 1864. It may be said to form the 
northern half of the Territory of Idaho, as organized March 3, 
1863. This extensive territory embraces the head sources of the 
Missouri River, lying east of the Rocky Mountains, and the head 
sources of the north branch of the Columbia River, lying west of 
the above mountains and north of the Bitter Root Mountains. 

It is one of the finest countries for grazing purposes west of the 
Mississippi. Small grain and small fruits grow almost sponta- 
neously and produce abundantly. It will no doubt be the " Gar- 
den of the West." The important vegetable crops also yield well. 
Timber for mining, agricultural and domestic purposes is abund- 
ant. Gold, silver, iron, lead and copper are abundant in the moun- 
tains, and some of the lodes, both of gold and silver, are as large 
and rich as have yet been discovered in any State or Territory. 
Montana must some day rank among our richest States, for, no 
matter how great her mining population may be, her agricultural 
resources will be amply sufficient to meet every want. 

Virginia City is the capital, and is connected by stage routes 
with all the principal towns in the Territory. Population of the 
Territory in 1870 was 20,594, area 153,800 square miles. 




444 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



INDIAN TERRITORY, 




^f/ITUATED west of the States of Arkansas and Missouri, 
w» and south of the 37th degree of north latitude, is bounded 
on the south and west by the State of Texas. This is a 
fruitful region, inhabited by many tribes of civilized Indians, 
mostly Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws and Seminoles, amounting to 
60,000 or 70,000 souls. 

The extent of Territory is about 70,000 square miles, and with 
the exception of a sand tract in the northeastern portion, is fer- 
tile and fruitful. This Territory is set apart for the permanent 
home of the Indian tribes, and no authority is exercised over 
them by the Government, except for crimes committed by them 
against the whites in the border States. Some of the tribes are 
highly intelligent, and as each tribe has its own lands secured to 
them by the United States, and is protected in its domestic insti- 
tutions and customs, they are free to cultivate habits of industry 
and to have their schools, churches and factories, and improve in 
civilization, art and science. The Cherokees avail themselves 
most readily of these advantages, and have highly cultivated farms 
with good buildings and fruit in abundance ; churches and thriv- 
ing schools, while other tribes are fast decreasing in numbers and 
wealth, and will soon become extinct. Their capital is Tah-le» 
Quah, and their population 70,000. 








OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 445 



WYOMING TERRITORY, 

HIS, one of the youngest of the Western Territories, lies 
between the parallels of 41 and 45 deg. north latitude, and 
between the meridian of 27 and 34 deg. west longitude 
from Washington. It was organized by act of Congress, approved 
July 25th, 1868. It has on the north, Montana; on the east, Da- 
kota and Nebraska, and on the south, Colorado and a small 
portion of Utah, and on the west, Idaho and the northern part of 
Utah. 

The Pacific Railroad passes through it, and Cheyenne and Lar- 
amie are already very considerable towns. The surface is broken 
by several mountain ranges, outlying spurs of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, such as the Bighorn, Rattlesnake and Wind River Mountains, 
as well as by the main chain of the Rocky Mountains themselves, 
which cross the Territory from northwest to southeast. Most of 
it is an elevated and rolling plateau, but the greater part is fertile 
and arable land, though needing irrigation in most sections. The 
valley of Bitter Creek and the vicinity of Bridger's Pass are ex- 
ceptions to the general fertility, being desolate and desert in the 
extreme. 

The valley of the Sweetwater and the foothills ot the Wind 
River Mountains are known to be largely auriferous, and some 
hundreds of lodes have been located. There are also extensive 
beds of coal and iron in the vicinity of the Pacific Railroad, and 
the supplies of coal for that road are drawn from this source. 
There are also large quantities of lime, gypsum, lead and copper 
ores, and oil and salt springs. 

The climate is mild and remarkably salubrious. The winters 
are mild and open, and stock fattens without requiring to be 
housed. The passage of the Pacific Railroad and some of its 
branches through the Territory insure its speedy settlement and 
prosperity. Population 9,118. Area 100,500 square miles. 




44<> FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



ALASKA TERRITORY. 

'HIS vast region, formerly known as Russian America, was 
purchased by the United States from the Russian Govern- 
ment, March 30th, 1867, the actual transfer taking place 
in October of the same year. Its boundaries are as follows : Com- 
mencing at 54 deg. 40 min. north latitude, ascending Portland 
channel to the mountains, following their summits to 141 deg. 
west longitude from Greenwich ; thence north on this line to the 
Arctic Ocean, forming the eastern boundary. Starting from the 
Arctic Ocean west, this line descends Behring's Strait, between 
the two islands of Krusenstern and Ratmanoff, to the parallel of 
35 deg. 30 min., and proceeds due north without limitation, into 
the same Arctic Ocean. Beginning again at the same initial point, 
on the parallel of 65 deg. 30 min., thence in a course southwest 
through Behring's Strait, between the island of St. Lawrence and 
Cape Chenkotski to the 172 deg. of west longitude (from Green- 
wich) ; and thence southwesterly, through Behring's Sea, between 
the islands of Attou and Copper, to the meridian of 193 deg. west 
longitude; leaving the prolonged group of the Aleutian Islands in 
the possessions now transferred to the United States and making 
the western boundary of our country the dividing line between 
Asia and America. The surface of this vast region, comprising 
577,390 square miles, is varied. The northern part of the main- 
land is compact and nearly level, comprising a tract nearly square 
and about 600 miles in length and breadth. From this a narrow 
belt extends along the coast to latitude 54 deg. 40 min., broken 
and mountainous with a few fertile valleys. There are in this 
region several large rivers, the principal of which is the Yuken or 
Kwichpak, 2000 miles or more in length, of which nearly 1500 
are navigable. The Peninsula of Alaska is mountainous and its sum- 
mits are among the most elevated in North America, Mt. St. Elias 
and Mt. Fairweather are between 15,000 and 18,000 feet in height. 
The islands of the Aleutian group are volcanic, and form a remark- 
able range. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 447 



POPE PIUS IX. 



Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti was born in Sinigaglia May 13, 1792. 
His father was Count Giralomeo Mastai Ferretti, and his mother was the 
Countess Catarina Saluzzi. From both maternal and paternal parent, the 
young Count was descended from illustrious ancestors, who had done noble 
service for the State as warriors and statesmen. His father at the date of his 
birth was Gonfaloniere of Sinigaglia. The uncle, Andreu Mastai, of the in- 
fant Count, was Bishop of Mantua, and from his devotion to Pius VII., had 
suffered imprisonment and other contumely from the revolutionists and 
opponents of the Church at that date. 

His mother was an austere devotee to the Church, and from early infancy 
the future Pontiff" was taught to reverence the Church in all its tenets and 
ceremonies. 

At the age of 12 years the young Count was placed at the College of 
Volterra, in Tuccong. He won the esteem of his tutors by his mental ability 
and the friendship of his school companions by his amenity and worth of his 
character. At the time he was seized with epilepsy and was compelled to 
desist from his course of classical study, in 1808. Recovering from the dis- 
ease, he contemplated embracing the career of arms, and when the pontifical 
army was reconstructed he entered the Pontiff's Guard. 
A return of his malady forced him to retire from service. 
Finally influence and early instruction led him to choose the life of an 
ecclesiastic, and to this end he commenced the study of theology under his 
maternal uncle. In 1812 his name was placed by the French on the army 
list, but owing to his epileptic infirmity he was excused from military service. 
In 1814 he attended lectures in Rome, and shortly afterward was inducted 
into minors orders of the church. The intensity of his disease greatly abat- 
ing, in 1818 he was chosen Commissioner to Monsignore (afterward Cardinal) 
Odescalchi. He was ordained as sub-deacon, and attracted attention by his 
Christian zeal and unflagging energy as a missionary in the neighborhood of 
his birthplace, both in instructing the poor in religion and attending their 
•temporal wants. 

In 18 19 he received priest's orders, and was appointed principal of an insti- 
tution for the education of poor boys, called Tata Giovanni. 

In 1823 he was chosen Secretary to Monsignore Muzzi, apostolic delegate 
to Chili. There his services were devoted to Christianizing the Indians, and 
other missionary work. 

He returned to Rome in 1825 and was appointed domestic prelate to Pope 
Leo XII., and in December of the same year was appointed Superintendent 
of the Hospital of San Michele a Ripa. 

He was named Archbishop of Spoleto in 1827. He here inaugurated sys- 
tems of charity, and founded institutions for the advancement of knowledge, 
both secular and religious. He rendered great service to the State, in allay- 
ing insurrection, and relieving the poor, made destitute by the fearful and 
disastrous earthquake of 1832. This year he was made Archbishop of Imola, 
He was created Cardinal December 23, 1839, an( * proclaimed December 14, 
1840. 

On the death of Gregory XVI., June 1st, 1846; he was designated by the 
representative men of the modern national party as the fittest to succeed him. 
He was the French candidate, and was opposed by the Austrian interest. 
Count Rossi, the French Embassador, urged his election, which was consum- 



44$ FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

mated June 16, 1846, while the Austrian Cardinals were en route to thr 
conclave. The Cardinal assumed the tiara under the title of Pio Nono (Piu* 
the Ninth). 

At the time of his ascension to the throne of St. Peter, Italy was disturbed 
by insurrectionary outbreaks and efforts to unite the country under one gov- 
ernment. The new Pope was known to favor this, and was a representative 
of the liberal opinion in church matters. He inaugurated his reign with the 
introduction of both civil and religious reforms, dismissed the foreign troops 
in his service and granted a general amnesty to all political offenders. 

At this time the Republic was declared in Venice and Lombardy, and 
Austria invaded Italy to subjugate her revolting provinces. The Holy 
Father attempted to become a mediator before the impending struggle. 
Piedmont delayed, and Austria scouted the proposition to allow a united 
Italy under home rule. At this stage the national spirit was for war with 
Austria, but the Pope's reluctance to assent prevailed in power over the Min- 
istry, and it was determined in the Consistory that war should not be declared 
against Austria. Though not at war in point of fact, General Durande's army 
was captured at Vicinza by the Austrians. This greatly exasperated the 
people, whose frenzy became augmented by Austria's declaration that peace 
would be declared on the Milanese basis. To this the people cried ; " Liberty 
to none if not to all." 

The Pope continued pacific. The populace armed, and Rome became the 
scene of violence, murder and assassination. " Down with the priests !" be- 
came the cry, and His Holiness was siezed and imprisoned in the Quirinal 
Count Rossi was solicited to form a new Ministry, and inaugurated a satisfac- 
tory policy. Before his work could be commmenced he was assassinated. 
Again the palace of the Holy Father was besieged, and he escaped in the 
disguise of a priest to Gaeta, on November 15, 1S43. He found an asylum 
with King Ferdinand of Naples. The Roman citizens declared a republic, 
and publicly deposed the Pope from temporal authority. 

Through the intervention of the French, who landed at Civita Vecchia on 
April 25, 1849, the Holy Father was restored to power. He re-entered Rome 
April 12, 1850. He declared partial amnesty, but his progressive and liberal 
tendencies had received a decided check. 

In 1854, at a convocation of Bishops, the doctrine of the Immaculate Con- 
ception was declared a dogma of the Catholic faith. 

The Pope's formerly cherished object, the Union of Italy, was revived in 
1869, by Napoleon III., but His Holiness then refused to entertain it. He 
interposed objection to the course of Sardinia, fearing the stability of the tem- 
poral rule over the Papal States. The Emperor of the French advised the 
surrender of Romagna, but His Holiness refused, and subsequently, in i860, 
issued a bull of excommunication against all persons engaged in the invasion 
and dismemberment of the States. 

The reign of His Holiness, Pius IX., had been an eventful one, marked by 
decisive changes. Among the most notable, in his latter days, besides the 
re-establishment of the Heirarchy in England, was the declaration of the doc- 
trine of Infallibility, in 1869-70; the establishment of the Roman Catholic 
Heirarchy in America, by the appointment of Archbishop McClosky Cardinal, 
in 1875 ; the conflict with Germany and Austria on the question of Infallibil- 
ity. His temporal power was abolished by the union of Italy under one sov- 
ereign, Victor Emmanuel, after which time His Holiness confined himself 
to the Vatican, but with determined persistence to concede nothing of his 
temporal-rights that were not forced from him. 

Pius IX. has bestowed the sacred honors of canonization on more persons 
than any of his predecessors. In 1871 he completed the twenty-fifth year of his- 
Pontificate, thus refuting the prediction that his years would not be as many 
as those of St. Peter. He died February 7, 1878. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



449 



HISTORY OF THE U. 8. FINANCIALLY; 

Giving names of Presidents and Vice-Presidents, and showing Expenditures and Debt of the 

Country during the various Political Administration from the Founding 

of the Government to the present time. 



Yr 



1789 
1790 
1791 
1792 

1793 
1 794 
1795 
1796 

1797 
1798 
1799 
1800 

1801 
1802 
1803 
1804 

1805 
1806 
1807 
1808 

1809 
1810 
1811 
1812 

1813 
1814 
1815 
1816 

1817 
18 

1819 
1820 

182 

1822 

1823 

1824 

1825 
1826 
1827 
1828 

1829 
183' 
183 
1832 

i833 
1834 
1835 
1S36 



President. 



George Washington. 
George Washington. 
George Washington . 
George Washington. 

George Washington. 
George Washington . 
George Washington. 
George Washington. 



John Adams. 
John Adams. 
John Adams. 
John Adams. 



Thomas Jefferson. 

Thomas Jefferson. 

Thomas Jefferson. 

Thomas Jefferson. 

Thomas Jefferson. 

Thomas Jefferson. 

Thomas Jefferson. 

Thomas Jefferson. 



James Madison. 
James Madison. 
James Madison. 
James Madison. 

James Madison. 
James Madison. 
James Madison. 
James Madison. 

James Monroe.. 
James Monroe.. 
James Monroe.. 
James Monroe.. 



James Monroe. 
James Monroe. 
James Monroe. 
Tames Monroe. 



John Quincy Adams. 
John Quincy Adams. 
John Quincy Adams. 
John Quincy Adams. 



Andrew Jackson. 
Andrew" Jackson. 
Andrew Jackson. 
Andrew J.ackson. 



Andrew Jackson. 
Andrew Jackson. 
Andrew Jackson. 
Andrew Jackson. 



Vice-President. 



John Adams — *F 

John Adams.. F 

John Adams F 

John Adams F 

John Adams F 

John Adams F 

John Adsms F 

John Adams.. F 

Thomas Jefferson F 

Thomas Jefferson F 

Thomas Jefferson F 

Thomas Jefferson F 

Aaron Burr R 

Aaron Burr R 

Aaron Burr R 

Aaron Burr R 

Geoige Clinton R 

George Clinton R 

George Clinton R 

George Clinton R 

George Clinton R 

George Clinton R 

George Clinton R 

George Clinton R 

Elbridge Gerry R 

Elbridge Gerryt R 

John Gaillard R 

John Gaillard R 

D. D. Tompkins R 

D. D. Tompkins R 

D. D. Tompkins R 

D. D. Tompkins R 

D. D. Tompkins R 

D. D. Tompkins R 

D. D. Tompkins R 

D. D. Tompkins R 

John C. Calhoun R 

John C. Calhoun R 

John C. Calhoun R 

John C. Calhoun R 

John C.Calhoun D 

John C.Calhoun D 

John C. Calhoun D 

John C.Calhoun D 

Martin VanBuren D 

Martin VanBuren D 

Martin VanBuren.. D 

Martin VanBuren D 



Public 

Expenditures 



$3*797,436 78 
8,962,920 00 

6,479,977 97 
9,041,593 17 
10,151,240 15 
8,367,776 84 

8,625,877 37 
8,583,618 4 
11,002,396 97 
",952,534 " 

12,273,376 94 
13,270,487 31 
11,258,983 67 
12,615,113 72 

13,598,309 47 
15,021,196 26 
11,292,292 99 
16,762,702 04 

13,867,226 30 
13,309,994 49 
13,592,604 86 
22,279,121 15 

39,190,520 36 
38,028,230 32 
39,582,493 35 
48,244,495 51 

40,877,646 04 
35,104,875 40 
24,004,199 73 
21,763,024 85 

19,090,572 69 
17,676,592 63 
15.314,171 00 
31,898,538 47 

23,585,804 72 
24,103,398 46 
22,656,764 04 
25,459,479 52 

25,044,358 40 
24,585,281 55 
30,038,446 12 
34,356,698 06 

24,257, 2 98 49 
24,601,982 44 
i7,573, J 4i 56 
30,868,164 04 



Public Debt. 



$75,463,476 52 
77,227,924 66 

80,352,634 04 
78,427,404 77 
80,747,587 39 
83,862,172 07 

82,064,479 33 
79,228,529 12 
78,408,669 77 
82,796,294 35 

83,038,050 80 
80,712,632 25 
77,054,686 30 
86,427,120 88 

82,312,150 50 
75,723-270 66 
69,218,398 64 
65,196,317 97 

57,023,192 09 
53,173,217 52 
48,005,587 76 
45,209,737 90 

55,962,827 57 
81,487,846 24 
99,833,660 15 
127,334,933 74 

123,491,965 16 

103,466,633 83 

95,529,648 28 

91,015,566 15 

89,987,427 66 

93,546,676 98 

90,875,877 28 

90,269,777 77 

83,788,432 71 
81,054,059 99 
73,987»357 20 
67,475,043 87 

58,421,413 67 
48,565,406 50 
39,123,191 68 
24,332,235 18 

7,001,698 83 

4,760,082 08 

37,5i3 05 

336,957 83 



* The political complexion of the different Presidential terms is indicated by a single 
letter opposite each year, defined as follows : F. Federalist : /?, Republican ; D. Democrat ; 
W, Whig. 

t Elbridge Gerry died in 1814, and was succeeded by John Gaillard, Vice-President/rtf tent. 



29 



45© 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



HISTORY OF THE U. 8. FINANGIALLY-Contmued. 



Yr. 



1837 
1838 
1839 
1840 

1841 
1842 
1843 
1844 

1845 
1846 
1847 
1848 

1849 
1850 
1851 
1852 

1853 
1854 
1855 
1856 

1857 
1858 
1859 
i860 

1861 
1862 

1863 
1864 

1865 
1866 
1867 



President. 



Maitin VanBuren 

Martin VanBuren 

Martin VanBuren 

Martin VanBuren 



W. H. Harrison. 

John Tyler 

John Tyler 

John Tyler 



James K. Polk. 
James K. Polk. 
James K. Polk. 
James K. Polk. 



1869 
1870 
1871 
1872 

i873 
1874 
1875 
1876 

1877 
1878 



Zachary Taylor.. 
Millard Fillmore. 
Millard Fillmore. 
Millard Fillmore. 

Franklin Pierce.. 

Franklin Pierce. . 

Franklin Pierce.. 

Franklin Pierce.. 



James Buchanan.. 
James Buchanan.. 
James Buchanan.. 
James Buchanan.. 

Abraham Lincoln. 

Abraham Lincoln. 

Abraham Lincoln. 

Abraham Lincoln. 

Abraham Lincoln. 
Andrew Johnson.. 
Andrew Johnson.. 
Andrew Johnson.. 

Ulysses S. Grant.. 
Ulysses S. Grant.. 
Ulysses S. Grant.. 
Ulysses S. Grant.. 

Ulysses S. Grant.. 
Ulysses S. Grant.. 
Ulysses S. Grant.. 
Ulysses S. Grant.. 



R. B. Hayes 

R. B. Hayes 



Vice-President. 



R. M. Johnson D 

R. M. Johnson D 

R. M. Johmson D 

R. M. Johnson D 



Public 
Expenditures. 



JohnTylerJ 

Wm. P. Mangum. 
Wm. P. Mangum. 
Wm. P. Mangum. 



George M. Dallas .D 

George M. Dallas D 

George M. Dallas D 

George M. Dallas T.D 

Millard Fillmore§ W 

Wm. R. King.... W 

David R.Atchison. W 

David R. Atchison W 

Wm. R. Kingl D 

David R. Atchison D 

esse D. Bright D 

esse D. Bright D 

. C. Breckenridge D 

_. C. Breckenridge L..D 

J. C. Breckenridge D 

J. C. Breckenridge D 



Hannibal Hamlin R 

Hannibal Hamlin . R 

Hannibal Hamlin R 

Hannibal Hamlin.. R 

Andrew Johnson R 

Lafayette S. Foster R 

Benj. F. Wade R 

Benj. F Wade R 

Schuyler Colfax R 

Schuyler Colfax R 

Schuyler Colfax R 

Schuyler Colfax R 

Henry Wilson R 

Henry Wilson R 

Henry Wilson R 

Senator Ferry R 

W. A. Wheeler R 

W. A.Wheeler R 



$37,265,037 15 
39.455,438 35 
37,614,936 ?5 
28,226,533 

31,797,530 °3 
32,936,876 53 
12,118,105 x 5 
33,642,010 85 

30,490,408 71 

27,632,282 90 

60,520,851 74 

60,655,143 19 

56,386,422 74 
44,604,718 26 
48,476,104 31 
46,712,608 83 

54,577,°6i 74 

75,473,17° 75 
66,164,775 96 
72,726,341 57 

71,274,587 37 
82,062,186 74 
83,678,642 92 
77,055,125 65 



Public Debt. 



$3,308,124 07 
10,434.221 14 
3,573,343 82 
5,250,875 54. 

13,594,480 73; 
20,601,226 28 
32,742,922 00 
23,461,652 50 

15,925,303 01 
15,550,202 97 
38,826,534 77 
47,044,862 23 

63,061,858 69 
63,452,773 55 
68,304,796 02 
66,199,341 71 

59,803,117 i<> 
42,242,222 42 
35,586,956 56 
3 J ,972,537 90 

28,699,831 85 

44,911,881 03 

58.496,837 88 

64,842,287 88 



62,537,221 00 
456,379,896 00 
664,004,575 00 
811,283,679 00 

214,349,195 00 
"385,954,73! 00 
206,216,591 00 
229,397,251 00 

190,851,647 00 
164,656,273 00 
158,141,301 00 
I 53i°37,346 00 

180,488,636 00 
194,118,985 00 
171,529,848 00 
164,857,813 00 

Ui,535,497 00 



90,580,873 72 

524,176,412 13 

1,1(9,772,138 63 

1,815,784,370 57 

2,680,647,869 74 
2,773,236,173 69 
2,678,126,103 87 
2,611,687,851 19 

2,525,463,260 00 
2,448,746,953 oa 
2,332,067,793 00 
2,243,838,411 00 

2,162,252,338 00 
2, I 59,3 I 5,3 2 6 00 
2,142,598,302 00 
2,119,832,195 00 

2,046,027,065 00 
1,770,000,000 00 



X Wm. H. Harrison Died in 1841, after being one month in office. John Tyler succeeded 
to the Presidency, and Wm. P. Mangum became Vice-President pro tem. 

§ Zachary Taylor died July, 1850, being succeeded by Millard Fillmore ; Wm. R. King 
succeeding to the Vice-Presidency the first halt of the Presidential term, and David R. 
Atchison the last half. 

S Wm. R. King Died 1853 ; David R. Atchison becoming Vice-President pro tem. for the 
first half of the Presidential term, and Jesse D. Bright for the last half. 

T Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by J. Wilkes Booth, April 14, 1865. Andrew John- 
son succeeded to the Presidency, and Lafayette S. Foster to the Vice-Presidency the remain- 
der of the first half of the Presidential term, and Benj. F. Wade the last half. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



451 



STATE LAWS 

RELATING TO RATES OF INTEREST, AND PENALTIES FOR USURY. 



States and Territories. 



Legal 
Rate of 
Interest' 



Rate 

allowed by 

Contract. 



Penalties for Usury. 



Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Dakota 

Delaware 

District of Columbia. 

Florida _ 

Georgia 



Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada _. 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York , 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

Ontario, Canada 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Quebec, Canada 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

Tennessee.. 

Texas. _. 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia _ 

Washington Territory. 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming __ - 



per cent 

8 
IO 

6 

10 
10 

7 

7 

6 

6 

8 

7 

10 
6 
6 
6 
7 
6 

5 

6 

6 

6 

7 

7 

6 

6 
10 
10 
10 

6 

7 
6 

7 
6 
6 
6 

10 
6 
6 
6 

7 
6 



10 
6 
6 

10 
6 

::l d 

* Except in cases 



per cent. 

8 
Any rate. 
Any rate. 
Any rate. 
Any rate. 

7 

18 

6 

10 

Any rate. 
Any rate. 
Any rate. 
10 
10 
10 
12 
10 
8 
Any rate. 

6 

Any rate. 

10 

12 

Any rate. 

10 
Any rate. 

12 

Any rate. 
6 

7 
Any rate. 

7 

8 

8 
Any rate. 

12 

Any rate. 
Any rate. 
Any rate. 
Any rate. 

10 
Any rate. 
Any rate. 

6 

6 * 
Any rate, 

6 * 
10 
Any rate, 
defined by 



Forfeiture of entire interest. 



Forfeiture of entire interest. 
Forfeiture of principal and interest. 
Forfeiture of principal. 
Forfeiture of entire interest. 



Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
Forfeiture of entire interest. 
For. of ex. of int. above J 2 per cent. 
Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
Forfeiture of excess of interest. 

Forfeiture of excess of interest. 

Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
No Usury Law in this State. 

Forfeiture of entire interest. 

Forfeiture of entire interest. 

Forfeiture of thrice the ex. and costs. 
Forfeiture of entire interest. 

Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
Forfeiture of entire interest. 
Forfeiture of excess above 6 per cent. 



Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
Forfeiture of excess of interest. 

Forfeiture of entire interest. 
Statutes of the State. 



45 2 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



STATE LAWS 



RELATING TO LIMITATIONS OF ACTIONS: SHOWING LIMIT OF TIME IK 
WHICH ACTION MAY BE BROUGHT ON THE FOLLOWING: 



States and Territories. 



Assault 








slander, 


Open 


Notes. 


Judg- 


replevin 
&c. 


Accts. 


ments. 


Years. 


Years. 


Years. 


Years. 


I 


3 


6 


20 


I 


3 


5 


IO 


3 


2 


4 


5 


i 


2 


2 


3 


i 


6 


6 


6 


2 


6 


6 


20 


I 


3 


6 


20 


I 


3 


3 


12 


2 


5 


5 


20 


I 


4 


6 


7 


3 


2 


4 


5 


i 


5 


10 


20 


2 


6 


20 


20 


2 


5 


10 


20 


I 


3 


5 


5 


I 


2 


5 


15 


I 


3 


5 


10 


2 


6 


20 


20 


3 


3 


3 


12 


2 


6 


20 


20 


2 


6 


6 


10 


2 


6 


6 


10 


I 


3 


6 


7 


2 


2 


10 


20 


2 


2 


4 


5 


I 


4 


5 


5 


2,6 


6 


20 


20 


I 






10 


2 


6 


6 


20 


I 


3 


10 


10 


I 


6 


15 


15 


I 


3 


10 


IO 


I 


6 


15 


IS 


I 


5 


5 


3o 


2 


i 


6 


10 


I 


6 


6 


20 


1,2 


5 


5 


30 


I 


6 


6 


20 


2 


6 


6 


20 


I 


6 


6 


20 


I 


2 


4 


10 


I 


2 


4 


5 


2 


6 


14 


8 


5 


5 


5 


10 


2 


3 


6 


9 


5 


5 


6 


10 


2 


6 


6 


20 


I 


6 


15 


10 



Alabama __ 

Arkansas 

California _ 

Colorado 

Connecticut. 

Dakota 

Delaware 

District of Columbia. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska _ 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

Ontario, (U. Canada). 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Quebec, (L. Canada) . 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas _ 

Utah __■ _ 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington Territory 

West Virginia. 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



453 



OUR POPULATION AND GROWTH. 



States and Territories. 



States. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts ._ 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New York 

North Carolina _ 

Ohio i 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West Virginia . . 
Wisconsin 



Total States. 

Territories. 

Arizona _. _ 

Colorado _. 

Dakota 

District of Columbia 

Idaho 

Montana . 

New Mexico 

Utah 

Washington 

Wyoming.. 

Total Territories. . 
Aggregate United States. 



Area in 


Population. 


Miles R. R. 


Square 

Miles. 






i860. 


1870. 


1862. 


1872. 


50,722 


964,201 


996,992 


805 


L67I 


52,198 


435,450 


484,471 


38 


25 


188,981 


379,994 


560,247 


23 


1,013 


4,674 


460,147 


537,454 


630 


820 


2,120 


II2,2l6 


125,015 


127 


227 


59,268 


140,424 


187,748 


402 


466 


58,000 


1,057,286 


1,184,109 


1,420 


2,108 


55,410 


I,7H,95I 


2,539,89! 


2,998 


5,904 


33,809 


1,350,428 


1,680,637 


2,175 


3,529 


55,045 


674,913 


1,191,792 


731 


3,160 


8l,3l8 


107,209 


364,399 




1,760 


37,600 


1,155,684 


1,321,011 


567 


1,123 


41,346 


708,002 


726,915 


355 


539 


31,776 


628,279 


626.915 


505 


871 


11,184 


687,049 


780,894 


408 


820 


7,8oo 


1,231,066 


1,457-351 


1,285 


1,606 


56,451 


749,H3 


1,184,059 


853 


2,235 


83,531 


172,023 


439,706 




1,612 


47,156 


791,305 


827,922 


862 


990 


65,350 


I,l82,OI2 


1,721,295 


838 


2,580 


75,995 


28,841 


123,993 




828 


112,090 


6,857 


42,491 




593 


9,280 


326,073 


318,300 


661 


790 


8,320 


672,035 


906,096 


633 


1,265 


47,OO0 


3,880,735 


4,382,759 


2,728 


4,470 


50,704 


992,622 


1,071,361 


937 


1,190 


39,964 


2,339,5" 


2,665,260 


3,100 


3,740 


95,244 


52,465 


90,923 


4 


159 


46,000 


2,906,215 


3,521,791 


3,006 


5,H3 


1,306 


174,620 


217,353 


108 


136 


29,385 


703,708 


705,606 


973 


1,201 


45,600 


1,109,801 


1,258,520 


i,253 


1,520 


237,504 


604,215 


818,579 


45i 


865 


IO,2I2 


315,098 


330,551 


562 


675 


40,904 


1,219,630 


1,225,163 


1,379 


1,490 


23,O0O 


376,688 


442,014 


361, 


485 


53,9 2 4 


775,88i 


1,054,670 


961 
32,120 


1,725 


1,950,171 


31,183,744 


38,113,253 


59,587 


II3,9l6 




9,658 






104,500 


34,277 


39,864 




392 


147,490 
60 


4,837 
75,o8o 


14,181 
131,700 






sis 


* 


90,932 

143,766 




14,999 
20,595 
91,874 
86,786 












121,201 


93,5i6 
40,273 






80,056 




375 


69,944 
93,107 


ii,594 


23,955 
9,118 






32,120 


498 




965,032 


259,577 


442,730 


1,265 


2,915,203 


31,443,321 


38,555,983 


60,852 



* Included in the Railroad Mileage of Maryland, 



454 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



POPULATION OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES, 

1790-1870. 



STATES AND 


AGGREGATE. 


TERRITORIES. 


1870. 


I860. 


1850. 


1840. 


1830. 


1830. 


1810. 


1800. 


1790. 




996992 
484471 
560247 

537454 
125015 
187748 
1184109 

2539891 
1680637 
1191792 

364399 

1321011 

726915 

626915 

780894 

I45735I 

1184059 

439706 

827922 

1721295 

122993 

42491 

318300 

906096 

4382759 

1071361 

2665260 

90239 

3521791 

217353 

765606 

1258520 

818579 

230551 

1225163 

442014 

1054670 

9658 

39864 

14181 

131700 

14999 

20595 

91874 

86786 

23955 

9118 


694201 

435450 

379994 

460147 

112216 

140424 

1057286 

1711951 

1350428 

674913 

107206 

1155684 

708002 

628279 

687049 

1231066 

749 JI 3 
172023 

791305 
1182012 
28841 
6857 
326073 
672035 

3880735 
992622 

23.395" 
52465 

2906215 
174620 
703708 

1109801 
604215 
315098 

1 5963 1 8 


771623 

209897 

92597 

370792 

91532 

87445 

906185 

851470 

988416 

192214 


590756 
97574 


309527 
30388 


127901 

14273 
























Connecticut .. 
Delaware..... 
Florida 


309978 
78085 

54477 
691392 
476183 
685866 

43112 


297675 
76748 
3473o 
516823 
157445 
343031 


275248 
72749 


261942 
72674 


251002 
64273 


237946 
59,096 


Georgia 


340989 
552H 
147178 


252433 
12282 
24520 


162686 


82,548 


Indiana 


5641 
















Kentucky 


982405 
517762 
583169 
583034 
994514 
397654 
6077 
606526 
682044 


779828 
3524" 
501793 
470019 

737699 
212267 


687917 
215739 
399455 
447040 
610408 
31639 


6543 1 7 
153407 
298335 
407350 
523287 
8896 


40651 1 
76556 
228705 
380546 
472040 
4762 


220955 


73,677 


Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 
Michigan 


151719 
341548 
422845 


96,540 
319,728 
378,787 




Mississippi 


375651 
383702 


136621 
140455 


75448 
66586 


40302 
20485 


8850 1 
























N. Hampshire 
New Jersey ... 

New York 

NorthCarolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania . 
Rhode Island. 
South Carolina 
Tennessee 


317976 
489555 

3097394 
869039 

1980329 

13294 
2311786 
147545 
668507 
1002717 
212592 
314120 
1421661 


284574 
3733o6 

2428821 
7534i6 

1519467 


269328 
320823 
1918608 
737987 
937903 


244161 
277575 
1372812 
638829 
58i434 


214460 
245562 
959049 
5555oo 
230760 


183858 
211149 
589051 
478103 

45365 


141,885 
184,139 
340,120 
393,75i 


1724033 
108830 
594398 
829210 


1348233 
97199 
581185 
681904 


1049458 

83059 
502741 
422823 


810091 

76931 

415115 

261727 


602365 
69122 

345591 
105602 


434^373 
68,825 

249,073 
35,691 


Vermont 

Virginia 

W. Virginia 


291948 
1239797 


280652 
121 1405 


235981 
1065366 


217895 
974600 


154465 
880200 


85,425 
747,610 


775881 


305391 


3°945 


























34277 
4837 
75080 
































Dist. Columbia 


51687 


43712 


39834 


33039 


24023 


14093 
























935i6 
40273 

1 1 594 


61547 
11380 














Utah 














Washington .. 
Wyoming 














1. 














1 












Total 


38555983 


31443321 


23191876 


17069453 


12866020 


9638453 


7239881 


5,308483 


3929,214 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



455 



NATIVE AND FOREIGN POPULATION. 



I860. 



1850. 



STATES AND 


Total 
popula- 
tion. 


Native 
born. 


Foreign 
born. 


Total 
popula- 
tion. 


Native 
born. 


Foreign 
born. 


Un- 
known 


Chinese. 


Indian. 


RIES. 


1870. 


1870 


I860. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut... 


964201 
435450 
379994 
460147 
112216 
140424 

1057286 

1711951 

1350428 
674913 
107206 

1155684 
708002 
628279 
687049 

1231066 
749113 
172023 
791305 

1182012 

28841 

6857 

326073 

672035 

3880735 
992622 

2339511 
52465 

2906215 
174620 
703708 

1109801 
604215 
315098 

1219630 
376688 
775881 


951849 
431850 
233466 
379451 
103051 
137115 

1045615 

1387308 

1232144 

568830 

94515 

1095885 
627027 
590826 
609520 
970960 
600020 
113295 
782747 

1021471 

22490 

4793 

305135 

549245 

2879455 
989324 

2011262 
47342 

2475710 
137226 
693722 

1088575 
560793 
282355 

1201117 
360143 
498954 


12352 

3600 

146528 

80696 

9165 

3309 

11671 

324643 

118284 

106077 

12691 

59799 

80975 

37453 

77529 

260106 

149093 

58728 

8558 

160541 

6351 

2064 

20938 

122790 

1001280 

3298 

328249 

5123 

430505 

37394 

9986 

21226 

43422 

32743 

18513 

16545 

276927 


771623 

209897 

92597 

370792 

91532 

87445 

906185 

851470 

988416 

192214 


763089 

207636 

70340 

331560 

86268 

84665 

899132 

736149 

930458 

170931 


7509 

1471 

21802 

38518 

5253 

2669 

6488 

111892 

55572 

20969 


1025 

790 

455 

714 

11 

11 

565 

3439 

2386 

314 


98 

49310 

2 


98 

89 

7241 

235 


160 

48 

17798 

16 


Florida. 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 


i 

l 

3 


2 

40 

32 

240 

48 

914 

108 

569 

499 

4 

153 

4926 

690 

809 

75 

87 

23 

23 

16 

439 

1241 

100 

318 

34 

154 

124 

70 

379 

14 

229 

1 

1206 

31 

180 

1200 

15 

47 

157 

1309 

179 

1319 

66 


1 

38 

32 
290 

65 
189 




Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 


982405 
517762 
583169 
583034 
994514 
397654 
6077 
606526 
682044 


949652 
448848 
550878 
531476 
827430 
341656 
4097 
601230 
604522 


31420 

68233 

31825 

51209 

164024 

54703 

1977 

4788 

76592 


1333 
681 
466 
349 
3060 
1295 
3 
508 
930 


1 
71 

1 

2 
97 

2 

ie 

3 


33 

173 
5 

"""32 

6172 

2369 

2 

20 

63 


Nevada 










3152 

15 

29 

i 

3330 
14 

i 

25 

4 


N. Hampshire 
New Jersey... 

New York 

N. Carolina... 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania.. 
Rhode Island . 

-S. Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

"Vermont 

'Virginia 

"West Virginia. 


317976 
489555 

3097394 
869039 

1980329 
13294 

2311786 
117545 
668507 

1002717 
212592 
314120 

1421661 


303563 
429176 

2436771 
866241 

1757746 
12081 

2006207 
123564 
659743 
995478 
194433 
280055 

1398205 


14265 

50948 

655929 

2581 

218193 

1022 

303417 

23902 

8707 

5653 

17681 

33715 

22985 


148 
431 

4694 
217 

4390 
191 

2162 
79 
57 

1586 
478 
350 
471 


"i40 

1158 

30 

177 

7 

19 

88 

60 

403 
20 

112 


Wisconsin 

Arizona 


305391 


194099 


110477 


815 


20 


1017 


Colorado 


34277 

4837 

75080 


31611 
3063 
62596 


2666 

1774 
12184 












Dakota 










2261 


Dist. Columbia 


51687 


46720 


4918 


49 


4274 
1949 

"""445 
234 
143 


1 




















New Mexico. . 


93516 
40273 
11594 


86793 

27519 

8450 


6723 

12754 
3144 


• 61547 
11380 


59187 
9326 


2151 
2044 


209 
10 


10507 

89 

426 


Washington .. 
































Total 


31443321 


27304624 


4138697 


23191876 


20912612 


2244602 


34662 


63254 


25731 


44021 



456 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



NATIVE AND FOREIGN POPULATION. 



1870. 



STATES AND 
TERRITORIES. 



Alabama 

Arkansas . 

California 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts... 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi. 

Missouri , 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire- 
New Jersey. 

New York. 

North Carolina . . 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin j 

Arizona 

Colorado 

Dakota 

Dist. of Columbia 

Idaho 

Montana 

New Mexico. . 

Utah. 

Washington . _ 
Wyoming 



Total 
population, 



996,992] 

484,471 

560,247 

537,454 

125,015 

187,748 

1,184,109 

2,539.891 

1,680,637 

1,191,792 

364.399 

1,321.011 

726,915 

626,915 

780,894 

1,457,351 

1,184.059 

439,706 

827,922 

1,721,295 

122,993 

42,491 

318,300 

906,096 

4,382,759 

1,071,361 

2,665,260 

90,923 

3,521,791 

217,353 

705,606 

1,258,520 

818,579 

330,551 

1,225,163 

442,014 

1,054,670 

9,658 

39,864 

14,181' 

131,700 

14,999 

20,595 

91,874 

86,786 

23,955 

9,118 



Total 38,555,983 32,989,437 



Native 
born. 



987,030 

479,445 

350,416 

423,815 

115,879 

182,781 

1,172, 

2,024,693 

1,539,163 

987,735 

316.007 

1,257,613 

665,088 

578,034 

697,- 

1,104,032 

916,049 

279,009 

816,731 

1,499,028 

92,245 

23,690 

288,689 

717,153 

3,244,406 

1,068,332 

2,292,767 

79,323 

2,976,530 

161,957 

697,532 

1,239,204 

756,168 

283,396 

1,211,409 

424,923 

600,171 

3,849 

33,265 

9,366 

115,446 

7,114 

12,616 

86,254 

56,084 

18,931 

5,605 



Foreign 

born. 



9,962 

5,026 

209,831 

113,639 

9,136 

4,967 

11,127 

515,198 

141,474 

204,057 

48, 

63,398 

61,827 

48,881 

83,412 

353,319 

268,010 

160,697 

11,191 

222,267 

30,748 

18,801 

29,611 

1S8,494 

1,138,353 

3,029 

372,393 

11,600 

545,261 

55,39$ 

8,074 

19,316 

62,411 

47,155 

13,754 

17,091. 

364,499 

5,809 

6,599 

4,815 

16,254 

7,885 

7,979 

5,620 

30,702 

5,024 

3,513 



i or both 
parents 
foreign. 



21,844 

10,617 

323,507 

203,65 

20,361 

9,295 

23,814 

9S6,035 

441,001 

316.139 

87,211 

142,720 

132,011 

91,651 

181,362 

626,211 

488,159 

285,516 

18,756 

465,125 

50,017 

25,117. 

44,592 

350,; 

2,225,627 

6,464 

849,815 

20,705 

1,151,208 

95,090 

16,449 

36,326 

107,327 

83,615 

30,794 

46,204 

717,832 

6,766 

10,707 

7,319 

34,106 

9,305 

10,246 

8,677 

59,024 

8,382 

5,000 



Foreign 
father. 



20,765 

9,893 

310,927 

198,958 

19,338 

8,734 

22,901 

956,711 

326.312 

397,672 

82,S48 

139,336 

127,480 

84,381 

176,274 

609,836 

459,537 

277,345 

17,: 

453,264 

48,277 

24,222 

42,862 

340,661 

2,161,752 

6,148 

816,780 

19,320 

1,108.603 

92,762 

15,875 

35,045 

103,713 

79,287 

29,677 

43,917 

700,402 

6,612 

10,200 

7,137 

32,721 

9,180 

9,926 

8,392 

54,649 

7,880 

4,850 



Foreign 
Foreign father and 
mother. mother. 



18,060) 

8,4841 
308.303! 
197,377 

18,311 ! 
8020! 

19,413! 
920,1471 
298,7531 
379,438| 

77,828! 
130,183: 
118,0171 

81,1281 
164,960! 
606,727 
444,9581 
273,860! 

15,861 



,770 

46,392 

24.042 

42,550 

330,900 

2,106,987 

4 644 

7641380 

17,541 

1,034,456 

92,311 

14,156 

31,861 

100,047 

76,482 

24,751 

39,077 

688,189 

6,654 

9,854 

6,786 

30,568 

9,122 

9,682 

7,636 

50,182 

7,069 

4,710 



16.9S1 

7,760 

.295,723 

192.685 

17.288 

7,459 

18.500 

890,823 

284.064 

360,971 

73.465 

126.799 

113,4S6 

73,858 

159,872 

590,852 

416,336 

265,689 

14,967 

416,909 

44.652 

23,147 

40,820 

321,245 

2,043,112 

4,328 

731,345 

16,156 

991.851 

89,983 

13,582 

30,580 

96,233 

72,154 

23,634 

36,790 

670,759 

6,500 

9,347 

6,604 

29,183 

9,906 

9,362 

7,351 

51,807 

6,567 

4.560 



5,566,546' 10,892,015 10,521,233' 10,105,627' 9,734,845 



Note to Native and Foreign Table. — Of the sums contained in the four columns in order, 
respectively, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh, in this table, that in the seventh is invariably the 
smallest, and that in the fourth invariably the largest. The sum given in column five may be 
larger or smaller than that in column six, according to circumstances- It happens to be larger in 
the case of every State, and of each of the Territories except Arizona and Utah (in the latter 
case for obvious reasons). The mathematical proof of column four is by adding columns five and 
six, and subtracting column seven. The difference between columns six and column seven yields 
flie number having foreign mothers but native fathers. 




THE LAST CHARGE OF THE FRENCH AT SEDAN. 




THE FIELD GUNS CAPTURED BY THE GERMANS AT SEDAN. 




Leaders op the French Armies, in the Great War with Germany 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



459 



POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE 
UNITED STATES. 



CITIES. 

Adrian, Mich. 

Akron, Ohio 

Albany, N.Y.. 

Alexandria, Va 

Allegheny, Pa . 

Allentown, Pa 

Alton, 111 

Altoona, Pa 

Atlanta, Ga 

Auburn, N.Y 

Augusta, Ga 

Aurora, 111 

Baltimore, Md 

Bangor, Me... 

Bellville, 111 _ 

Biddeford, Me 

Binghamton, N. Y.__ 

Bloomington, 111 

Boston, Mass.. 

Bridegeport, Ct _ 

Brooklyn, N.Y 

Buffalo, " 

Burlington, Iowa. 

Burlington, Vt 

Cambridge, Mass 

Camden, N.J 

Canton, Ohio _. 

Chicago, 111 

Charleston, S. C 

Charlestown, Mass... 

Chillico the, Ohio 

Chester, Pa 

Cincinnati, Ohio 

Cleveland, " 

Columbia, S. C 

Columbus, Ohio 

Cohoes, N. Y._ 

Concord, N. H 

Council Bluffs, Iowa- 
Covington, Ky. 

Davenport, Iowa 

Dayton, Ohio. 

Des Moines, Iowa.. 

Detroit, Mich 

Dover, N. H 

Dubuque, Iowa 

East Saginaw, Mich. 

Elizabeth, N. J 

Elmira, N.Y 

Erie, Pa 

E vansville, Ind 

Fall River, Mass 

Eond du Lac, Wis... 
Tort Wayne, Ind. 



1870.1 1860. 



8438 
I0006 



6213 

3477 



69422: 62367 
13570! 12652 
53180I 28702 
13884 8025 



8665 
10610 
21789 
17225 

15389 
11162 

267354 

18289 

8146 

10282 

12692 

14590 

250526 

18969 

396099 

117714 

14930 

14387 

39634 

20045 

8660 

298977 

48956 

28323 

8920 

9485 

216239 

92829 

9298 
31274 
15357 
12241 
10020 

24505 
20038 

30473 

12035 

79577 

9294 

18434 
11350 
20832 
15863 
19646 
21830 
26766 
12764 
I77I8 



3585 

3591 

9554 

10986 

14875 

601 1 

212418 

16407 

7520 

9349 

8325 

7075 

202977 

13299 

266661 

81129 

6700 

2606 

14358 

4041 

112172 

40467 

■25065 

458i 

4631 

161041 

43417 
8052 

18554 
8799 
6896 
201 1 

16471 

11267 

20081 
3965 

45619 
8502 

13000 
3001 

11567 

9419 

11484 

14026 

5450 



CITIES. 

Frederick, Md 

Galesburg, 111.. 

Galveston, Tex 

Georgetown, D. C 

Grand Rapids, Mich 

Hamilton, Ohio 

Hannibal, Mo 

Harrisburg, Pa 

Hartford, Ct 

Haverhill, Mass 

Hoboken, N. J 

Houston, Tex 

Hudson, N. Y._ 

Indianapolis, Ind 

Jackson, Mich. 

Jacksonville, 111 

Janesville, Wis. 

Jersey City, N. J 

Kansas City, Mo 

Keokuk, Iowa_. 

Knoxville, Tenn _. 

Lafayette, Ind 

Lancaster, Pa 

Lawrence, Kan 

Lawrence, Mass.. 

Leavenworth, Kan 

Lewiston, Me 

Lexington, Ky 

Little Rock, Ark 

Lockport, N.Y 

Logansport, Ind. 

Louisville, Ky 

Lowell, Mass 

Lynn, " 

Macon, Ga... 

Manchester, N. H 

Madison, Ind 

Madison, Wis 

Mansfield, Ohio 

Memphis, Tenn 

Milwaukee, Wis. _ 

Minneapolis, Min _ 

Mobile, Ala 

Nashua, N. H 

Nashville, Tenn 

Natchez, Miss 

New Albany, Ind 

Newark, N.J 

New Bedford, Mass 

Newburgh, N.Y 

Newburyport, Mass 

New Brunswick, N. J.__ 

New Haven, Ct 

New Orleans, La 



1870.1 I860* 



8526 
IOI58 
13818 
II384 
16507 
II081 
IOI25 
23104 
37l8o 
13092 
20297 
9382 
8615 
48244 

II447 

9203 

8789 

82546 

32200 

12766 

8682 

I3506 

20233 

8320 

28921 

17873 
13600 
14801 
12380 
12426 

8950 
IOO753 
40928 
28233 
10810 
23536 
IO709 

9176 

8029 
40226 
71440 
13066 
32034 
10543 
25865 

9057 
15396 
IO5059 
21320 
I70I4 
21595 
15058 



8143 
4953 
7307 

8733 



7223 

6505 

13405 

17956 

9995 

9659 

4845 

7187 

18611 

4999 
5528 
7702 
29226 
4418 
8136 

9387 

17603 

1645 

17639 
7420 

7424 
9321 
3727 

2979 
68033 
36827 
19083 

8247 
20107 

8130 

6611 

4581 
22621 
45246 

2563 
29250 

1065 
16988 

6612 
12647 
71941 
22300 

1 3401 
11256 



50840 39267 
1914181118670 



460 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



Population of the Principal Cities of the United States,. 

(Concluded). 



CITIES. 

Newport, Ky. _ 

Newport, R. I 

New York, N. Y.__. 

Norfolk.Va 

Norwich, Ct. 

Ogdensburgh, N. Y._ 

Omaha, Neb._ 

Orange, N. J 

Oshkosh, Wis.. 

Oswego, N. Y 

Patterson, N. J 

Peoria, 111 

Petersburg, Va 

Philadelphia, Pa 

Pittsburgh, Pa 

Portland, Me 

Portland, . Oregon 

Portsmouth, N. H._. 

Portsmouth, Ohio 

Portsmouth, Va 

Poughkeepsie, N. Y. 

Providence, R. I 

Quincy, 111. 

Racine, Wis.. 

Raleigh, N. C 

Reading, Pa 

Richmond, Ind 

Richmond, Va 

Rochester, N. Y 

Rome, " 

Sacramento, Cal 

St. Joseph, Mo 

St. Louis- " 



1870. 

15087 
12521 
942292 
19229 
16653 
IOO76 
16083 
9348 
12643 
20910 

33579 

22849 

18950 

674022 

86076 

3I4I3 

9 2 93 

9211 

10592 

10492 

20080 

68904 

24052 

9S80 

7790 

33930 

9445 

51038 

62386 

1 1000 

16283 

19565 

310864 



1860. 



CITIES. 



10046 St. Paul, Min.__. . 

10508 Salem, Mass 

80505 1 : Salt Lake City, Utah... 

14620 San Antonio, Texas 

14048 i Sandusky, Ohio 

7409|San Francisco, Cal 

1 88 1 Savannah, Ga 

8877lShenectady,N. Y 

6o86JScranton, Pa... _. 

16S16 Springfield, 111.. 

19586 Springfield, Mass 

14045 1 Springfield, Ohio 

18266 Steubenville, Ohio 



565529 

49217 

26341 

2868 

9335 

6268 

9488 

14726 

50666 

I37i8 

7822 

4780 

23162 

6623 

37907 
48204 

3584 

12797 

8932 

160773 



Stockton, Cal 

Syracuse, N. Y 

Taunton, Mass 

Terre Haute, Ind. 

Titusville, Pa 

Toledo, Ohio 

Trenton, N. J 

Troy, N. Y 

Utica, " 

Vicksburg, Miss... 
Washington, D. C. 

Waterbury, Ct 

Watertown, N. Y... 
Wheeling, W. V. . 
Williamsport, Pa.. 
Wilmington, Del.. 
Wilmington, N. C. 
Worcester, Mass... 

York, Pa 

Zanesville, Ohio.. 



1870. 

20030 
241 1 7 
12854 
12250 
13000 
149473 
28335 
IO029 
35092 
17364 
26703 
12652 

8107 
18966 
43051 
10629 
16103 

8639 
31584 
22874 
46465 
28804 

12443 
109199 
10826 
9336 
19289 
16030 
30841 
13446 
41 105 
1 1003 
IOOII 



1860. 

10400 

22252 

8207 

8235 
8408 
56802 
22292 
9576 
9223 
9320 

I5I99 
7002 

6154 

3679 

28110 

15376 

8594 

438 

13768 

17228 

39232 

22529 

4591 
6II22 
IOO04 

14083 
5568 

21254 
9552 

24960 
8605 
9225. 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



461 



FACTS RELATING TO THE UNITED STATES. 



7ear 
Befd 



IS65 
1607 
1614 
1620 
1623 
1624 
1625 
1627 
1633 
1634 
1636 
1663 
1669 
1670 
1670 
1682 
1685 
1690 
1690 
1699 
1711 
1716 
1720 
1725 
1733 
1757 
1764 
1769 
1775 



1833 
1846 
1850 
1861 
1862 
1854 



States. 



Florida 

Virginia* 

New York* 

Massachusetts* 

New Hampshire*.. 

New Jersey* 

Maine 

Delaware* 

Connecticut* 

Maryland* 

Rhode Island* 

North Carolina* 

Wisconsin 

Michigan 

South Carolina* 

Pennsylvania* 

Arkansas . 

Texas 

Indiana 

Louisiana 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Illinois 

Vermont 

Georgia* 

Tennessee 

Missouri 

California 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Oregon , 

Iowa .. 

Minnesota 

Kansas 

Nevada 

West Virginia 

Nebraska 



Capitals. 



Tallahassee 

Richmond.. 

Albany 

Boston 

Concord 

Trenton 

Augusta 

Dover 

Hartford 

Annapolis . 

Prov. and Newport. 

Raleigh 

Madison 

Lansing 

Columbia 

Harrisburg 

Little Rock 

Austin 

Indianapolis 

New Orleans 

Montgomery 

Jackson 

Springfield 

Montpelier 

Atlanta 

Nashville .. 

Jefferson City 

Sacramento 

Frankfort 

Columbus 

Salem 

Des Moines 

St. Paul... 

Topeka 

Carson City... 

Charleston 

Lincoln 



Where Settled. 



St. Augustine Spaniards. 

Jamestown English 



By Whom. 



Manhattan . 

Plymouth 

Dover 

Bergen 

Bristol 

Cape Henelopen.. 

Windsor 

St, Mary's 

Providence 

Albermarle 

Green Bay 

Detroit 

Port Royal 

Philadelphia 

Arkansas Post 

San Antonia 

Vincennes 

Iberville 

Mobile 

Natchez 

Kaskaskia 

Fort Dummer 

Savanna 

Fort London 

St. Louis 

San Diego 

Boonesboro 

Marietta 

Astoria 

Burlington 

St. Paul 

Ft. Leavenworth. 

Washoe 

See Virginia 



Dutch 

English Puritans. . 

English 

Dutch and Danes. 

English 

Swedes and Finns 
From Massachu'ts 

English 

English 

English 

French 

French 

English 

English 

French.. 

Spaniards 

French 

French 

French 

French 

French 

From Massachu'ts 

English 

From N. Carolina 
French 

Spaniards 

From Virginia 

From N. England 
From New York.. 
From N. England 
From N. England 
Fr. N.E.&W.St's 
From California.. 
Formed fromVa.. 
Fr. N.E.&W.St's 



Adm'ed 
to tbe 
Union 

:845 
: 7 88 t 
1788 t 
1788 t 
1788 t 
1787 t 
1820 

1787 t 

1788 t 

1788 t 
1790 t 

1789 t 
1848 
1837 
1788 t 

1787 t 
1826 
1845 
1816 
1812 
1814 
1817 
1818 
1791 

1788 t 
1796 
1821 
1850 
1792 
1803 

1859 
1846 

1857 
1861 
1864 
1862 
1867 



* The thirteen original States. t Date of adoption of Constitution. 

PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Name. 



George Washington . 

John Adams .. 

Thomas Jefferson 

James Madison 

James Monroe 

John Quincy Adams. 

Andrew Jackson 

Martin Van Buren .. 
William H. Harrison 

John Tyler 

James K. Polk 

Zachary Taylor 

Millard Fillmore 

Franklin Pierce 

James Buchanan 

Abraham Lincoln 

Andrew Johnson 

Ulysses S. Grant .... 



Va 

Mass. .. 

Va 

Va 

Va 

Mass. .. 
Tenn. 
N. Y. .. 
Ohio.. 

Va 

Tenn. 
La. ... 
N. Y. . 
N. H.. 
Penn. . 

Ill 

Tenn. 
Ill 



1732 
1735 
1743 
175* 
1758 
1767 
1767 
1782 

1773 
1790 

x 795 
1784 
1800 
1804 
1791 
1809 
1808 



Installed 

into 

Office. 



1789 
1797 
1801 
1809 
1817 
1825 
1829 
1837 
1841 
1841 

1845 
1849 
1850 
1853 
1857 
1861 
1865 
1869 



Age at 
that 
time. 



57 

62 
58 
53 
53 
58 
62 
55 
68 
51 
49 
65 
50 
49 
66 
52 
57 
47 



Term of Office. 



years. 



month 

yrs. 11 mos.. 
years 

y. 4 m. 5 d.. 
y. 7 m. 26 d. 
years 



y. 1 m. 10 d.. 
y. 10 m. 20 d. 



Died. 



Dec. 

July 
July 



June 23, 

i u L y 4l 

reb. 23. 

June 8, 

July 24. 

April 4, 

Jan. 17. 

June 15, 

July, 9< 

March 8. 
Oct. 8. 
June 1, 

April 14 

July 31- 



1799 68 
9i 

83 

85 
72 

80 
73 
So 
63 
72 
54 
66 
74 
65 
77 
55 



1826 
1826 
1836 
1831 
1848 
1845 
1862 
1841 
1862 

1849 
1850 
1874 
1869 
1868 
1865 
1875 




GEORGE WASHINGTON. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OFTHE PRES- 
IDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 



N the line of march, whether progressive or retrogressive, 
we have been led through all ages by men who, by the 
strength of their intellect or the # force of their will, or by a 
subtle power, inexpressible by words, but to which we yield almost 
insensibly, have proved themselves masters of the masses. If his 
instincts are pure, and his aims and tendencies elevated, his influ- 
ence upon the world will be beneficial ; if they are corrupt and 
degraded, while he grovels in the filth and slime of the dregs 
of social or national vices, he turns backward the wheel of 
the car of progress ; its motion is reversed, and the jar and shock 
is felt, it may be, to the ends of the earth, causing disastrous 
results to the generations following, even greater than to the 
present. A thousand men in the quiet .walks of private life 
might practice the vices that are common to this age or sphere, 
and they would pass comparatively unnoticed ; but once a man 
steps out from the masses and takes a position above them, 
the influence of his lightest act is a power for good or evil. 

With a desire to present, in a condensed form, sketches of the 
lives of those who may serve, by their virtues and admirable qual- 
ities of mind and habit, as models for our imitation, or whose 
vices, though brilliant, are repulsive enough to make them a warn- 
ing to him who reads even while he runs, we have chosen a few 
from almost every rank and profession of those whose names 
are bright on history's page, and whose services render it a pleas- 
ure to record their acts, while their virtues, far more than the 

463 



46 \ FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

historian's skill, lend interest to the subject. It is meet that 
those who have been Chief Executives of our Nation should 
have a place ; that those who have so generally been an honor 
to the people should be remembered at this time. 

The veneration which we feel for Washington, and the rever- 
ence and respect which is the involuntary tribute of the world to 
his memory, make it most fitting that we give him the first place 
on the pages of the book which we dedicate to his countrymen, as 
they have given him already the first place in their hearts. 

An enthusiastic writer has declared Washington to be the most 
perfect character that has adorned any era of history. While it 
was grand and majestic, I believe there were not wanting, then or 
since, those who were just as pure, unselfish, and honest as he, who 
loved our country well, and labored, and suffered, and died, if 
need be, to defend its rights, its liberty, and its honor. At that 
early day, when despotism stood with bated breath, waiting till 
the first weak cry should proclaim that even in a manger in the 
New World the young babe Freedom had been born, that it might 
send forth and slay it ; when devotion to the new power was 
treason to the old ; when devotion to the Union that was being 
christened with the baptismal drops that flowed from the brave 
hearts of those that stood to guard it, with one hand upon the 
sword and the other grasping the banner whose stars should lead 
them to victory, their eyes turned to the hills from whence their 
help must come, appealing to Him who was, and is, and will 
forever be, Lord of Lords and King of Kings, was counted a 
crime against the "powers that be," of sufficient magnitude 
to cost a man his life ; he was indeed a hero who dare lead the 
feeble enterprise to a grand success — a success so magnificent that 
crowned heads trembled on their thrones as they beheld it. 

Of this type of men was he who is enshrined in the hearts of 
this nation as the " Father of his Country." He was born 
February 2 2d, 1732, in the county of Westmoreland, Virginia. 
His education was domestic and scanty, but his principles were 
such as should underlie a character that is strong enough to 
wrestle with the forces that were brought to bear against it. 

He was by profession a civil engineer, and in that wild, new 
country, there must have been ample need for his services. He 
also directed much of his attention to the science of arms, in the 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 465 

use of which it was necessary every young man should be a pro- 
ficient, since they were liable to be called at any moment to repel 
the Indians, who were led on by skillful Frenchmen. At the age 
of nineteen he was appointed one of the adjutant-generals of Vir- 
ginia, which gave him the rank of major. So exemplary was his 
conduct, so cool his judgment, and so faithful, even to the minutest 
duty, that he was advanced to a colonelcy and sent by Gov- 
ernor Dinwiddie to the Ohio, with dispatches to the French com- 
mander, who was erecting fortifications from Canada to New 
Orleans, in violation of existing treaties. His conduct proved 
him worthy of the highest confidence, while the delicacy, yet 
shrewdness with which the rather dangerous and difficult matter 
was managed, proved him at once a statesman and a diplomatist. 

In the spring of 1755, Washington accompanied General Brad- 
dock as an aid, in that disastrous and disgraceful expedition 
against Fort Du Quesne, and had his advice been followed, suc- 
cess, and not defeat, must have followed it. Three years later 
Washington commanded the Virginians in another expedition 
against the fort, which gave him a splendid victory. At the close 
of this campaign he withdrew from the army and married Mrs. 
Martha Custis, the widow of Colonel Daniel P. Custis. The lady 
was older than her husband and the mother of two children, but 
was as charming as she was sensible, and as fascinating as she was 
wise, and though it is even more than hinted that Madame Wash- 
ington was slightly strong-minded, and had a will of her own, 
gave impromptu curtain lectures, and said " my dear" to her hus- 
band with a sharpness of tone which contrasted oddly with that 
affectionate and loving title, we have reason to believe that his do- 
mestic life was very happy, and her intelligent and patriotic con- 
duct, both as the wife and widow of America's. best-loved hero, 
will ever be remembered with gratitude and admiration. 

In 1759 he was elected to the House of Burgesses, and contin- 
ued to be returned to that body, with the exception of short inter- 
vals of rest, until 1774, when he was elected to represent Virginia 
in the Continental Congress. His well-tempered zeal, and his 
military skill, which enabled him to suggest the wisest and safest 
national defences when the young country was in extremity, soon 
drew all eyes and hearts to him as one qualified to direct and lead 
in that hour of extreme peril. Even after the lapse of nearly a 

3° 



466 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

hundred years, our pulse beats quicker, and tears spring unbidden, 
as we recall to mind those years of struggle and suffering that 
bought us the liberty we prize so highly and hold as a sacred 
birthright, guarding it as we guard no other thing this side of 
Heaven. Thank God for the firm hand and the strong heart and 
the lion courage of our Washington ! We can almost see him 
now as he knelt amid the snows of Valley Forge and, gathering 
together the band of heroes whose sufferings were almost past 
human endurance, but whose faith was also almost superhuman, 
prayed for the guidance and protection which was so much 
needed, and which alone could save the cause for which they were 
sacrificing their lives. 

Immediately after the opening scene of the revolutionary drama, 
at Lexington and Concord, when an army had concentrated at 
Cambridge, he was unanimously elected Commander-in-Chief of 
the American Army. The purity of purpose, the self-sacrificing 
spirit, the conscientiousness and honor with which he discharged 
every duty relating to that trying position, are too well known to 
require any pen so weak as ours to linger in the detail. 

After bringing the war to a triumphant close, while the green 
laurels whose leaves, wet with the grateful tears of his countrymen 
as their fingers wrought them together, were yet fresh upon his 
brow, he hastened to Annapolis, where Congress was then in session, 
and on the 23d of December formally tendered the resignation 
of his commission. 

In May, 1787, he was elected to the convention which met at 
Philadelphia for the purpose of forming the Constitution, and 
presided over its deliberations ; and it was here, while their proud, 
free spirits, which the armed legions of tyranny and despotism 
could not subdue or force to yield, yet smarted under the wrongs 
they had resented, that they framed the Constitution that has made 
ours pre-eminently the first nation upon God's footstool. Its 
leading clause should be graven in every heart, over erery hearth- 
stone, altar, and pulpit in the land, and be our national watchword 
in war and our motto in peace, as also the rule of our lives : — 
" Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of 
speech, or of the press, or of the right of the people to assemble, and 
petition the government for a redress of grievances." After the Con- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



4 6y 



stitution was adopted by the people, Washington was elected first 
President of the United States for four years, at the end of which 
time he was re-elected for a second term. 

There is scarcely a school boy or girl in America who is not 
familiar with his farewell address, and looking over his life, we can 
see how like himself was that tender and humble sentence in which 
was the sentiment of a Christian, a philosopher and a patriot. " I 
consider it an indispensable duty to close this last act of my offi- 
cial life by commending the interests of our dearest country to the 
protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superin- 
tendence of them, to His holy keeping." 

Washington died December 14th, 1799, at the age of 68 years. 





JOHN ADAMS. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 469 



JOHN ADAMS, 




[HE second President of the United States was John 
Adams, whose fame as a statesman and patriot is imperish- 
able. He was born at Braintree, Massachusetts, October 
17, 1735. He early displayed fine talents, and graduated from 
Cambridge with great credit. He studied law, and was admitted 
to practice, and rapidly attained that high distinction which his 
superior capacity entitled him to. From the very outbreak of our 
troubles with Great Britian, he took a prominent part in all the 
war measures that were originated and himself suggested the 
appointment of Washington as Commander-in-Chief of the army. 
He was one of the framers and signers of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence ; and the next year he visited France to form a treaty 
of alliance and commerce with that country. In 1785 he was 
sent to England as the first minister from this country ; and on 
his return was elected Vice-President, in which office he served 
two terms, and in 1797 was elected to succeed Washington as 
Chief Executive of the nation. He was succeeded by Mr. Jeffer- 
son, in 1 80 1, after which he retired to his farm in Quincy, where 
his declining years were passed in the gratification of his taste for 
reading and study. 

The fiftieth anniversary of our American Independence, July 4, 
1826, was remarkable, not alone for the event it commemorated, 
but for the decease of two of the most active participants in the 
measures by which it was secured to us. On that day Adams and 
Jefferson were both gathered to their fathers. 



47<> FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

THOMAS JEFFERSON. 




MHOMAS JEFFERSON was born at Shadwell, Albemarle 
Ml c o un ty> Virginia, April 13, 1743. He was educated at 
William and Mary, and was a great student, having a fond- 
ness for natural history quite remarkable. He studied law with 
the renowned George Wythe, and was a celebrated pupil, but 
never became a distinguished lawyer. Soon after his admission to 
the bar, he was elected to the House of Representatives, and there 
had abundant opportunity to exercise his fine business abilities. 
British oppression roused him to perfect frenzy, and with his pen 
he gave to his country the fiery thoughts that his indignation kin- 
dled. 

In June, 1775, he took his seat in the Continental Congress, 
from Virginia, and here soon became conspicuous as one of the 
most ardent friends of American freedom. He was chairman of 
the committee that drafted the Declaration of Independence ; in- 
deed, this instrument is conceded to have been mainly his own 
work. He succeeded Patrick Henry in 1779 as Governor of Vir- 
ginia. In 1783 he was sent to France to join the ministers of our 
country — Mr. Adams and Dr. Franklin. In 1785 he succeeded 
Dr. Franklin as ambassador, and performed that duty for two 
years, when he returned home. He was Secretary of State under 
Washington, in which position he gave the highest satisfaction. 

In 1795 he was elected Vice-President of the United States, 
and took his seat the 4th of the following March. In 1801 he was 
elected President of the United States, a position which he held 
for eight years. At the close of the last term, he retired from 
active life, and died July 4, 1826, just fifty years after his pen 
traced the words " We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all 
men are created free and equal ; that they are endowed by their 
Creator with certain inalienable rights ; amongst which are life,. 
liberty and the pursuit of happiness." 

He was a man of strong mind, strong will and strong prejudices, 
and no man ever labored harder to convert every one with whom 
he came in contact, to his own mode of thinking; yet he was 
honest and patriotic, and his loss was deeply felt. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 47 1 



JAMES MADISON. 




HE fourth President of the United States, was born in 
Orange County, Virginia, March 16, 1751. His studies 
were far advanced under the care of a most accomplished 
preceptor, and he graduated with the highest honors. He turned 
his attention to political life, and in 1776 was elected to the gen- 
eral assembly of Virginia, and for more than forty years was 
constantly in office and served his State faithfully, in small as well 
as in great things, from legislator to President. While he was a 
member of the Executive Council of the State of Virginia, he won 
the highest regard and respect of his associates, by his honest 
and faithful discharge of duty, and in the year 1780, he took* 
his seat in the Continental Congress, and became immediately an 
active and leading member. In 1787 he became a member of the 
Convention held in Philadelphia for the purpose of drafting a 
constitution for the new government, whose national existence was 
but an experiment, the success of which the world doubted. He 
was one of the joint authors of "The Federalist;" sharing the 
labor with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay. He was a member 
of the State Convention of Virginia which met to adopt the Con- 
stitution, and was chosen a member of the first Congress which 
was organized under it. 

In 1 80 1 he was one of the presidential electors, and Jefferson 
at once offered him a place in his cabinet, where he entered upon 
the duties of Secretary of State; in 1809 he succeeded Jeffer- 
son to the Presidency, and served in that office two terms. After 
this, he returned to his home in Virginia, where he passed the re- 
mainder of his days in quiet content, until June, 1826, when the last 
survivor %f the framers of the Constitution passed peacefully 
away. 




JAMES MONROE. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY 4f$ 



JAMES MONROE 




'AS the fifth President of the United States. He was 
born in Westmoreland county, Virginia, April 28, 1758. 
He was a graduate at William and Mary, but anxious 
to aid in the struggle for independence, he joined the army under 
General Mercer, as cadet, and soon distinguished himself in sev- 
eral well-fought battles, and rapid promotions followed, until he 
reached the rank of captain. At Harlem Heights and White 
Plains he shared the defeat and sufferings of Washington, through 
New Jersey ; at Trenton he rejoiced in the triumph of our 
arms over the Hessians, and though severely wounded, carried 
the musket ball in his shoulder through the day and " fought out 
the fight." He was, afterwards, aid to Lord Sterling, with the rank 
of major, and if he earned for himself fame, it is very certain that 
he found no flowery path to tread. In the military service of those 
days, when the leaders of our battles and our national councils 
looked upon their country's peril with an anguish that words can 
never convey to this generation, and when their country's honor 
ivas something to them which we fear modern statesmen and sol- 
diers can not understand, men worked with an energy and self- 
sacrificing spirit that made each one a host. At the bloody bat- 
tles of Brandywine, Germantown and Monmouth, Monroe is said 
to have particularly distinguished himself for his bravery and 
-courage ; and by the coolness which he displayed. Ambitious to 
command a regiment of his own, he obtained a dismissal from the 
army, returned to Virginia, where he met so many discouraging 
obstacles that he gave it up, and resumed his law studies in the 
office of Mr. Jefferson. 

In 1794 he went as Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of Ver- 
sailles, and after settling the cession of Louisiana to the United 
States, he went to England to succeed Mr. King as Minister at the 



474 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



Court of St. James. The little difficulty between the two coun- 
tries in regard to the Chesapeake, placed him in so unpleasant a 
position that he returned home and was soon after chosen Gov- 
ernor of the State, in which office he remained until called by 
Mr. Madison to assume the duties of Secretary of State. 

In 1817 he was elected President of the United States, and in 
182 1 was unanimously re-elected, with the exception of a single 
vote in New Hampshire. His entire administration was marked 
by peace, quiet and prosperity. 

When the convention was called to revise the Constitution of 
the State of Virginia, he was chosen to preside over its action. 
Soon after he removed to New York City, where he remained until 
his death, which occurred July 4th, 1831, when amid the pealing 
of bells and the thundering of artillery that proclaimed the na- 
tion's jubilant rejoicing at the anniversary of independence, the 
angels whispered, " Come up higher." 





Howell Cobb. 



47® FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, 




IXTH President of the United States, was born in Quincy, 
§H Massachusetts, May nth, 1767, graduated at Harvard 
College, and became a law student in the office of Hon. 
Theophilus Parsons, for many years Chief Justice of Massachu- 
setts. His literary tastes gained him considerable attention, and 
some of his essays are commended as excellent. Under Washing- 
ton's administration he was appointed minister to the Netherlands, 
and afterwards to Portugal. He was, at different periods, minister 
to Prussia, Russia and England, and was one of the commission- 
ers who negotiated the treaty of peace with Great Britain, at 
Ghent. 

During Mr. Monroe's entire administration of eight years, he 
held the office of Secretary of State, after which he was elected 
President of the United States by the House of Representatives, 
the people failing to make a choice. Like his father, he met very 
strong opposition from the political party then coming into power, 
and his service ended with one term — being defeated in re-election 
by Gen. Jackson. Soon after he was chosen representative in 
Congress, and was re-chosen at each successive election until his 
death. 

Two days previous to his decease, while at his duties in the 
House, he received a paralytic stroke, from which he never recov- 
ered his consciousness. Mr. Adams was a man of fine intellect 
and great endowments ; his mind was cultivated and enriched to 
a high degree. The government lost, in him, one of its brightest 
ornaments. 




*J Ct , cAcLCVfy^ 



47^ FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



ANDREW JACKSON 




EVENTH President of the United States. The fame of 
" Old Hickory " is too far spread to need that our feeble 
powers be exerted to add to it one ray of luster. He 
was born at Waxhaw, Lancaster county, South Carolina, 1767, and 
manifested, from childhood, something of the martial spirit which 
made him the hero of New Orleans. 

One author said of him, with a spice of malice, that a more tur- 
bulent, roaring, rollicking youngster never lived than this same 
soldier and statesman. In 1790 he fixed his residence at Nash- 
ville, and married. In 1795 he assisted in framing the Constitu- 
tion of Tennessee, and was sent to Congress as the first 
representative of the new State. Mr. Jackson studied law and 
practised it to a limited extent, but it is conceded, even by his 
warmest friends, that in this profession he was not " a success.". 

In 1797 he was elected to the Senate of the United States, and 
upon the expiration of his term of office here, he was appointed 
Judge of the Supreme Court of Tennessee. In 1804 he resigned 
that office and retired to the " Hermitage," near Nashville. When 
war was proclaimed with Great Britain, in 181 2, he commanded the 
militia of his district, and in 1815 obtained the victory at New 
Orleans, which was the crowning glory of his military life. Three 
years later he made a successful campaign against the Indians in 
our Southern Territories and States. 

In 1 81 2 he was appointed Governor of Florida, then a territory. 
In 1823 the appointment of Minister to Mexico was tendered to 
him, which he declined, but was elected as member of Congress 
from Tennessee. In 1824 he received many votes for President, 
but was not elected until 1828, and was re-elected by an immense 
majority in 1832. In the spring of 1837, weary and worn with his 
active life, he gave to younger hands and brains the cares of State, 
and retired again to his beloved home, the " Hermitage," where 
he spent the remainder of his days in the peace and quiet which 
he had so well earned. His death occurred here, June 8th, 1845. 




ANDREW JACKSON. 



480 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

MARTIN VAN BUREN, 




IGHTH President of the United States, was a native of 
J^|j Kinderhook, New York. He was born September 5, 1782. 
Having prepared himself for the study of the law, he en- 
tered the office of Francis Sylvester, where he remained six years,, 
meantime giving much thought to politics. His ambition pointed 
out to him that field as the one where he could earn most rapidly 
the fame he craved. Fully satisfied of this, he studied until he 
acquired much perfection in the art of pleasing, with a view to 
local popularity, and was so successful, that while yet a boy, be- 
fore his cheeks had lost their blushing roundness or girlish 
smoothness — in his " teens " — he was sent as delegate to a conven- 
tion in his native county, at which important political measures 
were to be taken. 

The first public office he ever held was that of Surrogate of Co- 
lumbia county, to which he was appointed in 1808. In 1812-16, 
he was elected to the State Senate and became a leader of the 
Madison party. In 1821 he was elected United States Senator, 
which position he held for eight years. In 1828 he was elected 
Governor of his native State, but filled the gubernatorial chair 
only a few weeks. When General Jackson was elected President, 
Mr. Van Buren was offered the post of Secretary of State, which 
he accepted. 

In 1836 he was put in nomination for the Chief Magistracy, to 
which he was elected by a large majority over General Harrison ; 
but at the next election the tide turned upon him, and he only 
received sixty votes out of two hundred and ninety-four. After 
his defeat he returned to Kinderhook, and subsequently visited 
Europe, whither he went hoping that a change of climate might 
restore to health one of his sons. Soon after his return to Amer- 
ica he accepted the nomination of the Free Soil party for the 
Presidency, but was unsuccessful. From this time forward he 
lived in retirement, and devoted most of his time to writing a 
history of the political party with which he was identified, the 
publication of which occurred after his death. July 24th, 1862. 




v^t^^^^z-^^^^h 



482 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON, 




»INTH President of the United States, was born in Charles 
City county, Virginia, February 9th, 1773. The Presi- 
dential line beginning with Washington, who was a civil 
engineer, is an unbroken succession of lawyers ; till now, by some 
freak or accident, we find a medical man who reached the high 
position of President of the first Republic of the world. He grad- 
uated at a time when our northwestern frontier was harrassed by 
the Indians, and feeling that his country, more than his profession, 
demanded his services, he accepted an ensign's Commission from 
President Washington, and joined the army. He was soon pro- 
moted to a lieutenancy, and was commended by General Wayne, 
under whose command he was engaged in several actions. After 
the bloody battle of Miami Rapids, he was promoted to the rank of 
Captain, for his brave and noble conduct during the engagement, 
and placed in command at Fort Washington. In 1797 he resigned 
his commission in the army, for the purpose of accepting the 
office of Secretary of the Northwestern Territory, from which he 
was sent to Congress in 1799. He was appointed first Governor 
of Indiana, while to his civil and military duties he added those 
of superintendent, and commissioner of Indian affairs. During his 
administration he completed thirteen treaties, and gained the 
important battle of Tippecanoe, the news of which was received 
with such wild enthusiasm. 

During the war of 181 2 he was made Commander of the Army 
of the Northwest, — remembered by the prominent part he bore in 
the defense of Fort Meigs, and also in the victory of the Thames. 
In 1814 he was appointed, with Governor Shelby and Gen. Cass, to 
treat with the Indians in general council at Greenville, and the 
following year led a commission to form treaties with other tribes? 
to the entire satisfaction of both parties. In 1816 he was appointed 
member of Congress from Ohio, and in 1828 was sent to the republic 
of Columbia as Minister Plenipotentiary. In 1837 as candidate 
for the Presidency, he was defeated ; but four years later, was 
elected by a large majority. He died April 4th, just one month 
after entering upon his duties. 




fo-frffl 



&/U0? 



4 8 4 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



JOHN TYLER. 



)OHN TYLER, who succeeded General Harrison as Presi- 
- dent, was born at Williamsburg, Virginia, March 29th, 1790, 
and graduated from William and Mary's College, and was 
admitted to the bar ; when in his twenty-second year, was sent to 
the Virginia legislature, and in his twenty-sixth year to Congress. 
Eight years later, in 1825, he was elected Governor of Virginia, 
and in 1827 United States Senator from his native State, and while 
there, voted and labored strongly against the Tariff Bill of 1828, 
and against re-chartering the United States Bank ; and also ve- 
toed the bill for the establishment of the "Fiscal Bank," which 
was again resurrected, remodeled, rechristened and urged upon 
the people as the " Fiscal Corporation of the United States " passed 
both houses successfully, only to be again vetoed, at the last mo- 
ment, by the President. 

His party were terribly disappointed in him, and every member 
of his cabinet, except Mr. Webster, resigned his place. The vacan- 
cies were immediately filled with men who rallied around him and 
were staunch and true in that time of his utmost need. The 
charges and imputations brought were so intolerably bitter that 
he turned, with his heart sick and sore with abuse, and looking 
forward, exclaimed, " I appeal from the vituperations of the pres- 
ent day to the impartial pen of history, in confidence that neither 
my motives nor my acts will bear the interpretation which for sin- 
ister motives has been put upon them." 

In the winter of 1860-61, Mr. Tyler was an active agency in 
organizing the Peace Conference, and presided over its delibera- 
tions. This was, indeed, his last public work. He died in Vir- 
ginia in 1862. 







JOHN TYLER. 



4*6 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



JAMES K. POLK, 




ELEVENTH President, was born in Mechlenburg, N. C, 
November 2, 1795. In 1809 his family removed to 
Nashville, Tennessee, where his education was completed, 
and where he studied law in the office of Hon. Felix Grundy, who 
proved a most able teacher and consistent friend. He was 
admitted to the bar in 1820, and already interested in the politics 
of the country, he now took an active part in it, studying it 
closely and deeply. In 1823 he was elected to the legislature, 
and while yet but twenty-nine years old, was chosen a member of 
Congress, which office he held for fourteen years; was also for 
several sessions Speaker of the. House. In 1844, he was unex- 
pectedly nominated for the Presidency, elected by a large majority 
over Mr. Clay and inaugurated March 4, 1845. 

War with Mexico, already impending, broke forth now, but was, 
as history shows, but a succession of easily won victories for the 
Americans, and the conquest of new territory. Mr Polk, though 
a wise and able manager and a shrewd diplomatist, was still not 
popular, and lost his reelection. His health was very delicate and 
failed rapidly under the severe labors of his office ; he did not 
long survive after reaching his home in Nashville, but died Junfr 
15th, 1849. 




488 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



ZACHARY TAYLOR 




>AS born in Orange county, Virginia, November 24th, 
1784, and was the twelfth President of the United 
States. His boyhood was passed in the wild and ex- 
citing scenes of the frontier. In 1808 he received the appointment 
of lieutenant in the United States infantry, and afterwards was 
promoted to a captain for brave service against the Indians. In 
181 2 he was in command of Fort Harrison, which he defended 
against fearful odds. From long intimacy with the wily savage, 
he became so familiar with their mode of warfare and habits of 
life that his services were considered almost indispensable by the 
government. He was promoted from rank to rank, until, in 1840, 
he held the rank of brigadier-general. In 1845 he was stationed 
on the American shore of the Rio Grande, simply to act on the 
defensive, unless attacked. Opposite Metamora he had built Fort 
Brown, and this being bombarded, gave him his first opportunity 
to display his valor. At Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, he 
fought against fearful odds, and gained in each a victory which 
crowned him with honor, after whiph conquests he returned home 
with laurels fresh and fair, and upon the treaty of peace was 
met with every demonstration of respect and admiration ; indeed, 
it seemed as if the people's enthusiasm was boundless, and of 
course there was but one appropriate way of testifying it. Since 
they could not offer him a crown and a throne, they must needs 
offer him the chief seat in the White House, which being accepted, 
he entered upon his duties March 4th, 1849. ^ ut already ad- 
vanced in years, and broken down with the hardships he had 
endured, he lived but a little more than a year to enjoy the hon- 
ors of his position. He died July 9th, 1850. 





^r- 



490 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



MILLARD FILLMORE. 




>ILLARD FILLMORE, the successor of General Tay- 
lor as President of the United States, was a native of 
Summer Hill, New York, and was born January 7th, 
1800. His educational advantages were of the poorest class; 
indeed only such as were to be found in the common schools of 
the country at that early date, and he was sent, while yet a mere 
boy, to Livingston county, then a new, almost unsettled wilder- 
ness, to learn a trade ; but attracted the notice of a gentleman 
who used his influence with a friend to receive the lad into his office 
to study for the legal profession. In 1827 he was admitted to prac- 
tice as an attorney, and soon after as Counselor of the Supreme 
Court. Establishing himself in Buffalo, he secured, by his energy, 
talents, and strict attention to business, a fine and extensive prac- 
tice 

In 1829 he took his seat in the Assembly, from Erie county, and 
made himself conspicuous for the energy with which he labored to 
annul the law granting or enforcing imprisonment for debt, which 
he considered an inhuman practice, unworthy of our age and of 
our government. In 1833 he was elected to the National House of 
Representatives, and was appointed to the position of Chairman of 
the Committee of Ways and Means. He sustained every propo- 
sition which he brought forward with such fine ability that the 
government was relieved in a great measure from its financial em- 
barrassments ; indeed, as a financier, he had few, if any equals. 
In 1848 he was elected Vice-President under General Taylor. 
Upon the death of General Taylor, he, of course, filled the va- 
cancy in the Presidential chair and selected a cabinet distinguished 
for its ability, its unswerving integrity and its love for our Union. 
Few cabinets have given so general and extensive satisfaction as 
did this. On the expiration of his official term he returned to his 
home in Buffalo and resumed the practice of law. 
He died March 8, 1874, at his home in Buffalo. 




MILLARD FILLMORE. 



%9 2 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



FRANKLIN PIERCE. 




] brighter constellation of stars ever gathered in any sphere 
of life than the group of talented and patriotic men who 
have filled, from time to time, the position of Chief Ex- 
ecutive of the United States. True, envy may strive to darken 
their fair fame, and jealousy magnify or distort errors of 
judgment; for until the mortal shall put on. immortality we shall 
not be free from human weaknesses. But, taken together or singly, 
we are proud to compare them with the rulers of any or all nations 
of the earth. The fourteenth President, Franklin Pierce, was born 
at Hillsborough, New Hampshire, Nov. 23, 1804, and had every 
advantage afforded him for a fine education, which, with his active 
mind he was not slow to avail himself of. He graduated with dis- 
tinguished honors, and studied law in the office of Judge Wood- 
bury, and afterwards in the law school of Northampton, where he 
remained two years, finishing his course with Judge Parker, at 
Amherst. He was slow and methodical — neither brilliant nor 
rapid in thought or speech, but careful, accurate, pains-taking 
and studious ; and never lost an advantage when once it was 
gained. He attained a high rank as an advocate. 

In 1827 he was elected to represent his native town in the State 
Legislature, which office he held for four years, during the last two 
of which he was speaker, and gave the highest satisfaction. In 
1846 he was tendered the office of States Attorney, which he 
declined, and when the Mexican war broke out, he took an active 
part in raising troops ; and, accepting the commission of Brigadier 
General, entered the army with the New England Regiment of 
Volunteers, and distinguished himself by his bravery and coolness 
in several hard-fought battles ; particularly at Cerro-Gordo and 
Chapultepec. In 1852 the Democratic Convention met at Balti- 
more, and after an almost hopeless disagreement as to a candidate, 
finally united on Franklin Pierce. He was elected President by 
an immense majority over General Scott, and was inaugurated 
March 4, 1853. Upon the expiration of his term, he returned to 
his home in New Hampshire, where he died October 8th, 1869. 




FRANKLIN PIERCE, 



494 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



JAMES BUCHANAN. 




)R. BUCHANAN was of Irish parentage, born at Stony 
Batter, Pennsylvania, April 23, 1791. He entered Dick- 
inson College, from which he graduated in two years. 
He studied law in Lancaster, was admitted to the bar, and soon 
commanded an extensive practice. In 1814 he was sent to the 
Pennsylvania State Legislature; in 1820 to Congress, and in 1813 
was appointed Minister to Russia by President Jackson, of whom 
he was a warm personal friend and great admirer. In 1834 he was 
elected United States Senator, where he held his seat until 1845, 
when he was appointed Secretary of State in Mr. Polk's cabinet, 
and held the position until the expiration of Mr. Polk's term, 
when he retired to private life to recover from the fatigue and 
over-exertion which he had endured. 

When Mr. Pierce was nominated for President, in 1853, Mr. Bu- 
chanan was appointed Minister to England. Questions were then 
pending which required the greatest delicacy and tact, and his 
course there was so discreet and honorable, so courtly, yet firm, 
that he was a credit alike to himself and the government he rep- 
resented ; so highly was his conduct appreciated that he was 
received on his return with the greatest enthusiasm. 

In June, 1856, Mr. Buchanan was nominated by the Democratic 
Convention as a candidate for the Presidency ; and although the 
opposition was strong against him he was elected by a large ma- 
jority. At the close of his administration, which was a stormy and 
most unhappy one, when he was called upon to meet mighty issues, 
he returned to his home in Wheatland, where he died June 1st, 
1868. 

His position with reference to the rebellion destroyed the pop- 
ularity he had been a life-time in building up. 




JAMES BUCHANAN. 



49^ FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN 




Jjfc, NE of the few names that are truly worthy to live on the 
igj^ pages of history, and to be handed down to posterity as a 
beacon light and a guide, is that of Abraham Lincoln. 
The heart leaps quick to its labor of love, and the pen yields 
ready and willing obedience to the mind, as it dwells tenderly 
and lovingly on the brave, strong character of this good man. 
He lived in a time when it was needed that in connection with 
rapidity of thought, must be deliberateness of action, angl that 
the steady well balanced brain should be unbiased by sectional or 
personal prejudice. How well he did his duty ; how true he was, 
not to party or State, but to principle and honor ; how fully he 
discharged every obligation in that time that tried men's souls; 
how earnest was his love for North and South alike, since North 
and South, East and West formed the Union he had sworn 
to defend; he proved in the strongest way possible, since 
he was willing to sacrifice ease and comfort, yea life 
itself, for his country. He was the sixteenth President of 
the United States, and was born in Hardin county, Ky., Feb, 
12, 1809. His advantages for obtaining an education in his boy- 
hood, were very limited, and he was, in the fullest sense, one of 
America's self-made men. Nowhere in the world, and to none 
but the liberty loving children of the New World, can this have 
so strong a significance, since it speaks eloquently of trial, of self- 
denial, of struggle, of victory. All that he acquired was wrought 
out by patient study. All that he achieved was by sheer force 
of will and stubborn determination. While the favored sons of 
affluence lounged over their books in classic halls, he toiled un- 
weariedly at his by the dim light of a pine torch in the rough 
home of a pioneer; and when he had.reached the goal, strength- 
ened by the race in which every thing was against him, he looked 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 497 

back to see that they, with both wind and tide in their favor, hao 
given it up. 

In. 1832 he served in the Blackhawk war, and on his return was 
elected to the Illinois Legislature. In 1834 he was elected to the 
Legislature, and re-elected in 1836, '^8 and '40. While in that 
position he gave evidence of the power and ability which made 
for him a reputation world wide. For many years Mr. Lincoln 
was a prominent leader of the Whig party in Illinois, and in 1844 
he canvassed the entire State for Henry Clay, of whom he was a 
sincere and enthusiastic admirer, and a warm personal friend, and 
exerted himself powerfully for the favorite of his party. In 1846 
he was elected to Congress, and took his seat in 1847, tne on ^y 
Whig representative of his State — not now a representative of his 
party, but of the people who trusted the honor of the man who 
never betrayed them. Though not a public man so long as many 
of his cotemporaries, all his acts were in accordance with his pro- 
fession, and he never swerved from the right, or compromised 
with wrong. No hope of advancement could tempt that honest 
soul to stoop to an unworthy deed, and no pleading of the ambi- 
tion within him could move him to gratify it at the expense of his 
country. 

In November, i860, he was elected President of the United 
States by the Republican party, and took his seat on the 
4th of March, 1861. For some time clouds had overhung the 
nation, dense and dark, and at length the threatening storm 
broke. The Confederates opened the war by firing on Fort 
Sumter, and seizing it and Charleston harbor. On the 15th of 
April, President Lincoln issued his first call for seventy-five thou- 
sand men for the defence of the government. This was followed 
by other calls for troops, and during his first administration an 
army of two million men was brought into the field by successive 
levies, nearly all of which was volunteer service. Three thousand 
million of dollars was expended in the maintenance of the gov- 
ernment and the support of the army. In 1864 Mr. Lincoln was 
again nominated, and, at the instance of the border States, Andrew 
Johnson, then military governor of Tennessee, was substituted for 
Mr. Hamlin for Vice-President, and after a fiercely contested 
election, when political excitement ran higher than ever before 
since our nation had a form and a name, Abraham Lincoln and 

32 



498 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



Andrew Johnson were elected President and Vice-President of 
the United States. They were inaugurated March 3d, 1865. For 
months the rebellion had been waning. The fierceness of the 
wrath of the contending parties was cooling down; the sacrifice 
of precious lives had been offered on a thousand hills, and a 
thousand valleys were furrowed with the graves of those who had 
fallen in combat, and the hearts of Northern and Southern men 
yearned for rest, and peace, and reconciliation. The war was 
virtually brought to a close when General Lee surrendered his 
forces at Appomatox Court House. 

On the evening of April 14th, 1865, President Lincoln was 
assassinated at Ford's Theatre, by John Wilkes Booth, and died 
on the morning of the 15th. This tragic event caused great 
gloom to the nation, and other nations wept in sympathy at the 
loss of a man so eminent in qualities that had made him beloved 
wherever his name and character were known. By the death of 
President Lincoln, Vice-President Johnson succeeded him, and 
took the oath of office April 15, 1865. 




OUK GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 499 



ANDREW JOHNSON. 




'HE seventeenth President, was born in Raleigh, North 
Carolina, and was apprenticed to a tailor when he was ten 
years of age, with whom he remained until he was seven- 
teen. He never attended school, and deserves the greatest credit 
for having obtained, unaided, the rudiments of a good common 
education by studying alone, without assistance from any one. He 
removed to Greenville, Tennessee, where he was highly respected, 
and in 1830 was chosen Mayor of that place, and in 1835 was 
elected to the State Legislature, to the State Senate in 1841 and 
was sent to Congress in 1843, where he remained but a year, being 
elected Governor of Tennessee during the term and re-elected in '53. 
He was chosen United States Senator in 1857 for the term ending 
1863, after which he served on the Committee on Public Lands. 
In his politics he was a Democrat and a strong supporter of Breck- 
inridge and Lane for the Presidential offices ; but at the first note 
of war, his love for the dear old flag asserted itself, and he declared 
himself in favor of the Union. He was appointed Military 
Governor of Tennessee by President Lincoln, and was elected 
Vice-President at the second term of Lincoln. After that sad 
calamity which shook the hearts, and almost the faith of the na- 
tion — a calamity whose sudden darkening gave them not a 
moment of warning, but left them bereaved and desolate, Mr. 
Johnson was made President ; the war was virtually ended and 
the work of reconstructing the broken and shattered Union 
was begun. But the work of calling order out of chaos in the 
creation seemed a much more hopeful affair. The reduction 
of the military and naval forces was a subject of endless differ- 
ences between himself and his cabinet, and his views differed also 
from a majority of those in Congress, causing constant unpleas- 
ant and noisy scenes during his administration In the win- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. $Ot 

ter of 1868 articles of impeachment were drawn up against him, 
passed the House of Representatives, and being submitted to the 
Senate, that body became at once a committee of impeachment. 
The President was tried on these articles, but the failure of 
the committee to vote «n the last seven articles, having 
been brought about by persons or parties who desired to save 
his reputation, the matter was indefinitely postponed. But the 
differences between himself and Congress continued and increased, 
becoming a source of endless bitterness and trouble ; and at the 
end of his official term he retired to his home in Tennessee, wel- 
coming peace and rest as joyfully as the storm-beaten dove 
welcomed the shelter of the ark when the waters covered the face 
of the earth and she had not where to rest her foot. 

After a few years of rest from political affairs, Mr. Johnson was 
elected United States Senator from Tennessee in 1874. He died 
suddenly at his home, on the 31st of July, 1875. 



ULYSSES S. GRANT. 




IGHTEENTH President of the United States, the " Hero 
of a hundred battles," was born at Pleasant Point, Ohio, 
23d of April, 1822. It is not satisfactorily proven that 
his ancestors came across the briny deep in the May Flower, 
but they most likely did in some other staunch ship, since they 
were among the first settlers in Massachusetts Bay, in the early 
part of the seventeenth century. The youth of Ulysses was spent 
at his native place, and he received a good English education at 



502 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Georgetown, in Brown county. In 1839, being then seventeen 
years of age, he was admitted to the Military Academy at West 
Point, as a cadet, and graduated on the 30th of June, 1843, stand- 
ing No. 21 in a class of 39. He is not spoken of as a young man 
of bright talents or brilliant promise, but that he acquired all he 
learned through hard work and close study. In July, 1843, he 
entered the army as brevet second lieutenant of infantry, and was 
attached to the fourth regiment. He served in the Mexican War, 
first under Taylor, then under Scott, and was a faithful soldier 
He was promoted to first lieutenant, then to brevet captain, and 
in 1857 a full commission of captain, dating back to 1853. In 
July, 1854, Mr. Grant resigned his commission, engaged for a 
while in commercial pursuits, and afterwards removed to Galena, 
Illinois. When the Rebellion broke out his pulses stirred, and his 
eye lit up with martial fire as his ear caught the sound of bugle 
and drum, and the call of his country appealed to him as does the 
cry of a suffering child to its mother. He was at once appointed 
on the Governor's staff as mustering officer of volunteers ; but this 
was too tame a position for him then, for he had tasted the excite- 
ment of battle, and longed for it as impatiently as a war horse 
prances beneath the restraints of his master. 

His first command was Colonel of the 21st Regiment, Illinois 
Volunteers, and his commission dated June 15, 1861. The fol- 
lowing August he was appointed Brigadier General of United 
States Volunteers, with rank and commission dating back to May, 
1 86 1. During the campaign in Tennessee he distinguished him- 
self by his valiant conduct, and after the surrender of Fort 
Donnelson, he was raised to the rank of Major General of Volun- 
teers. Upon the capture of Vicksburg, he was made a Brigadier, 
and soon after Major General in the regular army. 

His fine executive talents, his many and rapid victories, and the 
general success which attended his plans, naturally suggested him 
as the proper person for Commander-in-Chief of the Federal 
army. In accordance with the expressed wish of the Execu- 
tive, he repaired to Washington, and received his commission from 
President Lincoln's own hand ; assumed the command of the 
armies on the 10th of March, and was away to the tented field, 
where, at the head of his legions he received the sword which 
Lee surrendered, and with it the main body of the Southern army. 
He was nominated for the Presidency at the Chicago Convention 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY, 



S<>3 



in May, 1868, and triumphantly elected— receiving a magnificent 
majority. He conducted the affairs of government so accep- 
tably to the country that at the close of his first term he was 
nominated for a second, and re-elected Nov. 5th, 1872. 




RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 

Rutherford B. Hayes, nineteenth President of the United 
States, was born at Delaware, Ohio, Oct. 3, 1822. His parents 
were natives of Windsor county, Vermont, but emigrated to 
Ohio, in 1817. His progenitors were Scotch, the first one, 
George, emigrated to Connecticut in i860. His mother was 
descended from John Birchard, who came to America still 
earlier, in 1635. Three of Governor Hayes' great-grand- 
fathers, Daniel Austin, Israel Smith, and Elias Birchard, were 
soldiers in the Revolutionary war. After a good preliminary 
education in his native village, he began the study of law at 
Columbus, Ohio, and in due time entered the law school of 
Harvard college, where he completed the regular course and 
graduated with credit. He located at Cincinnati, and soon 
acquired a good reputation as a lawyer. He served as city 
solicitor and held in the years preceding the war other 
important offices. 

WHEN THE WAR BROKE OUT 

in 1861, he was in the height of a successful practice, and his 



504 fOOTPHjNTS OF THE AGES. 

genial manners and fine capacities is » oublir speaker had 
commended him to popular favor. At the hrsx can icz -rf w *»- 
teers he proffered his services and was appointed Major of the 
Twenty-third Ohio Infantry, June 7, 1861. He served under 
General Rosecrans in the Western Virginia campaign of i86i r 
a part of the time as judge advocate on the general's staff. 
He was promoted to lieutenant-colonel Nov. 4, 1861, and took 
command of his regiment. He retained this command during 
the spring campaign in West Virginia, and the autumn cam- 
paign under General McClellan, or until he was disabled at 
the battle of South Mountain. He was appointed colonel of 
the Seventy-ninth Ohio in 1862, but did not join his regiment 
because of the wound received at South Mountain. On the 15th 
of October be was promoted to the colonelcy of his own regiment, 
the Twenty-third, and in December was placed in command of 
the first brigade of the Kanawha division. He continued in this 
position until Sheridan's victory at Winchester in 1864, when he 
took command of the Kanawha division and led it through the 
active campaigning of that year. 

For gallant and meritorious services at Winchester, Fisher's 
Hill, and Cedar Creek, Colonel Hayes was appointed brigadier- 
general in 1864. In the spring of 1865 he was given command 
of 

AN EXPEDITION AGAINST LYNCHBURG, 

and was engaged in preparations for that campaign when the war 
closed. He was constantly in the field, and participated in many 
battles. He had three horses shot under him, and was wounded 
four times. 

Before the close of the war he had been elected to Congress 
from the Second Cincinnati District by a handsome majority, and 
in 1866 he was re-elected. In 1867, Mr. Hayes was elected Gov- 
ernor of Ohio. 

His administration was extreme-ly popular, and he was re- 
elected in 1869. At the close of his second term he resumed the 
practice of his profession until 1875, when he was again elected 
Governor for the third time. 

In 1876, Mr. Hayes was nominated by the National Republi- 
can Convention at Cincinnati, as a candidate for the Presidency, 
and was inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, 

1877. 

Mr. Hayes is a good-sized, well formed man. He is every way 
well made, has a handsome head and a rather handsome body, 
and a face which would introduce him favorably anywhere. His 
complexion is light, skin florid, temperament composed of the vital 
motive and mental in almost the same proportions. He is more 
profound than showy, has a hopeful, happy nature, and is emi- 
nently social. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF DISTIN- 
GUISHED MEN. 



LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 




jMjKJJHE French people have loved and reverenced the name 
of Napoleon ; because it was inseparably connected with 
the palmy days of the empire, and they yielded to the 
name the homage which they never would have given to 
Napoleon III. At the best he was an usurper and a robber; at 
the worst, he was not only an usurper and robber, but a degraded 
man, whose depraved nature was a hot bed in whose nursing care 
every vice, both native and exotic, had flourished and grown rank 
and strong. If he had one redeeming trait of character, the world 
is not clear-sighted enough, or sufficiently charitable, to look for it, 
and it is not prominent enough to be like a light that is set on a 
hill and can not be hid. If the career of the Napoleonic dynasty 
is without parallel it certainly owes but little of its glory to Napo- 
leon III. 

Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte is the son of Louis 
Napoleon, King of Holland, and Hortense, daughter of the Em- 
press Josephine, by her first marriage, with the Viscount de 
Beauharnois. He resided with his mother in Paris, until 1814. 
When the first great disaster of Napoleon occurred after the Rus- 
sian expedition, when defeat and disgrace had overwhelmed him, 
Hortense, with a faith as strong as was his own in the star of his 
destiny, watched and waited for his return, and when the glad 
day came, exulted in the brilliant success that rewarded the hero 

505 




Napoleon III. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 507 

of a hundred battles. Again the clouds darkened over France 
— again her blue lilies were drenched with the life-blood of her 
bravest sons — again the wild storm burst over that devoted land, 
and on the ensanguined plain of Waterloo, the star of Napoleon 
I. set to rise no more. 

Under the rule of the Bourbons France drooped and languished, 
praying, in stealthy ways, for deliverance from the accursed yoke of 
a race it hated. The revolution of 1830 in France rekindled the 
fierce flames of discontent in Italy, and for the first time in his 
life we find Louis Napoleon, whom the jealous watchfulness of 
Louis Philippe prevented from taking an active part in the politics 
of his country, turning his attention to that distracted province, 
and as he became an object of attention to the progressive party, 
he became, in an even greater measure, an object of dread and 
suspicion to the Papal government, and was ordered to withdraw 
from Rome. The request, pointed and significant, was not com- 
plied with. A guard was then sent to remove him, but he eluded 
them and fled to Florence ; and the insurrection of the Romagna 
so long suppressed, burst forth, and the tri-colored flags waved 
defiance from the battlement of every stronghold in Italy; but the 
fingers of the Austrian despot were upon her throat, and the fierce 
and beautiful, but weak and helpless, queen of the Old World lay 
disarmed and powerless at his feet. 

It was not until 1832 that the eyes of Europe were centered 
upon Louis Napoleon as the probable head of the Napoleonic 
dynasty, and Louis Philippe, under the restless motion of the. 
people whom he lacked the power to control, trembled as he read 
the hand-writing upon his palace walls, and knew that his king- 
dom was passing into other hands. The far-seeing wisdom and 
shrewd foresight of the "coming man," convinced him that the 
French must have not only a change of power, but a change of 
government, and though every nerve leaped and thrilled at the 
lightest thought of the old glory of France, he foresaw that a 
throne was a thing of the past, and that too much of the wild, 
free air of America had fluttered over the briny deep, and that 
the passionate hearts of the people whom he aspired to lead, must 
at least be humored in the idea that they might establish a repub- 
lic as fair and strong as our own. He circulated pamphlets 
amongst the laboring classes, in which he talked of the " rights of 



5°8 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

the people," of course, in a guarded way, he talked to them of 
freedom and of national existence that should be untrammeled by- 
tyranny, of a day when no despot's foot should be upon their 
neck, and they believed him, and longed for the coming of the 
day he had pictured to their imagination. Thus far his life had 
been without political reproach, and without shame, and no im- 
prudence had shaken the faith of the people in his ability or his 
honesty. The reasonable and honorable had predominated. 

The state of France at this time was peculiar, and the irrepres- 
sible turbulence, and the disappointment which they felt in Louis 
Philippe, whose selfishness, avarice and perfidy merited their con- 
tempt, presented a temptation which a stronger mind than Na- 
poleon might have yielded to. Every attempt which the reigning 
monarch took to render himself popular seemed to act against 
him, and the conspiracy of Strasbourg was to him as a funeral 
knell. Though it was a failure, and Napoleon a prisoner, he 
knew that the days of his reign were numbered ; although, when 
he had banished the aspiring young prince from the soil of 
France, and pronounced a sentence of perpetual exile, no doubt 
he breathed more freely; and when an ocean rolled between him 
and the rival he feared and hated, he hoped against hope for the 
perpetuation of his own reign. His arrival in New York is still 
well remembered, and while it is asserted that his life became that 
of an abandoned debauchee, that he was overwhelmed with want, 
that he was arrested for debt, and that he acted in every manner 
unworthy of his name, his rank and his hopes, it is probable that 
these stories are highly exaggerated, or untrue in the main. He 
was recalled from America by a letter from his mother, who was 
lying in a very critical condition, and braving the wrath, and 
defying the hatred of Louis Philippe, he embarked for Europe, 
and reached Arnumburg in time to render the last offices of 
affection to his dying mother. After her death he resided for 
some time in London, and was, at more than one period of his 
life there, so impoverished as to be dependent upon his mistress, 
the beautiful and fascinating Mrs. Howard. His destitution, his 
misfortunes, and the glory which attached to his name, attracted 
her to this penniless aspirant to the throne of the Bourbons. But 
though he lived in forced exile — enduring it because he could not 
avoid it — his busy brain still toiled and wrought away at the tan- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 509 

gled knot of destiny ; and though the thread led out into dark- 
ness, he believed it was to lead him to honor, or at least to glory. 
But alas, at Boulogne he again suffered the defeat which his rash, 
immature plans seemed only to court; and again he was a 
prisoner. 

Arraigned for trial before the Chamber of Peers, he was con- 
victed upon the evidence of his own proclamations to the people, 
as well as the fact of his having been taken while fighting against 
the Crown. He was condemned to imprisonment for life in the 
fortress ot Ham. For six long years he was kept in close con- 
finement, and at last, when the vigilance of the guard was some- 
what relaxed, found means of escape through the adroit and 
faithful management of his physician, Dr. Conneau ; and he again 
found an asylum in London. He seemed now to believe that the 
downfall of Louis Philippe would soon take place, and he be- 
lieved rightly. He founded his opinion upon the observation that 
the ruling powers had held the throne but sixteen or seventeen 
years. Seventeen years Napoleon I. reigned. Seventeen years 
the restored Bourbons were in supremacy. Seventeen years Louis 
Philippe occupied the throne; and, predicted Schmucker, we 
may safely prophesy that seventeen years will be about the time 
allotted by the hand of destiny for the reign of the restored Bou- 
napartes. Maddened by wrong and oppression, and hating bit- 
terly the man who ruled them, the people at length forced Louis 
Philippe to abdicate the throne, and declared they would have a 
republican form of government. Accordingly, upon the 10th of 
December, 1848, an election was held which resulted in Napo- 
leon's being proclaimed President of the French Republic, for the 
term of four years. 

At last, after weary years waiting and hoping, he stood at the 
head of the French government, and if his position was not what 
he had fondly hoped and aspired to — if it was but as Dead Sea 
apples, where he had looked for Pomegranates — or a stone where 
he had asked for bread — or Marah water to thirst that longed to 
quench itself in the free, sweet mountain springs — at least it was 
something, and he could bide his time, and await the moment when 
he could spring into the position he craved. For four years he 
never lost sight of this for one instant, and at the end of that 
time was elected for ten years. We use the term " elected," but 



510 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

it was carried at the bayonet's point, and Paris was guarded with 
a hundred thousand armed soldiers, who had been rendered 
savage with brandy. There were true hearts there in the doomed 
city, who had determined to give their lives before they would 
relinquish their liberties. There was a sharp conflict of a few 
hours; Napoleon's minions were triumphant and the Parisians 
yielded to the power they were helpless to withstand. At the end 
of a week tranquility was restored, and order again reigned 
throughout France; the Assembly was obliterated, and Louis Na- 
poleon had realized the darling, life-long aspirations of his heart ; 
the dying prayer of Hortense was fulfilled, and at length her son, 
the heir of the Great Napoleon, was absolute Monarch of France. 
When he was elevated to the imperial throne, he dispatched to 
the Emperor Nicholas, in common with the other sovereigns of 
Europe, a messenger, informing him of his new dignity. Nicholas 
returned, after an insulting delay, an answer so cold, so ambigu- 
ous, and so destitute of all courtesy — even the hollow and worth- 
less courtesy which usually characterizes the intercourse of sov- 
ereigns not actually engaged in war, — that Louis Napoleon was 
compelled to resent it. He was not in a position to grapple with 
the Russian Bear, but I have said before that his was one of those 
natures who bide their time, and know the moment when it is safe 
to strike ; and that moment did not come to him until, allied 
with England, he dictated, with his hereditary enemy, terms to 
Russia. Sevastopol fell, after a siege of twelve months, and a 
hundred thousand men had fallen around and within her walls ; 
and there, France and her hated ally, dictated terms to the 
haughty and imperious Czar, who had no choice but to accept 
them. It was the proudest day in Napoleon's life, — before its 
triumph the glory of his coronation day dwindled into insignifi- 
cance, since he not only humbled Russia, but England was forced 
to meet as an equal a monarch whom she looked upon, as did the 
rest of the world, as an upstart and an usurper. 

The years rolled on; Napoleon waxed mighty, in his own con- 
ceit, at least, and wearying of inactivity, and sighing for fresh 
conquests, he bethought him to add to the luster of a somewhat 
unenviable reputation, by subduing his ancient enemy, Prussia. 
The war has been denounced as wanton and unprovoked, and no 
doubt was so, with but one motive which can be urged. Apart 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 5U 

from his passion for the perpetuation of his dynasty, he had, of 
course, some feeling for France, as one of the great powers of 
Europe. The position of Prussia, so late her inferior, now men- 
aced her with humiliation. There was no choice for France ; she 
must relinquish her prestige to a nation she despised, even while 
she feared it, or she must subdue it before it had grown too proud 
and strong to be subdued. Having decided upon war, nothing 
but a pretext was wanting, and this was easily found in the refusal 
of the King of Prussia to prohibit, absolutely, the candidature of 
the Prince Leopold, or of any other Prussian prince, then or ever, 
for the throne of Spain. The indignant refusal of Prussia, who 
was in a better position to dictate terms than was France, was 
seized upon. Such was the insignificant origin of a war which 
cost the nations a quarter of a million lives, and France alone the 
enormous sum of $2,500,000,000. Her capital is in ruins, — her 
high places were laid waste — her villages were depopulated, and 
the country impoverished. At Sedan came the last fell blow 
which covered him with defeat and disgrace, and accomplished 
the overthrow of the Napoleonic dynasty; and there, in the even- 
ing of that bleak, dark day, September 1, 1870, Napoleon surren- 
dered his sword, his army and himself into the hands of the 
Emperor Wilhelm. Paris was beseiged and surrendered to the 
Germans, Napoleon was declared deposed, and a republic was 
again set up in France. The late emperor retired to England, 
where he died, January 9th, 1873. 




Leaders of the German Armies, in the French and German War 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. „, 

BISMARK. 

^INCE 1862, Count Karl Otto von Bismark '-Schonhausen 
has really stood at the head of the Prussian nation. His 
spirit has been felt in peace and war, and his counsels 
have chiefly controlled King William. This stern, hard, 
positive old man is so fully under the control of Von Bismark 
as to be moulded into an altogether different being ; 
yet he appears to be wholly unconscious of the fact, and com- 
placently gives the orders that are the suggestions of Bismark, 
securing, at last, the love and respect of those who, a few years 
ago, were bitterly hostile to every measure he advanced or advo- 
cated. The man who could accomplish such results, and, while 
preserving peace between the King and the people, lead both for- 
ward in harmony to a higher position, deserves the credit of being 
one of, if not the first statesman in Europe. 

Bismark was born at Schonhausen, in the province of Saxony, 
April 1, 1 8 14. His family belonged to the ancient nobility, and 
had long served the Saxon and Prussian rulers. He was educated 
for the legal profession, but entered the army soon after obtaining 
his degree of Doctor of Philosophy, serving first in the light in- 
fantry, and afterwards as an officer of the reserves. He did not 
enter upon public life, or take any part in politics until he was 
thirty years of age, when he was elected to the Diet of Saxony, 
and afterwards to the United Diet, in 1847. In the latter he soon 
became leader of the conservative party, and distinguished him- 
self for eloquence and logical ability. He opposed the adoption 
of the constitution which was offered to Prussia, fought furiously 
against the prevailing democracy of the period, and it is said de- 
clared vehemently that the great cities of Europe ought to be 
razed to the ground because they were hot-beds of democracy and 
constitutionalism. Since that time he has grown wiser, and looks 
to a constitutional form of government as something which might, 
under some circumstances be warranted. His course at the Diet 
attracted the attention of King Frederick William IV., and in 
1 85 1 he assigned him the difficult and important post of Privy 
Counselor to the Prussian Embassy at Frankfort. In this posi- 
tion he laid down the principle that Prussia could not fulfill 
her mission to Germany until Austria should be driven from the 
33 



514 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

confederation. In 1852 he was sent on a special mission to 
Vienna, and there as at Frankfort showed himself the vigilant and 
untiring adversary of Count Rochberg, the Austrian Premier. A 
pamphlet, written with great ability, appeared in 1858, entitled 
" Prussia on the Italian Question," and was very generally attrib- 
uted to him — no doubt with truth — for he never lost an opportu- 
nity to wield tongue or pen in behalf of what he believed to be 
the best interests of his government. In 1856 he was minister to 
St. Petersburg, and in i860 he visited Paris. In May, 1862, he 
was transferred by the present King to the French Embassy, but 
remained in Paris only till September, when he was summoned to 
Berlin as premier of the new Cabinet, with the double duty of 
governor of the King's household and Minister of Foreign Affairs. 
He had already attained high distinction as a diplomatist and a 
parliamentarian, but his new position was one requiring greater 
talents, and those of a higher order than any yet displayed, and he 
soon proved himself quite equal to the emergency. He inherited 
from the Ministry a chronic quarrel with the House of Deputies 
of the Prussian Legislature. The King and his cabinet had 
deemed it indispensable to reorganize the army, and substitute 
for the militia a system of military training which would make 
every able-bodied man in the realm an educated soldier, owing 
and giving to the nation three years of military service ; forming a 
reserve force liable to be called upon in actual war. Connected 
with this were changes, promoting greater efficiency amongst the 
officers, and making the nation a nation of soldiers — every man 
an adept in the use of arms. The necessity of this grew out of 
the position of Prussia in relation to Germany. Either she, a 
nearly pure German power, or Austria, whose population was 
mostly made up of non-German nationalities, must lead Germany. 
If Prussia was to take this place she must be prepared for it; if she 
yielded the position that was rightfully her own — if she accepted at 
the hands of Austria the humiliating alternative of war, she must 
do it in silence and forever after hold her peace. In that case 
she sank to a second-rate power, and might never hope to rise, 
at least without war — war it might be — probably must be — 
if she sustained herself, since Austria would not relinquish her 
position without fighting. And Prussia must be prepared for it, 
since she would have to contend with superior power, $0 far as 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 515 

numbers and resources were concerned, yet to give any hint to the 
world of her object was to court defeat. The King, therefore, 
under Bismark's advice, though himself opposed to a war with 
Austria for any cause, went forward and reorganized the army, 
expending large sums of money and doing the work thoroughly, 
and then calling upon the Diet for an appropriation to meet it. 
This was persistently refused, and when the House of Nobles 
voted it the Diet impeached the action as illegal, and long and 
bitter was the struggle between the two Houses ; but when the 
crisis came, and Prussia, having formed an alliance with Italy, 
declared war with Austria, and defeated her in seven weeks, the 
-wisdom of Bismark's course was obvious, and those who had de- 
nounced him most unreservedly were then willing to acknowl- 
edge their obligations to him. The German Confederacy was 
reorganized with Prussia at its head, and all the German States, 
except Austria, bound by treaties either offensive or defensive ; 
and it was to the wisdom and prudence of the Prime Minister 
that this was due. Gifted with a remarkable insight into the 
motives of men, and especially of monarchs and political leaders, 
Count von Bismark has measured his strength with the ablest 
diplomatists in Europe, but has never met his equal ; indeed, we do 
not believe that for far-seeing judgment, for concentration and 
strength of purpose, for rare discrimination, and cool, calm, rea- 
soning powers, there is a living statesman in Europe who is his 
peer. He was aware, after the battle of Sadowa, that Napoleon 
would make a war between France and Prussia as soon as he 
could find a pretext for doing it, and he foresaw, better than any 
one else did, what the pretext would be. While carefully 
avoiding any provocation, he was urging on, with quiet force, every 
means to be ready to meet it, and when Napoleon declared war, 
Prussia was ready to meet it, but France was not. Proud, 
haughty and imperious, depending too much upon the glory of 
}he Napoleonic Dynasty to intimidate the world, or, perhaps, he 
really believed the arms of France were invincible, yet he has had 
jbundant opportunity, in his forced seclusion, to meditate upon 
♦he fallacy of measuring swords with a man like Bismark. In 
person the Count is a portly but intellectual looking man, with a 
qvixck, nervous manner, partly the result of ill-health, yet with an 
air A great self-command, while his keen, brilliant eyes have a 



516 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

most pleasing expression. He is a fine scholar, thoroughly 
acquainted with most of the languages of Europe, speaking them 
fluently. His herculean labors within the last five years have 
permanently impaired his health, and it is not likely he will ever 
regain it. While Germany is a nation, and while her people glory 
in the triumph of her cause, they will never forget how much is 
due toBismark's diplomatic and parliamentary powers for their 
reorganization and safe establishment as an independent and 
honorable kingdom, and the first power in Europe, 



CARL SCHURZ. 



>N 1848, when the present formidable German Empire was 
divided into some thirty-seven duchies, principalities and 
other monarchial governments, which drained the substance 
from the people that held them in bonds of almost penal servitude, 
a few brave men called the masses to arms, and sought to establish 
a great republic. Among the prominent agitators of the move- 
ment was Carl Schurz, now Senator from Missouri. It is but a 
matter of history that the uprising was unsuccessful, and a large 
number of the leaders were executed, others imprisoned, and 
many banished. Among the latter was Carl Schurz. Upon tak- 
ing his forced departure, he exclaimed : " To-day I leave you, 
an exile ; but I shall return, and when I do you shall respect me 
as much as you now despise me ! " and if any man had the power 
to make good the words that to the old world despots were both 
a threat and a prophesy, it is he who flung them back as a parting 
souvenir to a power he hated. 

Physically he is tall, sinewy and lean. His physiognomy is 
pure Teutonic. A fair forehead, under dark-brown, carelessly- 
combed hair , sallow cheeks ; a sharply-cut nose, and deep inden- 
tations above flaring nostrils ; a reddish moustache and a reddish 




Carl Schurz. 



518 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

beard, pretty closely trimmed ; a strong jaw, lips that can smile- 
sweetly or curl into a sneer like Mephistopheles' own, and eyes 
singularly expressive and piercing : these are the features of Carl 
Schurz. Between n and 12 every forenoon he walks up the 
avenue to the capitol with a heavy overcoat wrapped around him, 
his left hand holding the folds together over his chest, and his 
right hand' swinging a Malacca cane. 

In the Senate, divested of his overcoat his figure appears the 
more lithe and slender. His movements are in striking contrast 
with the slow, formal, and studied movements of many of the elder 
Senators, being full of nervous vivacity and grace. His manner 
is courtesy itself. Generally, his first business after taking his. 
seat appears to be the wiping of his spectacles with a spotless 
handkerchief. By the time this little thing is done, the Senator 
has in a series of swift glances surveyed the Chamber, galleries 
and all ; and many are the imperceptible signs of personal recogni- 
tion which flash from his keen eyes. In the time of debate he is 
a careful listener. He never insults an adversary while that ad- 
versary is speaking by a mean pretense of being engaged in letter- 
writing or the examination of papers ; on the contrary, it seems 
natural to Senator Schurz to preserve the demeanor of a gentle- 
man toward all his associates at all times. This politeness on his; 
part doubtless has its influence, in conjunction with the fascina- 
tion of his abilities, to secure for him, whenever he arises 
to address the Senate, an attentive audience on the floor. He is; 
always charged with something to say on every important question * 
but he has the sense and tact to reserve himself for occasions wheiL 
his voice and influence could not well be spared. He is never 
trivial; never makes much of small topics. Therefore when 
Carl Schurz gets on his feet, there is generally a reason for it, and 
he does not often sit down without vindicating some principle 
worthy of such an advocate. 

In an important debate fitted to call into exercise all his powers,, 
he makes a magnificent figure. His firm yet elastic posture ; his; 
gestures, commanding, graceful, vehement ; his voice, now ringing 
loud, now subdued to impressive monotones ; his irresistible Ger- 
man accent ; the close reasoning, cumulative logic, sarcasm and 
eloquence of his speech ; its fine, nervous English ; and above 
and beyond all, the manly earnestness and fervor with which he is 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. $ l 9* 

evidently defending a principle dear to his heart, make him a 
great orator. * * * What is chiefly edifying to a student of 
the current debates is the dominion of such a mind as his over 
the bombast, the quibbles, the stump oratory, and the rickety 
logic of Senatorial quacks. It suggests the poise of an eagle in the 
" blue serene " above a flock of clacking wild geese. 

The lovable side of Carl Schurz's character is, the sociable and 
domestic side. He has a noble wife and one child, and a quiet 
home in Washington. There, on Saturday evenings, his friends 
are entertained with conversation and music. There is certainly 
no difficulty in conversing with the Senator, because he talks flu- 
ently in three languages, and we don't know how many more. He 
has a true German fondness for music, and is said to be a fine 
amateur pianist. In March, 1877, Mr. Schurz was called to the 
Cabinet by President Hayes, as Secretary of the Interior. 



LYMAN TRUMBULL. 



>N speaking of this man, no introduction is needed; 
His name is familiar to every voter, his speeches have been 
read at every fireside, and his acts have been before the 
public for many years. He was born in Colchester, Conn., in 
1813. In his sixteenth year he became a teacher in his native 
town, and upon reaching his majority went to Georgia, where he 
was engaged in teaching for several years, devoting all his spare 
time to the study of law, and was admitted to the bar while he 
was still a resident of that State. 

In 1837 he removed to Illinois, and in 1840 represented St. 
Clair county in the State Legislature ; and in 1841 was made 
Secretary of the State of Illinois. In 1848 he was elected one of 
the Chief Justices of the State Supreme Court, an office which he 
held for thirteen years. In 1855 the Legislature elected him to 



£20 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

the Senate of the United States, and in 1861-67 he was re-elected. 

In connection with other leading men, and in accordance with 
the known wishes of the people, he advocated earnestly the nom- 
ination of President Lincoln, both for his first and second terms of 
office. 

Senator Trumbull is one of our strong men. He is emi- 
nently practical, and very firm ; while rarely, if ever, acting upon 
impulse, he rarely, if ever, changes an opinion. He is an earnest, 
thoughtful, conscientious man, not one of those, perhaps, to whom 
our hearts go out involuntarily with their freight and offering of 
love, but one of those whom we honor and trust, and to whom we 
could safely commit the keeping of our national honor. 



SCHUYLER COLFAX. 



«f^Xg)ON. SCHUYLER COLFAX was born in the city of 
Jy(c)yR New York, March 23, 1823. He early learned to depend 
^p^J^ upon himself, and prepare to meet life's stern realities, 
and to breast the tide of human affairs with what strength and 
forces were at his command. His father died before his babe was 
born, leaving the young widow with exceedingly limited resources 
When he was ten years old, Schuyler went into a store, where he 
remained three years, and then, with his mother and stepfather, 
removed to the West, and settled in Indiana, where he again found 
employment as a dry goods clerk, for four years more. He must 
have given promise already of ability, for before he was eighteen 
he was appointed deputy auditor, and moved to South Bend. He 
possessed some literary taste, and wrote fluently and correctly, 
and attracted some attention by articles in the country papers of 
the day. In 1845 he began the publication of the St. Joseph Val- 
ley Register. His speculation seems not to have been imme- 
diately successful, for it is said that the young editor found 




HON. SCHUYLER COLFAX. 



522 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

himself deeply in debt — almost any one but him would have said,, 
hopelessly so — and when, by the closest attention to business, he 
had placed his paper on a safe footing, he had the misfortune to 
lose his office by fire. Having no insurance on it, of course the 
loss was total. It is pleasant to be able to say that the courage 
of the young man was equal to the emergency, and that his energy 
made it a popular and profitable paper. 

The beginning of his political career was his appointment as; 
delegate and secretary to the Whig National Convention. In 
1849 he was a member of the Convention to revise the Constitution 
of Indiana. In 185 1 he received his first nomination to Congress, 
but lost the election. In 1855 he was re-nominated, and elected 
by a majority of two thousand ; and has been returned to each sue- 
ceeding Congress. He approved of the nomination of Mr. Lin- 
coln, as one of the best and safest measures of the period, warmly 
seconded every effort for the election, and during his entire ad- 
ministration was a wise and faithful friend, a discreet and judicious 
counselor. He was Speaker of the House of Representatives 
during the sessions of the Thirty-eighth Congress, and subse- 
quently twice filled the office. The National Republican Con- 
vention which met in Chicago in May, 1868, nominated Mr. 
Colfax for the Vice-Presidency under Grant ; and the measure 
gave great satisfaction to the people. Mr. Colfax had for many 
years been a widower, having been married while very young to 
a sweet, frail girl, who drooped and faded and died, as the blos- 
soms die when wild rude winds sweep round them. A few days 
after his nomination to the office of Vice President, he was mar- 
ried to Miss Ella M. Wade, a niece of Hon. B. F. Wade, of Ohio, 
a most amiable and accomplished woman. Mr. Colfax is a man 
whose many virtues, pleasing manners and address have made 
him popular, while his firm adherence to principle has won him. 
the respect of the nation. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



523 




CHARLES SUMNER. 




^jffOR forty years the name of Charles Sumner has been before 
the American people, and for more than thirty years he 
has been a leading statesman. His ancestors for several 
generations had been legal men — indeed, one may safely say that 
it is a family trait to incline to the profession of the law. 

Charles Sumner was, born in Boston, January 6th, 1811 ; grad- 
uated from Harvard College in 1830 and was admitted to the bar 
in 1836. In 1837 he visited Europe and spent three years on the 
Continent, when he returned to America and resumed the prac- 
tice of law in Boston. Mr. Sumner, though not at this time an 
active politician, was claimed by the Whigs as belonging to their 
party, and most likely he did. He strongly opposed the Mexican 
War, and wrote a letter to Hon. Robert C- Winthrop, who then 
was the Member of Congress from Boston, filled with the most 
scathing rebuke, for having voted in favor of that war in direct 



S 2 4 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

contradiction to the known wishes of his constituents. When Mr. 
Webster was withdrawn from the Senate by Mr. Fillmore to a place 
in his cabinet, Charles Sumner was chosen to fill the vacancy, and, 
already ahead of all parties on some of the great questions of the 
day, he now took a more decided stand. He dissolved his con- 
nection with the Whigs, broke with a firm hand all old political 
ties that bound him, and became a leader in the new Free Soil 
party. Mr. Sumner's public life has been so prominent that it is 
well known. Upon the Missouri Compromise and Kansas Bill 
he was particularly earnest and enthusiastic, determined to do all 
in his pbwer to hand down to posterity laws that should not dis- 
grace America. His speech which was published under the title 
of " The Crime Against Kansas," occupied two entire days in its 
delivery. It created intense excitement and indignation amongst 
those who were opposed to his views, and arguments which could 
not be defeated by words were met by blows. Preston S. Brooks, 
a Representative from South. Carolina, attacked Mr. Sumner two 
days afterwards, while he sat at his desk unarmed, engaged in 
writing, and beat him over his head with a heavy cane until he 
fell insensible. In the following January, while still suffering 
from his injuries, he was re-elected to Congress, but his health was 
so poor, and his suffering so great, that he went to Europe by the 
advice of his physician, to see if he might not be benefited by 
change of air. Still very feeble, he returned in the fall, but the 
next May again went abroad to submit to a course of medical 
treatment which had the desired effect, and after an absence of 
eighteen months he again resumed his official duties. 

Mr. Sumner took an active part in the election of Mr. Lincoln 
to the presidential chair, and considered the triumph not one of 
party but of principle. In 1861, he was made Chairman of the 
Committee on Foreign Relations, and at that time the position 
was one requiring the greatest discretion as well as delicacy. 
He entered his third senatorial term in March, 1863. He was 
deeply pained by President Johnson's course ; indeed, so widely 
different were their views it was impossible to reconcile them, and 
from the first to the last he was a bitter and constant opponent of 
" My Policy." Mr. Sumner died, March nth, 1874, at Wash- 
ington. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 5 2 5 



JOHN W. CHANLER. 



)OHN WINTHROP CHAXLER was born in the city of 
@3fjf New York, in 1826. He graduated in Columbia College in 
1847, and, like most of our political men, made law the 
profession of his choice. In 1859 he was a member of the New 
York State Assembly and gave the greatest satisfaction, as well as 
high promise for the future. In i860 he declined the nomination 
which was tendered him for the State Senate. For two years we 
hear little of him, but that he practiced his profession with great 
success, and was popular as a lawyer ; but evidently the desire of 
the people was toward him, for he was elected to the Thirty-eighth 
Congress, and again to the Thirty-ninth and Fortieth. Perhaps 
Mr. Chanler has never done anything in all his public life by 
which he distinguished himself so much as by his powerful speech 
in answer to Thaddeus Stevens, in reply to his Confiscation Bill. 
We wish it were possible to give it here — eloquent, impetuous, strong 
and overflowing with unmeasured indignation and fiery denuncia- 
tion of a measure which he considered and characterized as the 
basest robbery. We pass no criticism upon the principle he advo- 
cated ; we leave that to each reader, supposing him competent to 
form his own opinion, and only ask him to remember that it was 
at a time when party strife and bitterness ran high, and when 
it was necessary to set aside the courtesy and dainty politeness de- 
manded and tendered on ordinary occasions and act quickly and 
decisively. We doubt if ever a senator delivered a more powerful 
speech upon any subject. His speech upon the rights of American 
citizens abroad is also spoken of as one of his best efforts, and one 
in which are some fine ideas most ably expressed. In looking at 
his life, and at his abilities, we prophesy for him a greater work 
than he has yet done. 



526 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



JOHN A. LOGAN. 



»OHN A. LOGAN was born in Illinois in 1826. His father, 
one of the first settlers of the Prairie State, was born 
in Ireland. His mother was from the State of Tennessee, 
and is spoken of as a lovely woman ; and it is from this daughter 
of the South that he inherits his warm, glowing temperament 
and his impulsive disposition. His father was a man of fine tal- 
ents, and a good scholar. In ^hose days school houses were not 
by any means as plenty as now, so he took the education of his 
boy into his own hands, and I have never heard but that he did 
credit to his teacher. As had been foreseen and prophesied by 
prominent statesmen and prophetic lookers-on, the Mexican war 
followed the annexation of Texas ; the call for volunteers rang 
through the land, and bright swords leaped from the scabbard 
at the touch of willing hands, as from the North and the South her 
ruddy sons went out to defend the dear old flag. With the fore- 
most of these young Logan marched to the fray, and on those dis- 
tant western battle-fields won his first laurels. From that day to 
this no year has passed but fresh leaves have been added, of deeper, 
more fadeless green. 

At the first he was chosen lieutenant in a company of the first 
Illinois volunteers, and the records of that war contain evidence 
that he was a good and faithful soldier. In the fall of 1848, hav- 
ing returned home, he commenced the study of law, and in No- 
vember, 1 841, was elected clerk of Jackson county. He was 
admitted to the bar in 1851, and commenced practice with his 
uncle, A. M. Jenkins, Esq., who had once been Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor of Illinois, and in 1852 he was elected prosecuting attorney 
of the third judicial district. In the autumn of the same year 
he was elected to the State legislature, and was three times re- 
elected. In 1856 he was chosen presidential elector, and was the 
successful democratic candidate for representative in Congress- 
bcing re-elected by the same parity in i860. He was one of the 




JOHN A. LOGAN, 



528 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

strongest supporters of Stephen A. Douglas for the presidency ;; 
yet so strong was his love for peace and order, and so far did his. 
love for his country exceed his love of party, that he proved a. 
stanch friend of Mr. Lincoln, after his election. 

During the rebellion Mr. Logan's record was one of which, 
either as an honest man, an officer, or a patriot, no one need be 
ashamed. 

In 1862 he was urged to again take part in political life, by 
allowing his name to be used as candidate for Congressman-at— 
large, but he declined, believing that he had higher duties to ful- 
fil, and that there were many who could fill that position as well, 
as he. In 1868 he was offered the position of Minister to Mexico, 
but declined it, and was then elected a Representative to the For- 
tieth Congress, was re-elected to the Forty-first, and appointed 
chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs, for which he was 
eminently qualified. In Congress, as on the battle-field, he is im- 
petuous, fiery, out-spoken, frank — sometimes rash. He was styled 
the " Murat of the Army," and deserves, better than any living 
orator and statesman, the title of the Calhoun of the age. 

In 187 1 Gen. Logan was elected to the Senate of the Uni- 
ted States, by the Republicans of Illinois. 



REVERDY JOHNSON. 




?EW are the links that are left to bind us to an age that 
seems so far in the past, and one of that few is Reverdy 
Johnson, Senator from Maryland, who was born in Annap- 
olis in that State, May 26, 1796. His father was an eminent law- 
yer and held the offices of Attorney General, Judge of Appeals, 
and Chancellor of the State of Maryland. Reverdy was sent to 
the primary department of St. John's College when but six years 
old, and remained in that institution until, having pursued a. 
thorough classical and mathematical course, he left the school 
without graduating, and studied law in his father's office. One 
day, as the boy sat delving deep in the musty old tomes, it was told 
him that the British were about to attack Washington. The en- 




REVERDY JOHNSON. 



34 



53° FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

thusiastic young student, seeing a regiment of hastily recruited 
volunteers marching past, caught his cap and joined them in such 
haste that his slippers, in which he sat to study, were not changed 
for more substantial shoes, and before half the distance was passed, 
he was barefooted ; but his company were in time to take part in 
the battle of Bladensburg, August 24, 181 5. Two years after he 
removed to Baltimore, where he had an extensive practice and 
held the position of Chief Commissioner of Insolvent Debtors. In 
181 2 he was elected State Senator of Maryland for a term of five 
years, and re-elected at its expiration, but resigned his seat at the 
end of the second year, and returned to his profession, to which 
he gave his undivided attention. 

In legal learning Mr. Johnson is said to stand at the head of the 
profession in America, and in all parts of the United States, and in 
Europe his services have been sought. In California he has seve- 
ral times tried cases requiring great skill and nice judgment, and 
in England he tried successfully a case involving a heavy sum 
against our government. 

In politics Mr. Johnson has been a whig, and was a warm per- 
sonal friend of Clay ; yet believing that the interests of the country 
would be advanced thereby he used all his influence to secure the 
election of Jackson over Adams. When General Taylor was 
elected President Mr. Johnson was appointed Attorney General^ 
but upon the death of his friend he resigned the office. When 
the policy of southern leaders made war inevitable, Mr. Johnson 
threw the full force of his influence against it, and declared that 
secession was heresy and madness ; and in i860, before the Su- 
preme Court, he pronounced one of the most glowing and 
eloquent eulogies upon union, picturing in the strongest terms the 
condition of the several States, and the disgraceful position of our 
republic before the world, should secession be successful. At Balti- 
more, while Maryland wavered between loyalty and rebellion, he 
labored almost frantically for the Union. A speech which he 
made before thousands of her citizens, is conceded to be one of 
the most powerful ever delivered upon the subject, and gave him 
a most honorable reputation. In 1862 he was elected to the 
United States Senate, and in 1864 gave his vote for the uncondi- 
tional abolishment of slavery ; also in the Thirty-ninth Congress he 
favored the immediate readmission of the seceded States. When 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY, 53I 

the Military Reconstruction Bill was before the Senate he op- 
posed it, but when even this seemed likely to be lost, and nothing 
gained in its stead, eager that any measure which should re-admit 
the South to her. old rights- under the government should be 
adopted, he urged its passage. Mr. Johnson has been one of the 
most industrious men of the Senate, or in public life, and his 
record is a grand one, an honor to himself and the State he rep- 
resents.. His death occured Feb. ioth 1876, at Annapolis Md. 



SIMON CAMERON. 




SHIMON CAMERON, better known as Secretary Cameron^ 
!^j) was born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, March 8th, 
1799, and educated himself while following his trade, which 
was that of a printer. He edited and published a paper called 
the Pennsylvania Intelligencer, and before he reached the age of 
twenty-two was editor of a paper in Harrisburg. He was active 
in promoting the welfare of the State, urging forward every inter- 
nal improvement which could add to her wealth and prosperity. 
In 1832 he established the Middleton Bank, and was president of 
two railroad companies. He was appointed by Governor Shultze 
Adjutant-General of Pennsylvania, and in 1845 was elected 
United States Senator for four years. His term of office expired, 
he again devoted himself to internal improvements and finances. 
1857 found him again in the Senate, for six years, but he resigned 
to become Secretary of War under President Lincoln,* but his 
views were so widely different from those entertained by the ad- 
ministration, that he withdrew from the cabinet and was appointed 
Minister Plenipotentiary to Russia. He found the Czar freeing 
the serfs, and his heart went out in rejoicing that this nation 
had so soon recognized the great principles of right and justice, 




SIMON CAMERON. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 533 

and he congratulated him for taking a position demanded of him 
by the age. He had been eager, from the first outbreak of the war 
between the North and South, that the services of the negroes 
should be accepted by the government for soldiers, and now he 
resigned his position abroad and hastened home to aid his coun- 
try in her struggle. When at last his long cherished wish was 
carried out and the negroes armed, he offered to raise a regiment 
and lead them into the field, but his services were more needed 
elsewhere. He continued to devote himself to the interests of 
the Union, and in 1866 was again elected to the United States 
Senate for the term ending 1873, and was at once placed on the 
Committee on Foreign Affairs. He was bitterly opposed to the 
administration of Johnson, feeling that it must be disastrous to 
the country, hence voted for his impeachment. In i860 he was 
a candidate for the nomination for the presidency. As a states- 
man, a politician and a financier, he is shrewd, but ever honest 
and fair. 



JAMES A. GARFIELD. 




CRITIC in the Northwestern Review, who was wise 
enough to withhold his name, says that " a man's success 
is the gage of his ability." I admire the excellent taste 
of the author in remaining anonymous. Every living being is,, 
more or less, the victim of circumstances. He may be the favor- 
ite of fortune, or the target of misfortune, and a vast deal of en- 
ergy and persistence would be needed, a vast deal of tact and 
ingenuity, too, to enable one to turn his disadvantages to advan- 
tage, and out-wit even fate by turning her weapons against herself. 
I believe a man can be almost anything he will dare to be, but 
there are far too many who will not dare to be anything. There 
is little question but there is an up-hill path for every man, if he 




JAMES A. GARFLELD. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY, 535 

will not waste the first and best years of life in loitering in the 
pleasant valleys — later, it is hidden by weeds and tangled vines 
that have sprung up and covered it It is a pleasant task to trace 
with mind and pen the career of the strong, brave men, who, 
struggling with poverty, friendless and alone, make for themselves 
a place on the pages of history. Perhaps there are few, if any, of 
those who have risen by their own efforts who deserve more credit 
than James A. Garfield. He was born in Cuyahoga county, Ohio, 
in 1 83 1. His father died when he was but a child — the youngest 
of four, of whom all were so young as to be entirely dependent 
upon their widowed mother. James attended the district school 
a few months in winter, and aided his mother, as soon as he was 
old enough, by working at the carpenter's trade ; but not liking 
the employment, he went as teamster or boatman on the canal. 
He loved the water, and the free life of a sailor had for him pecu- 
liar attractions, and he looked with fond longings to the time 
when he should be able to go upon the lakes or the ocean, and 
some day be owner of a gallant boat that would be able to outride 
storm and gale. A severe fit of sickness prevented him from im- 
mediately carrying out his darling project, and health returning 
but slowly, he began to attend the " Geauga Academy." He was 
too poor to pay his board, but took a room in a dreary little farm 
house and cooked his own simple meals. Subsequently he taught 
school and attended the academy alternately until his twenty- 
second year, when he entered Williams College, in Massachusetts. 
Here, after two years of study he graduated with high honors, 
when he returned to his home in Ohio, where he was made teacher 
of Latin and Greek in the Eclectic Institute, and soon after presi- 
dent of the institution. While he held this position he studied 
law, and also began to look into politics with something of the 
interest natural to a "rising young lawyer." In 1859 he repre- 
sented Portage and Summit counties in the Ohio Legislature, 
where he soon took a high position, both as a well-read politician, 
an eloquent and witty debater. 

When the war broke out, Mr. Garfield at once identified him- 
self with the interests of the North, and held almost every posi- 
tion in the army, from lieutenant to general. While still on the 
battle-field he was elected to the Thirty-eighth Congress from 
Ohio, and after three years of hard service the brave soldier 



536 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES 

resigned his commission to serve his country in another capacity. 
His sterling good sense and fine abilities made him justly popular* 
and he was re-elected for the Thirty-ninth Congress by a major- 
ity of twelve thousand. His thorough information on all financial 
questions and matters, recommended him for the position of 
Chairman on the Committee of V/ays and Means, in which capa- 
city he gave the utmost satisfaction, being consider-:-! one of the 
best of financiers. He was re-elected to the Forty-first Congress 
and was made chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs. 
He is a fine looking man, still young, and very popular. We have 
few, if any, better specimens of the " self-made man " than Mr. 
Garfield. 



BENJAMIN F. WADE, 



PENJAMIN F. WADE, of Ohio, is a character well worth 
studying, and a man who will not suffer in public opinion 
by a careful analysis of his history. He was born in 
Feeding Hill Parish, Mass., on the 27th of October, 1800, and 
was the youngest of ten children. His father was a soldier in the 
revolutionary war, and fought in every battle from Bunker Hill 
to Yorktown. His mother was a woman of rare worth and 
intellect, the daughter of a Presbyterian minister. The family 
were very poor — indeed, among the poorest in New England, 
and Beniamin was educated by his mother, never having attended 
school. 

The boy worked on a farm a few years, but his labors were re- 
warded by meagre wages, and at length he turned to the broad 
west for a field where wealth and honor might repay his efforts. 
When eighteen years old he started for Illinois on foot, with his 
wardrobe in a handkerchief on his shoulder, and five dollars in* 




BENJAMIN F. WADE 



53^ FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

money in his pocket. He walked as far as Ohio, when the deep 
snow and bitter cold rendered it difficult for him to proceed, and 
lie remained in Ashtabula county and chopped wood until spring 
for fifty cents per cord. His evenings and all spare moments 
were given to study ; in the summer he cleared land and worked 
with his might at anything which his hands found to do. In the 
winter he taught a district school, and then for two years was 
engaged in buying and selling cattle. When about twenty-three 
years old he began to study law, and was admitted to the bar in 
two years, and made rapid progress in his profession, though he 
had to wait twelve weary months for his first case ; but the ability 
he displayed in managing it procured his election to the office of 
Prosecuting Attorney of Ashtabula county. He was soon after 
sent to the State Senate where he took an important part in 
securing the abolition of the law for imprisonment for debt, and 
also against the admission of Texas as a slave State. The latter 
act gave offense to his friends, and lost him his office for the 
next two terms. 

In 1 841 Mr. Wade was elected Judge of the Third Judicial 
Circuit, and retained the position four years, when he was elected 
United States Senator from Ohio. He was not an aspirant for 
the office — had never asked or sought it in any way, and in his 
first speech on the Senate floor declared that, since he must act 
in that capacity, he should act, not with a view to gaining popu- 
larity, but that humanity might be benefited by his labors. In 
those days republicans were few in Congress, and had but little 
influence or power, but Mr. Wade at once avowed his sentiments 
to be in sympathy with that party. He met the members from 
the southern States friendly and fearlessly. Tombs, of Georgia, 
who admired him much, once said of him to the Senators from 
the northern States, " He is always honest, outspoken and straight- 
forward — I wish to God the rest of you were like him." 

There was a time when Mr. Wade came so near being our 
President that, as one historian says, " He barely missed it." 
Near the close of the Thirty-ninth Congress, when it seemed likely 
that the impeachment of Mr. Johnson would remove him from 
office, Mr. Wade was elected President of the Senate for the bal- 
ance of the term, and the same author adds, " The narrowness of 
Mr. Johnson's escape and the nearness of Mr. Wade to being 






OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 539 

President, are among the curiosities of history." The oratorical 
powers of Senator Wade are not remarkable or brilliant, but he 
is forcible and fiery, and has a way of presenting a subject when 
he has worked it out in his own mind, which impresses his hearers 
deeply. He is plain and unaffected in manners, and the usual stern 
look on his face softens sometimes into sweetness and tenderness, 
or grows radiant with lofty thoughts and noble aspirations. 

He died in 1878. 



FREDERICK SAWYER. 




FREDERICK SAWYER was born in Bolton, Mass., and 
graduated at Harvard in 1844. He made teaching a pro- 
fession, and in 1859 accepted the position of principal in 
a young ladies' normal school in Charleston, S. C, and remained 
there until 1864, when he yielded to the persistent entreaties of 
his friends on the Board of Commissioners of the normal school, 
then removed north. Mr. Sawyer possessed those qualities that 
endeared him to his pupils and friends, and though too honest 
and fearless to conceal his loyal sentiments, those who differed 
from him in opinion were still steadfast friends and admirers. 
Beyond the fact that himself and family were in the center of the 
theater of war, he was unmolested ; and when hostilities ceased he 
returned to Charleston, where he was cordially welcomed. The 
first civil appointment made in the State after the war, was that 
of Mr. Sawyer as collector of internal revenue for the second 
district of South Carolina. The appointment gave satisfaction to 
the people, and he was elected a member of the convention that 
formed the new constitution for the State. He was elected to 
represent the State in the national Senate, and so great was his 
popularity that all political parties gave him their support, and he 



540 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



received a large majority of votes. Mr. Sawyer was as much a 
favorite in the Senate as he had been in private life, and as a de- 
bater, soon took high rank. He is easy and graceful in manners, 
a fluent and pleasant speaker, witty, and even brilliant ; but never 
bitter, sarcastic, or regardless of the feelings of any one, not even 
his political opponents. He is no slight antagonist, yet so thor- 
oughly courteous that though they may be defeated in argument 
and measures, no adversary will speak unkindly of him or im- 
peach his honor or integrity. 



WHITMAN T. WILLEY. 




'HITMAN T. WILLEY, one of Virginia's ablest and 
noblest representatives, was born in Mongalia, in the 
"Old Dominion," October 18th, 1811, and his first 
home was a log-cabin, but just twenty feet square. According to 
the custom of the day, the child was early taught to do such work 
as he was able to, and until he was sixteen years old worked 
upon the farm, attending the country school occasionally a few 
weeks at a time, and once, for two months was sent to a gram- 
mar school. At sixteen he was sent to Madison College, where, 
after four years study he graduated with the highest honors. He 
studied law at Wellsburg, Virginia, and was admitted to the bar 
in 1833, and soon secured a good practice. In 1850 he was 
elected a member of the convention for reforming the Constitu- 
tion of Virginia, and here he sustained the high reputation which 
he bore, and took a prominent part. As a speaker, he was highly 
complimented ; as a statesman he bid fair to rise high. In 1865 
Mr. Willey was nominated as candidate for Lieutenant-Governor. 
Commenting on the nomination, the Richmond Whig pronounced 
him one of the ablest and most eloquent men in Virginia. In ad- 






OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY 54* 

dition to his position as a distinguished lawyer, his private and 
public character was without a single stain, and he was a most 
consistent christian. The ticket however, was not popular, and 
though Mr. Willey's name went far to save it, was not carried in 
the election. 

In i860 he tooK the ground he might naturally have been ex- 
pected to chose, and exerted his influence to the utmost for the 
Union. In the winter of 1860-61, he was elected to a seat in the 
Richmond Convention. The works of that body are well known. 
The act of secession was passed, and West Virginia refusing to be 
governed by it, the State was divided against itself, and a new 
capital was located at Wheeling. The legislature organized there 
sent Mr. Willey to represent it in the Senate of the United States. 
His position was most trying and critical, but he bore the trial 
nobly, as became a christian and a patriot. Some of his speeches 
of that date have few if any equals. His great heart throbbed 
in sympathy with his country as if the suffering were inflicted 
upon himself, and the hot blood flushed his cheek as he thought 
of the disgrace which disunion of the States must bring upon the 
nation. He exclaimed, " Sir, this Union ca?t not be dissolved. 
Nature and Providence forbid it. Our rivers, lakes, mountains, 
and the whole geographical conformation of the country rebuke 
the hand that would sever them. We are one in language, in law 
in religion, and in destiny. ' Whom God hath joined together, let 
not man put asunder.' The past has been glorious, but the future 
shall be sublime." He labored earnestly and unwearily, and it 
was mainly through his exertions that West Virginia was admitted 
at once into the Union as a State. He was elected Senator from 
the new State for two years, and before the expiration of the term 
was re-elected for the term ending 1871. 

There is much in the character of this gentleman which it would 
be pleasant to dwell upon, but no pen can do him justice which 
does not bring before the world as brightly as possible the sterling 
worth and integrity — the incorruptible honor of the man. He is 
comparatively poor — has at some periods of his public life been 
in straightened circumstances, and has in a great measure always 
sacrificed his prospects financially for principle, and to an earnest 
•desire to serve the country. Referring to this he once said, " Pov- 
erty is more desirable than ill-gotten gains. I will lire honest, if 



542 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

I die poor. I will live an honorable man, if I die in obscurity.. 
I would not exchange the approbation of a good conscience for 
the hoards of Croesus, and the crown of an emperor would not 
tempt me to barter my integrity." 

Mr. Willey is a member of the Methodist Church, and his^ 
simple, unaffected piety impresses one with its sincerity and gen- 
uine truthfulness. He has been foremost in every good work. 
The Sabbath School and the temperance cause have found in hint 
a steadfast friend and an able and eloquent advocate. 



JUSTIN S. MORRILL. 



'USTIN S. MORRILL was born in Stafford, Vermont, 1810., 
At fifteen years of age he was taken from school, to which 
he never returned, and placed in a country store. In 1848 
he turned his attention from mercantile to agricultural pursuits, 
in 1854 was elected a representative from Vermont to the Thirty- 
fourth Congress, and was re-elected until he had filled the office 
twelve years. During the Thirty-ninth Congress he was Chair- 
man of the House. In 1856 he opposed the admission of Kan- 
sas, also the Lecompton Constitution. February 6th, 1857, he 
delivered a powerful speech on tariff in opposition to the bill of 
Campbell, of Ohio. He also opposed making paper currency 
legal tender on account of the difficulty which would be expe- 
rienced by the government in resuming specie payment. In 1866 
he was elected Senator in Congress from Vermont for six years. 
His speeches have always been characterized by their ability and 
honesty. The labor of preparing the Internal Revenue Tax Bill 1 
was largely borne by him, and has been pronounced the most 
perfect system ever devised by any nation. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 543 



OLIVER P. MORTON. 




^LIVER P. MORTON was born in Wayne county, Indi- 
Igjr ana, August 4th, 1823. His parents died while he was 
a child, and he was committed to the care of his grand- 
mother, and apprenticed to learn the trade of a hatter. This was 
not, however, to the boy's taste. At the age of fourteen he entered 
the Wayne County Seminary, and afterwards graduated at the 
Miami University. He was admitted to the bar in 1846. Six 
years later, having taken rank among the most able lawyers of the 
State, he was elected Judge of the Circuit Court. In 1854 
Mr. Morton aided in forming the Republican party. Until this 
time he had been a stanch democrat. He was nominated, in 1856, 
for governor of Indiana, but lost the election ; but his tcampaign 
speeches did much to aid the party of which he was a member, 
and in i860 it triumphantly elected Henry S. Lane governor and 
Oliver P. Morton lieuteuant-governor. On the 16th January, 
1 86 1, Governor Lane was sent to the United States Senate, and 
Mr. Morton thus became governor of the State. It was in the 
midst of gathering and threatening danger to the Union that he 
was inaugurated. Indiana stood divided on the great question 
before the public, and the seceding States were given to under- 
stand that they would have more than the sympathies of Indiana. 
To see that she remained true to the Union was the work of the 
new governor. Soon came the call for men, and the startled na- 
tion rose to answer. To the earnest appeal of Mr. Morton, the 
response came in the shape of forty thousand volunteers for the 
federal army. For four years he was actively engaged in study- 
ing and promoting the welfare and comfort of the soldiers. In 
ferreting out and defeating the secret organization known as the 
" Knights of the Golden Circle," he employed secret detectives, 
placed agents at every point in the State, and thus prevented their 
triumph in well laid plans. The exposure of the organization 




OLIVER P. MORTON. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 545 

showed that it numbered eighty thousand men, well-drilled, well- 
armed and disciplined, ready at any time to obey orders, and 
bound together by trie most solemn oaths. The discovery of their 
plans alone prevented Indiana from being the scene of the most 
terrible outbreak. When the war was ended, there came a day 
when the great strain so long kept upon nerve and brain might 
relax, and the overtaxed body could rest, but it was near coming 
too late to save the life that had been so freely and unselfishly 
used for others. In the summer of 1865 he suffered a stroke of 
paralysis, and every effort to bring him relief proved vain. His 
physicians recommended change of air, and he sailed for Europe. 
After an absence of a year he returned, only partially recovered, 
however, and resumed his official labors. 

In January, 1867, he'was elected to the United States Senate 
and resigned the governorship for this office. He is so feeble as 
often to sit while addressing the House, but his mind is as strong 
and active as ever, and his speeches are among the most able and 
eloquent ; and in all that pertains to a noble and unsullied man- 
hood, patriotism above reproach, and honor above suspicion, he 
stands high among American statesmen. 

Senator Morton died November 1st, 1877, at his home in 
Indianapolis, Indiana. 



WILLARD SAULSBURY. 




ILLARD SAULSBURY was born in Kent county, Del- 
aware, June 2, 1820. He was educated with great 
care, attending both Delaware and Dickinspn colleges^ 
from the latter of which he graduated. He studied law and was 
admitted to the bar in 1845 5 rose rapidly in his profession, and 
was appointed attorney general of his native State, holding the 
office five years. In 1859 he was elected Senator in Congress 
from Delaware, and was re-elected for the term ending 1871. He 
35 



546 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES, 

was a member of the Chicago Convention in 1864, and has been, 
during his entire political career, a consistent democrat, true to 
his party whether it was in sunshine or clouds, in majority or 
minority — in triumph or defeat ; true, not to party, but to party 
principles, and faithful to the Union. From the first moment 
that the idea of secession had a tangible form, he opposed it. 
When the message of Buchanan, December, i860, gave them for 
the first time something to grasp, he met the arguments of Wigfall 
and Ivison unflinchingly, and declared that Delaware could not 
fail to be loyal to the Union ; and when, later, Jefferson Davis 
produced his celebrated resolutions in favor of the disunion of the 
States, Mr. Saulsbury rose and moved that parts of Washington's 
farewell address be substituted ; and was the only democratic 
member who did not vote for them when passed. He voted in 
favor of the act which authorized President Lincoln to use mili- 
tary force for the collection of revenues from the port of Charles- 
ton, and giving him the authority of commander-in-chief. During 
the war, and after, he steadily opposed the republican majority in 
the Senate, and voted against the civil rights bill and the freed- 
men's bureau. His opposition was fearless and honest — never 
shrinking from a duty because unpleasant or unpopular, never 
hesitating to denounce what he believed to be wrong because the 
majority favored it, and never courting popularity at the expense 
of his honor. 



EDWIN D. MORGAN. 




uj§9)DWIN D. MORGAN was born in the town of Washington, 
Massachusetts, 181 1. He attended the common schools 
until he was twelve years old, when his family removed to 
Windsor. While yet a young man, he engaged in mercantile busi- 
ness, and by honesty and industry succeeded in establishing a fine 




EDWIN" D. MORGAN. 



548 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES* 

wholesale business. In 1836 he removed to New York city and 
entered business there. 

Mr. Morgan was a Whig, and when the party, defeated in its 
attempts to elect Henry Clay, who was its idol, rallied and reor- 
ganized, and became the Republican party, he was one of its 
stanchest friends and supporters. In 1856 he was Vice-President 
of the Republican National Convention, and was there made 
Chairman of the National Committee. In 1855 ne was a P~ 
pointed Commissioner of Emigration, which office he held until 
he was made governor in 1838, and he was re-elected to the same 
office at the close of the first term by the largest majority ever 
given to a Governor in New York. He entered upon his duties 
at a time when it required calm decision, good judgment, freedom 
from party prejudice and great firmness. All these traits of char- 
acter he possessed. The treasury of the State was literally empty, 
its credit overtaxed, and a strong party were craftily working to 
get possession of her canals, while her harbor defenses were so 
poor as actually to invite invasion. The canal finances were his. 
first care, and with that energy and perseverance for which he was 
marked, he took grounds against their sale, urged their immediate- 
completion, and before the close of his last term, had the satis- 
faction of seeing this carried out, and knowing that they were 
adding materially to the revenues of the State. Harbor defenses 
did not progress so rapidly, and it was not .until 1863 that the de- 
fenseless condition of the State was forced upon their attention 
by the prospect of a possible war with England and France, and 
danger of ravages of privateers, that the legislature made an appro- 
priation of $1,000,000 for the necessary improvements. Every- 
thing was done that was necessary, and in the best order, but the 
alarm, magnified by the imagination of the people, subsided, the 
money was placed in the treasury, subject to the order of the 
proper authorities, and with the exception of $5000 consumed in 
the purchase of material, wood, iron and stone, remains untouched. 
In 1 86 1 when the first shot struck the flag that Washington fol- 
lowed to victory — the stripes and stars that every nation on earth 
paid homage to — the ensign of freedom that had been many a 
soldier-hero's shroud and pall, the people uprose to shield it, — 
Mr. Morgan was one of the first to answer the call, and the quota 
of New York for men and money was about one-fifth of all that 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY, 549 

•was asked. The legislature appropriated three and a half million 
dollars, and authorized the raising of 30,000 men. When the 
President's call came for 25,000 men from New York, 120,600 
were waiting, and no call was ever made on that State that was 
not filled at once. 

In February, 1862, he was elected to the United States Senate 
for a term of six years, and he served on committees on almost 
every subject that comes under the supervision of the Senate. On 
the retirement of Mr. Fessenden from the position of Secretary of 
the Treasury, Mr. Morgan was solicited by Mr. Lincoln, to 
accept the position, but declined. Notwithstanding this, he was 
nominated without his knowledge, and only upon the most deter- 
mined refusal on his part, was he allowed to withdraw his name. 

In 1867 Williams College, Massachusetts, conferred on him the 
•degree of Doctor of Laws. 



CHARLES D. DRAKE. 




^J[HARLES D. DRAKE was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, April 
nth, 181 1 ; received his education in the common schools 
of the West, .and afterwards was sent to Partridge's Mili- 
tary School in Connecticut, where he became a midshipman in the 
navy, in which he served until January, 1830, when he withdrew, 
studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1833, and settled in 
St. Louis, then a town of only a few thousand inhabitants. In 
1859 he was elected to fill a vacancy in the House of Representa- 
tives in Missouri, but took no part in public life until 1869, labor- 
ing night and day for the election of Stephen A. Douglas to the 
Presidency. 

During the rebellion he took a most earnest stand for the 
Union — the " Constitution and the Union unconditionally." In 



55o FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES, 

1863 Mr. Drake was elected a member of the Missouri State Con- 
vention, which was called by the governor to consult upon the 
slave question, and there he took the ground of immediate action, 
and advocated immediate emancipation. This was overruled, 
however, and the convention originated and adopted a scheme of 
gradual emancipation, so slow in its working as to scarcely termi- 
nate slavery by the year 1900. Mr. Drake was chairman of the 
committee from Missouri who waited upon President Lincoln to- 
lay before him the statement of the condition of the State, people,, 
and finances. In 1867 he was elected to the United States Senate, 
and in his steadfast adherence to radicalism as opposed to the 
conservatism of that day, no one, not even his most bitter enemy,. 
can charge him with a sentiment dishonorable to himself or his. 
constituents. 



WILLIAM P. FESSENDEN. 




^JJORTY years of political life and faithful service — of devo- 
tion to State and Union — on which lie no spot or blemish 
— years of unsullied patriotism, solicitude and care pa- 
tiently and unselfishly borne ; years of unstained political honor — 
make up the public life of this good man. He was born in Bos- 
cawen, New Hampshire, in 1806, graduated at Bowdoin College 
in 1823, and was admitted to the Portland bar in 1827. In 183 1,. 
when but twenty-five years of age, he was elected to the State 
Legislature, and though he was the youngest member of the House 
— a boy in years and experience compared with his associates, he 
distinguished himself for his clear judgment, his unbiased opin- 
ions, his independence of character, and his spirit and ability in 
debate. As a lawyer he rose rapidly in his profession. In 1839 
he represented the city of Portland in the State Legislature. At 
this time the House was Democratic, and Mr. Fessenden was a 




CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS. 




JAMES FISK, JR. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 553 

Whig, remarkable then, as always, for his unswerving constancy to 
principle. So great was the respect he commanded for his hon- 
esty and ability, that he was placed on the Judiciary Committee, 
and made chairman of the committee for revising the statutes of 
the State. In 1840 he was nominated for Congress by the Whig 
party, and by an immense majority. In 1843 he declined re-elec- 
tion, and in 1845 was returned to the State Legislature. On being 
renominated the following year he declined to again accept the 
office, and confined himself to the practice of his profession, in 
which he now stood as high as any man in his State. He was a 
member of the national convention which elected General Har- 
rison President in 1840, again of the convention which nomi- 
nated General Taylor in 1848, and also of the convention which 
nominated General Scott in 1852. In 1853 he was a member of 
the legislature, also the following year ; and although a stanch 
Whig, and both branches, Democratic, he was elected United 
States Senator. This was the result of a breach caused by the 
Kansas-Nebraska question ; and may, irfdeed, be said to have been 
the origin of the Republican party in Maine, since the union of 
the Whigs and Free Soil Democrats must needs result in the 
birth of a new party. Mr. Fessenden, opposed with all his strength, 
the Nebraska bill, and upon its passage delivered one of the most 
powerful speeches ever made in the halls of the Maine Legisla- 
ture, and which at once decided his position as one of the 
ablest men of the day ; and through all the changes of time, and the 
ups and downs of party life, he has steadily held that position. 
In 1839, without nomination, so decided was public opinion on 
the point, he was sent to the United States Senate for six years, 
and appointed by President Lincoln Secretary of the Treasury, to 
fill the vacancy caused by Salmon P. Chase's being appointed Judge 
-of the Supreme Court. He was chairman of the Committee on 
Finance in the Senate, .and here his excellent abilities as a finan- 
cier were invaluable to the country ; especially as it required the 
most rigid economy and the finest judgment to enable the govern- 
ment to meet the heavy expenses of the war. We doubt if any 
man in the Senate was better calculated to do the work which he 
did ; for his great discretion and fine powers of estimating the 
practicability of a measure were almost perfect. His informa- 
tion is general, enabling him to speak without preparation upon all 



554 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

the ordinary topics of the day; and his remarks, though brief, 
are always the word in season. He is polite and courteous in 
debate, never forgetting to yield to his opponent as much as he 
asks for himself ; and though his principles and views are unchange- 
able, he never misrepresents nor wrongs those who believe differ- 
ently from himself. 

When President Johnson was impeached Mr. Fessenden voted 
for his acquittal, not for the sake of the individual, but the office 
he held, preferring rather that he go unpunished, if guilty, than 
have a precedent of this kind, weakening as it must, the authority 
and dignity of the chief executive, and placing him, as the repre- 
sentative of our national honor, in a disgraceful position before 
the world. Although many of his friends regreted this step 
on his part, and others censured it, there remains not a question 
of the purity of his motive, or even of the wisdom of his decision. 
He died September 8th, 1869. 



JAMES HARLAN. 



fAMES HARLAN was born in Illinois, and like a large ma- 
jority of those who have risen to distinction, was a farm 
boy, who literally " earned his bread by the sweat of his 
brow." Habits of industry, economy and temperance prepared 
him for the great work which lay before him. Without time or 
money to give to his education, it was mostly acquired by study 
during evenings and stormy days, when his agricultural labors 
were temporarily suspended, and in 1841 he was ready to enter 
the preparatory department of Asbury College, then under the 
presidency of Bishop Simpson. With no means except what he 
earned by teaching winters, and during vacations, he struggled on 
most manfully, and graduated with honor in 1845, and the follow- 
ing winter was elected Professor of Languages in Iowa College.. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 555 

Without friends or influence, a stranger and unaided, he at- 
tained to an enviable position, and when he had been there 
but two years was elected Superintendent of Education for the 
State of Iowa. In 1848 he was succeeded by the Hon. Thomas H. 
Benton, Jr., on what was afterwards proven to be fraudulent 
election returns. 

He now commenced the practice of law, and continued it until 
1853, when, by the Annual Conference of the Methodist Church 
he was elected President of the Mt. Pleasant Collegiate Institute. 
In 1850 he had been nominated by the people for Governor, but 
as he was not at that time old enough to be elected constitution- 
ally, they were reluctantly compelled to wait for time to remedy 
this defect in their favorite. In 1855 he was elected to the United 
States Senate, resigned the Presidency of the University, and 
was elected Professor of Political Economy and International 
Law. He met, in the Senate, some of the most able and some of 
the most unprincipled of our politicians, even those who had 
been for many years familiar with chicanery and diplomacy, 
who cared far more to carry a point, be it by right or wrong 
means, than they did for the honor of the Constitution and the 
preservation of the Union. They soon learned that, though young in 
years, it would be no light work to corrupt his principles or to win 
him over to be a party tool for their own or his advancement. For 
two years he held his seat unquestioned, when the Democratic 
members of the House finding him in the way of the prosecution 
of some of their schemes, knowing that the resolute will and un- 
bending spirit of. the man threatened exposure and defeat for 
them, declared that he was not entitled to his seat — that he had 
not been fairly elected, and he was no longer a member of the 
Senate. Mr. Harlan was not prepared to accept the situation, to 
quietly permit what he believed to be wrong to triumph in that 
manner ; neither were the people disposed to have their voice 
stifled, and their choice set aside in this manner. The legislature 
was in session, and he hastened to Iowa City, was immediately 
re-elected, returned to Washington, was resworn, and at once pro- 
ceeded with his duties as if no Democratic party had been in 
existence. In 1861 he was elected for his second term, and com- 
manded the respect of his opponents by his fearless defense of 
whatever he believed was right and demanded by the best inter- 




R. N. T. HUNTER 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 557 

ests of the people, and his honesty and truthfulness secured the 
friendship of political opponents. He long and ably opposed 
secession, assuring the southern members that though the people 
of the South were earnest, and many of them conscientious, yet 
any effort on their part to sever the Union must result in disas- 
trous failure, since the will of the majority would be, " preserve the 
Union at any cost." 

He was a member of the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, 
on which he was thoroughly informed, and was also a member of 
the Committee on Agriculture and a member of the Peace Congress. 
He was also a member of the Union Congressional Committee for 
the presidential campaign for 1864, having been chosen by the 
union members for the office, and on the 15th May he became a 
member of President Johnson's cabinet, but the course of the 
President was so at variance with his views that he resigned his 
position and left the office, with the approval of his friends and the 
regret of the President. 

His speech, as Senator from Iowa, on the impeachment trial of 
President Johnson, is said to be the most powerful effort of his 
life. He has always been identified with the anti-slavery party, 
and his strongest labors in that direction have been so tempered 
with love, good will and the charity which " thinketh no evil," that 
even those whom he met in that bitterly waged war gave him their 
respect and confidence. He is still in the prime of life, a noble 
Christian gentleman and a patriot of unquestioned honor. 



JOHN C BRECKINRIDGE. 



jXpOHN C. BRECKINRIDGE was born at Lexington, Ken- 
jjjjp tucky, January 21st, 1821. He was educated at Center 
College, and studied law at Transylvania Institute and 
removed to Iowa, designing in the new far west to build up a rep- 
utation as enduring as the institutions of the State whose interests 
and advancement should be identical with his own. But his love 



55^ FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

for the South, and especially for Kentucky, was so strong that his 
heart longed for a resting-place in his native State, and he returned 
to Lexington, which he ever after made his home. 

During the Mexican war he entered the military service and 
was elected Major of the Third Kentucky Regiment Volunteers, 
but was so late in the field he saw little actual service. Returning 
home at the close of the war he was elected to the House of Rep- 
resentatives in Kentucky, and all the brilliant qualities of the man 
were called out in debate. In 1851 he was elected to the Federal 
House of Representatives after a rather exciting contest, over 
General Leslie Coombs. In 1853 he was renominated and ran 
against Governor Robert Letcher, and met in him the strongest 
opposition he ever faced ; for at that time party spirit ran high 
and fierce. After the death of Henry Clay he was chosen to de- 
liver an eulogy upon his character, and though widely differing 
from him in views of national polity, his admiration of the fine 
qualities of the man, his talents and his patriotism, made the task 
a pleasant one, and he united with the nation in its grief for its 
loss of the great statesman. The tribute which he paid to the 
memory of the departed was touchingly eloquent and beautiful. 
When Franklin Pierce was elected to the Presidency, Mr. Breck- 
inridge was offered the appointment of Minister to Spain, but 
declined it, when it was accepted by Mr. Soule. In 1856 he was 
elected Vice-President under Buchanan, and though the youngest 
man who had ever held the office, his native dignity, good sense 
and impartial judgment enabled him to discharge all his duties to 
the satisfaction of the country. He died May 17th, 1875. 



FREDERICK T. FRELINGHUYSEN. 




Frederick t. frelinghuysen was bom at mui- 

J) stone, Somerset county, New Jersey, August 4th, 181 7, 
^ His grandsire, Frederick Frelinghuysen, was a member 

of the Continental Congress, and resigned his commission to go 
out and bear arms in defense of his country, and during the Revo- 



560 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

lutionary war served as captain. In 1793 he was a Senator im 
Congress. The subject of this sketch is nephew and adopted 
son of Honorable Theodore Frelinghuysen, who was United 
States Senator from 1829 to 1835, and was also the candidate of 
the Whig party for the Presidency in 1844. Frederick T. Freling- 
huysen graduated at Rutger College, where he had distinguished 
himself for brilliant scholarship and indefatigable industry. Upon 
leaving school he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1839. 
In 1 86 1 he was appointed Attorney General of his native State, 
and upon the expiration of his term was reappointed. The 
death of the well known and lamented Hon. William Wright 
occasioned a vacancy in Congress which Mr. Frelinghuysen was 
appointed by the governor to fill. Giving universal satisfaction 
by his honorable course, he was re-elected by the people. He 
served on the Committee on Judiciary, and also on the Committees 
on Naval Affairs and Claims, in all of which l^e was one of the 
leading spirits. He denounced the course of President Johnson 
in the most unqualified manner, and in the impeachment trial, 
declared him guilty of high misdemeanor in " willful and defiant 
disregard of law," and in a long and powerful speech asserted 
that to permit such a proceeding on the part of the Executive 
was to suffer the destruction of the government. In reconstruc- 
tion, his generous and patriotic heart seconded every effort which 
could be honorably made to restore peace to the war-stricken 
country; and his sympathies for the South were keen and active. 
His term in the Senate ended March 4th, 1869, and though short, 
was productive of good, alike creditable to himself and the Statet 
he represented so ably and honorably. 



WILLIAM H. SEWARD. 




ILLIAM H. SEWARD was born in Florida, Orange 
county, New York, in 1801. His ancestors were Welch 
on his father's, and Irish on his mother's side, and set- 
tled in the New World at an early date in its history. At nine 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 561 

years of age he was sent to the academy at Goshen, and at fifteen 
to the Union College, from which he graduated ; afterwards he 
studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1822, and the next 
year he entered into partnership with Judge Miller, of Auburn. 
In 1828 he was tendered the nomination to Congress but declined 
it, and two years later he was sent to the State Senate. In 1834 
he was nominated for Governor of the State but lost the election, 
and in 1838 was renominated and elected by a very large major- 
ity. In 1849 Mr. Seward was sent to the United States Senate 
and remained in that body until Mr. Lincoln's election, when he 
was offered the position of Secretary of State in the cabinet, 
which he accepted and held during Mr. Lincoln's administration. 
Mr. Seward was looked upon as one of the most able men in Con- 
gress, though no orator, and not a man who wins friends as did a 
host of our statesmen — indeed, pure, personal friends he had few, 
but admirers and supporters he had many, He lacked utterly 
that magnetic power which controlled the feelings and sympathies 
of the masses, yet he was for many years the representative man 
of his party. He died in October, 1872. 



JOHN JAY CRITTENDEN. 




lk K WE? R * CRITTENDEN was born in Woodford county, 
ife^/J* Kentucky. His mother was left a widow while he was 
a child, and with but scanty means for their support. 
He was, in a great measure, self-educated, and early chose the 
profession of law, which he commenced at Hopkinville, from 
whence he removed to Frankfort, where he soon won a reputation 
and a fine practice. 

In 1 816 he was chosen representative in the State legislature, 
and was nominated Judge of the Supreme Court of the United 

36 



5^2 • FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

States by J. Q. Adams, then President. In 1835 he was chosen 
United States Senator, served a full term, was re-elected, but 
resigned in 1841 the post of Attorney-General under President 
Harrison. In the fall of the same year, with every member of the 
■cabinet, except Webster, he withdrew, sending a kind, courteous, 
and respectful letter of resignation to President Tyler, and was 
.at once chosen Senator in Mr. Clay's place, that gentleman hav- 
ing resigned after the passage of the tariff bill, and was re-elected 
in 1843 for another full term. In 181 8 he was elected Governor 
of Kentucky, a measure which gave great satisfaction. He was in 
Mr. Fillmore's cabinet during his term of office, and was again 
nominated for the Senate for the term ending 1861. 

He has always favored the protective policy, voting for the tariff 
of 1842, and against that of 1846. In 1835 he opposed Mr. Cal- 
houn's bill empowering postmasters to take from the mails docu- 
ments hostile to slavery. He ^opposed the annexation of Texas 
as unwise, unnecessary and unconstitutional, and strove to bring 
our difficulties with Mexico to a peaceful termination. He also 
opposed the admission of Kansas under the Topeka Constitution, 
and in favor of it under Mr. Toombs' bill, and again against it 
under the Lecompton Constitution, which he pronounced a fraud 
and contrary to the wishes of a majority of the people. His 
speech on this subject carried great weight with it, not only from 
the high position he held, but from his age, and as being the rep- 
resentative of Kentucky. Throughout all the bitter debates, and 
the daily wrangles over Kansas, Mr. Crittenden never forgot his 
dignity as a Senator, or indulged, even in the hight of debate, in 
language unbecoming either his position or himself. He was 
highly esteemed, both in the councils of State and Senate, and was 
a fine extemporaneous debater. 

It is peculiarly pleasant to us now to refer to Mr. Crittenden's 
course during the war of 1861. Having exhausted his ingenuity 
to propose or suggest some pacific measure which might heal the 
wounds and prevent the outbreak, the very thought of which 
brought pain to his loyal heart, he took his seat in the United 
States House of Representatives as a member from Kentucky, in 
the extra session of July, 1861, took part in the debates and work 
which came up, not as an avowed partisan of the administration, 
but as something more honorable-^-as a firm adherent to the gov- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 563 

eminent, as one whose nobility of soul, strength and honesty of 
purpose, and unquestionable patriotism made him superior to 
party and above prejudice, a man who was so true to the consti- 
tution — so true to the Union — as to be ready to sacrifice personal 
feeling for their preservation. It was during this session that in 
one of his most eloquent speeches he exclaimed, " Party ! party ! ! 
party ! ! ! in an hour like this. Party! when the government is being 
tossed at the mercy of the storm, and any moment may see the 
Union a wreck. Perish party forever from the green footstool of 
God, if for it a government like ours must be sacrificed, or for 
one moment its safety be jeopardized ! " And a few weeks before his 
death he reiterated his firm purpose in these words : " In defeat 
or victory, my intention is to stand by and maintain the govern- 
ment." He died at his home in Frankfort, Kentucky, July 26, 
1863. 



ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS. 




LEXANDER H. STEPHENS was born February 11, 
181 2, in Crawfordville, Ga., and losing both parents, one 
in his infancy, the other when ten years old, was reared 
and educated mostly by his uncle, Aaron Grier. At one time 
he was strongly inclined to study for the ministry, but later he 
chose law, and was admitted to the bar in 1834, when twenty-two 
years of age. He rapidly acquired a fine reputation; indeed, his 
first case, which he gained against the celebrated Mr. Jeffreys, 
gave him at once a firm position. His orphan boyhood, his pov- 
erty, his struggle for his education and profession, when want and 
physical suffering battled mightily with the strong will that was, 
as he said with a grim bitterness, " about all there was of him," 



564 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

have marked both the face and character of the man. You read 
the story in the wistful look of his large, sad eyes, in the sweet and 
patient mouth — even in the listless, weary droop of the slender 
shoulders. His birthplace was sold, at his father's death, but he 
had a love for that spot of earth that has been well nigh the ruling 
passion of his life, and he set apart the first fruits of his profes- 
sional labor to redeem it from the hands of strangers. The young 
neophite had no paltry pettifoggers to oppose him, but those who 
had tempered their steel with practice, and whose talents, no less 
than their legal lore, made them able antagonists. At the very 
beginning of his career he came in contact with men whose social,, 
political, financial and professional positions were already defined 
and secured ; men who are all gone now — men of yesterday, but 
who made for their names a place in our memory. There were 
Sayre, and Thomas, and Dawson, and Tombs; these were the 
men amongst whom the friendless and penniless boy had to make 
his way — the men amongst whom he did make his way right gal- 
lantly. In 1836 he was nominated for the General Assembly of 
his State, and had a most gratifying majority of votes against a 
bitter and vigorous opposition, arising from the fact of his well- 
known, openly expressed objection to the doctrine of nullifica- 
tion, then popular with the people, and his objection to .the Vigil- 
ance Committees which had been appointed in many counties in 
the State, and proposed in his district, and which were clothed 
with unlimited and despotic power to arrest and punish, without 
trial, any persons who might be suspected of tampering with 
slaves, or circulating amongst them incendiary sentiments. He 
appealed to the people with an earnestness which he rarely sur- 
passed, " as they valued, prized, and cherished liberty, to stand 
by the supremacy of the law." The measure was defeated, but 
at a cost, for at once he was charged with being unsound upon 
the slavery question, and some of his most masterly speeches 
were made in self-defence. 

The life and labors of Mr. Stephens have been presented to 
the public so often, and are so well known, so thoroughly appre- 
ciated and admired, it seems unnecessary to enter into details. 

In 1837, Mr. Stephens' health,, always delicate, gave way com- 
pletely, and for the next ten years he was so feeble most of the 
time as to be unable to walk without support; yet he gave up 




JEFFERSON DAVIS. 



566 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

his work for but one year, when he was compelled to seek relief 
in travel. In 1839 he was sent to Charleston as delegate to the 
National Convention, and there met the most distinguished men 
of the nation. The subject under discussion when Mr. Stephens 
made his debut in the capitol of South Carolina was, the impor- 
tance to the South of direct communication and trade with Great 
Britain, and the best mode of calling public attention to it. It 
may not be generally known that South Carolina and Georgia were 
always opposed to each other in everything, as much so as if it had 
been a settled principle and policy for them to differ, and this point 
was no exception. They passed the first clause of the subject 
readily, but upon the second they failed most signally to 
agree. Mr. Stephens, then comparatively unknown in his own 
State, was a stranger here, and when the most eminent men of 
South Carolina had spoken upon the question, and the opposing 
party was requested to meet their arguments, the request was 
made in a manner which clearly denoted that they felt there 
was not a David on the floor who dare meet their Goliath. A mo- 
ment of silence followed the call, and then it was repeated, while 
the glow of triumph brightened on the faces of the prematurely 
complacent Carolinians. At length a stranger arose in one of the 
boxes, a man with a beardless, boyish face, with mournful, deep 
set eyes, around which pain had traced deep lines — a man who 
was slender and stooping, who clung to the box as if for support, 
and whose general appearance, as he glanced over the assembly, 
brought forth a smile of pitying contempt. But, says that mag- 
nificent writer, John Savage, " The hour and the man had come r 
and no one who heard that speech delivered, ever forgot it. His 
voice was soft and rich and penetrating, and scarcely had he 
commenced when every head was raised, and every eye was fixed 
in wonder. The contrast between his physical delicacy and his 
intellectual strength, between his masculine thoughts and melo- 
dious intonations, produced the greatest astonishment, and this 
in turn changed into intense admiration of his quick wit, his keen 
powers of analyzation, and his overwhelming replies. It was su. 
bold proceeding in a stranger, to measure swords with such antag- 
onists as he met there, but it was a still more memorable exploit to 
obtain, as he did, the victory over them in argument. The speech,, 
in which he snatched their laurels from the most brilliant states- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. $6? 

men present, was the wonder of the day, and the topic of eulogy * 
and he, modest and quiet, was the observed of all observers." 

In 1843 he was nominated for Congress, and it was in this cam- 
paign that he met and spoke in opposition to Judge Colquitt, the 
eminent candidate of the Whig party. He was elected, and then 
was compelled to contest for his seat in the Senate, on some tri- 
fling quibble, persistently brought forward by his opponent, and 
stoutly maintained for some time. Mr. Stephens opposed the 
Mexican war, believing it unwise, unconstitutional, and that it 
had been brought forward by President Polk to advance personal 
interests. In 1850 he threw all his strength against the secession 
movement made in the South on account of the admission of 
California. In the fall of that year he traveled over the land,, 
everywhere making the. most eloquent appeals — successful ones, 
too — to the people, to stand firm for the Union. In 1848 he gave 
the nomination of General Taylor his cordial support, but when 
the General's policy met his disapproval, he stated it frankly, as his 
country's friend should do. Mr. Buchanan's turn came, and though 
not his choice, and his heart misgave him, he voted for him. The 
quarrel of the President with Judge Douglas he considered most 
unwise, — not only impolitic and unjust, but dangerous. He 
foresaw that if Mr. Buchanan persisted in his course, a disruption 
of the party at the Charleston Convention was almost certain, and 
that a national convulsion must follow. Mr. Stephens again re- 
tired from political life, for the reason, as he dryly remarked, that 
" if he sees that the engineer is reckless, and a smash up ahead, he 
gets off at the first station." 

In 1855 Mr. Stephens again stood before the public in the po- 
sition of antagonist to the most gigantic and unconstitutional 
piece of injustice ever attempted by Americans — the Know- 
Nothing movement — which seemed, so silent had been its opera- 
tions, to spring into life like Venus from the wave, full grown at 
birth. Henry A. Wise, of Virginia, and Alexander H. Stephens, 
of Georgia, rallying to the defence, flung out the stripes above 
the heads of the adopted children of our land, and pointed to the 
Constitution, which gives all our citizens equal rights. 

When the campaign of i860 called the people again to choose 
a President, Mr. Stephens was very ill — as himself and every one 
believed, ready to die — but the great pulsation of the nation's 



568 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

heart throbbed against his own, and the " impending crisis " 
roused him into new life, and he went out once more at the call of 
his country to battle for the Union. His speech in Columbus, 
Ga., was one of the grandest efforts of his life, and so far was his 
audience carried by the force of eloquence, that when he called 
upon them to stand by the Constitution in any or every event, the 
audience rose in a mass to their feet, and their enthusiasm was 
uncontrollable. He voted and labored for Stephen A. Douglas, 
and worked for him with a will and an energy worthy of the ob- 
ject, and when the final and dreadful ending came, he wrought, 
with an almost frantic desperation, for the cause so dear to him ; 
and through the terrible storm that swept over our land he was 
as loyal to the Union as ever was needle to the magnet ; through 
the darkness of the night, when the clouds hid the future from 
less discerning eyes than his own, he saw the rock where dimly 
burned, like evening vesper star, the light that would guide us 
safely through the storm, and by that light, — 

" Aye, thrill, 
Ye pulses, standing still with shame," 

he read the words of the Co?istitution, on whose soundless depths, 
as on some land-locked harbor, rode safely our noble Union, late 
washed by waves of blood, torn by contending principles, wept 
over by Justice and Mercy, but now saved to her worshiping 
sons ; and turning from the vision which to his prophetic and 
longing soul was the very gate of Heaven, he waited till the whirl- 
wind passed by, then, like the Samaritan of old, gave himself 
to the work of healing the wounds that came of strife. 

It is not strange that Mr. Stephens accepted the position of 
Vice-President of the Southern Confederacy, for, though he long 
opposed secession, pronounced it a " wrong and an actual crime," 
he yielded at last to the demand of Georgia, and became the 
second officer of the new government, but was a most convincing 
proof of the truth of the old proverb, that 

" A man convinced against his will, 
Is of the same opinion still," 

and he declared, both then and after, that he filled the position 
only in the hope that he might be of use to the country, and that 
sometime his counsels might prevail. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 569 

His faith in the restoration policy of Mr. Lincoln he expressed 
in no equivocal terms, and he declared in all his speeches that 
" the whole United States is our country, to be cherished and 
•defended as such by all our hearts and all our arms." 

Mr. Stephens' letters and speeches, so far as made public, are 
Tvell worthy of perusal, and whether read for their literary or po- 
litical merits, are equally interesting to scholar or politician. His 
character is symmetrical, polished, beautiful, either as that of 
a statesman, a patriot, or a Christian gentleman. His biographer 
says of him, — 

" At the first, he was a poor orphan; then, successful lawyer; 
champion of education ; advocate of a great railroad ; protector 
of the weak against the strong, righting wrong and securing jus- 
tice ; benefactor of the poor ; faithful ever to the home and graves 
of his sires ; laying aside the robes of office from choice, while in 
the noon of power ; an ardent defender of the Union, as well as 
devotee of the doctrines of State rights of the school of Jefferson 
-and Madison ; ministering spirit at the hospitals and caring for 
captive enemies as for brethren. Then, a State prisoner, and af- 
terward a Senator elect, dedicating his matchless eloquence again 
to harmony, wisdom, peace, and Union ; hero of civil triumphs 
and bloodless battles ; Christian gentleman and patriot states- 
man; in a word — Alexander Hamilton Stephens." 



HENRY CLAY. 




j^NE of the most distinguished of our southern statesmen 
\ffi was Henry Clay, who bore in youth the soubriquet of the 
" Mill Boy of the Slashes." His father was a clergyman, 
l)ut in so poor circumstances as only to allow a very meager edu- 
cation to his son, who, as soon as his attainments would permit, 




NATHANIEL P. BANKS. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 571 

was put as a copyist in the office of the Court of Chancery in 
Richmond. With a strong desire for a better education, and with 
a dim, undefined consciousness of the power that would one day 
be developed in him, he commenced the study of law at the age 
of nineteen, and so rapidly did he progress that he was admitted 
to the bar in the course of the year. In 1797 he commenced the 
practice of law in Lexington, Kentucky, which was henceforth to 
be his home. He took a lively interest in politics, and when a 
convention was called for a revision of the Constitution of Ken- 
tucky, the youthful politician rendered himself remarkable for his 
efforts towards the election of such delegates as were in favor of 
emancipation of the slaves. Of course this could but be unpopu- 
lar, and he fearfully hazarded his position by it, but his after course, 
especially in regard to the alien laws, gave great satisfaction and 
soon made him a general political favorite. In 1803 he was elected 
a member of the legislature by a large majority, where his natural 
powers of eloquence and argumentative ability won him the high- 
est rank. He was chosen, in 1806, to fill the vacancy in the Senate 
caused by the resignation of General Adair. He was again ap- 
pointed to the Senate in 1839, when the character of the nation 
was undergoing a formative process. The problem, whether Fed- 
eral or Democratic principles should obtain the predominance, 
was hastening to a solution. The country was ready and waiting 
for the coming of the man who had the self-centered strength to 
mark out and fix its subsequent policy. Mr. Clay's term in the 
Senate lasted but two years, when he returned to Lexington, but 
already he had established himself in the hearts of the people, 
and Kentucky could not dispense with services so fitted for public 
life and legislation, and he was immediately elected to a seat in the 
House of Representatives ; and so conspicuous had his talents 
already made him, so great was his popularity, that he was at once 
made Speaker of the House. This could but have been a proud 
moment in the life of Clay. Owing nothing to birth, nothing to 
education, nothing to outward circumstances, or to the influence of 
friends, he was in a position to receive the willing homage of those 
who could boast of all, and the torrent of applause which greeted 
the announcement of his election revealed how strong was the 
love of the enthusiastic crowd of friends who would rally to his 
support, even as now they had rallied to make his entrance 



572 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

amongst them a triumph. Meantime arose the difficulty between 
the United States and England, in 1812, in which Clay took so 
active a part as to be charged by some historians with having been 
the principal instigator of it. The gloom which overspread the 
nation, however, soon passed away, and England, who had been 
so exultant, was made to lower her tone of insolent superiority, 
and Clay was chosen one of the negotiators of peace. He returned 
from Europe with his laurels undimmed, having proven himself as 
skillful a diplomatist as he was eloquent as an orator, or able 
as a.debater. 

Upon his return he was elected to Congress, and took his 
seat in 1815, and was again chosen speaker. President Madison 
offered him the position of Minister to Russia ; again, upon a va- 
cancy in his cabinet, the Secretaryship of War. Honors poured 
in upon the rising statesman from every quarter, but believing he 
could serve his country best in her halls Of legislation, he declined 
every offer. He identified himself with the tariff question in 
1819-20, and became the acknowledged champion of domestic 
industry by his resolute advocacy of protective duties. He' was 
also an active agent in the adjustment of the Missouri Compro- 
mise, and in other subjects of national interest. 

In 1834 President Jackson's characteristic rashness would have 
plunged us into a war with France. In the treaty of 183 1 France 
had pledged herself to pay the United States twenty-five million 
of francs for aggressions made by that power upon our commerce 
during the wars in which she was engaged from 1800 to 1817. 
The money was not promptly paid, and Jackson recommended 
reprisals upon French property. A war would, of course, have 
been the result of so desperate a step, and in this extremity Mr. 
Clay stepped in to avert so great a calamity, for at that time 
we could ill afford it. As Chairman of the Committee on For- 
eign Relations, he reported a resolution to the effect that it was 
inexpedient, at that time, to pass any law vesting in the President 
authority for making reprisals upon French property, or upon the 
property of any foreign power, in the emergency of provision not 
being made for the payment to the United States of the indem- 
nity stipulated by the treaty of 1813. At that time, one like Clay, 
of indomitable courage and Roman firmness, was needed in the 
Senate to curb the headstrong rashness of the executive. Per- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 573 

haps the times demanded a President with the boldness and 
inflexible will of Jackson, at the same time that it brought upon 
us danger which we desired to avert, not by compromise of our 
nation's honor, but by diplomacy, not even by willful or feigned 
blindness to that which we could afford to see at another time. 

Mr. Clay was no less distinguished for his generosity and phi- 
lanthropy than for other noble qualities. The oppressed instinct- 
ively looked to him for redress, and he was the eloquent and 
impassioned advocate of the wronged and the down-trodden. His 
position for years was one of conflict, when identifying himself 
often with the weakest party, he was obliged to stand forever on 
the defensive. In 1834 the Senate had adopted measures of cen- 
sure against President Jackson, and in the following year Mr. 
Benton sought to have them expunged. The Senate refused, by 
an immense majority; but two or three years after it was brought 
up, and time had made such changes that now there seemed to be 
a prospect of success ; but Mr. Clay came forward to battle against 
odds as bravely, and with the same undaunted spirit with which 
three years before he had hailed the assurance of victory. His 
speeches before the Senate at that time were full of the bitter- 
est sarcasm and most scathing irony, and the hot indignation 
of the man was poured out in a burning but eloquent and irre- 
sistible tide of invectives against what he denounced as the mean 
condescension, the groveling sycophancy, the self-degradation, and 
self-abasement of those who sought to expunge from the nation's, 
archives by a few black lines that which he (the President) had 
not thought it worth his while to expunge from the nation's hearts 
by later acts. One paragraph, or portion of a speech will be a, 
sample of the burning, impetuous, eloquent indignation which he 
felt and expressed so ably. It was after the wily stratagems of 
the other party had brought them the victory which he considered 
disgraceful to the Senate, that the defeated lion of the Whig 
party stood at bay and exclaimed, while his eyes flashed and his 
lips whitened with anger : " But why should I detain the Senate,, 
or needlessly waste my breath, in fruitless exertions ? The decree 
has gone forth, and it is one of urgency,, too. The deed is to be 
done — that foul deed, like the blood-stained hands of the guilty 
Macbeth, all ocean's waters will never wash out. Proceed then to 
the noble work that is before you, and like- other executioners, do. 



574 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

it quickly ; and when you have perpetrated it, go home to the 
people and tell them what honors you have achieved for our com- 
mon country. Tell them you have extinguished one of the bright- 
est and purest lights that ever burned on the altar of civil 
liberty. Tell them that you have silenced one of the noblest bat- 
teries that ever thundered in defense of the constitution, and 
bravely spiked the guns. Tell them that, henceforth, no matter 
what daring or outrageous act any president may perform, you 
have forever hermetically sealed the mouth of the Senate. Tell 
them that he may fearlessly assume any power he chooses — snatch 
from its custody the public purse, command a military detachment 
to enter the halls of the capitol, overawe Congress, trample down 
the constitution and raze every bulwark of freedom, and the Sen- 
ate must stand mute in silent submission — and never, now or 
hereafter, dare to raise its opposing voice. That it must wait 
until a House of Representatives, humbled and saddened like 
itself, and a majority of it composed of partisans of the president, 
shall prefer articles of impeachment — then, not till then, may it 
dare to think, or act. Tell them, finally, that you have restored 
the glorious doctrine of passive obedience, and non-resistance, 
and if the people do not pour out their indignation and impreca- 
tions, I have yet to learn the character of the American freemen." 
Seldom has our country been the scene of such enthusiasm as 
that which characterized the presidential campaign of 1840. The 
interests of the country, owing to the success of the banking and 
sub-treasury scheme, were at the lowest stage of depression, and 
in a change of policy the people fondly hoped to see business inter- 
ests revive. The twelve years of worship which they had given 
to the hero of New Orleans had not been productive of the desired 
effects, and the expected blessings had not come at the call of the 
anxiously awaiting people ; and now, weary with this state of 
affairs, they rose with a unanimous movement and demanded 
other laws and another policy. It was expected, when the con- 
vention met at Harrisburg, that Henry Clay would be their choice, 
but with a blind fanaticism they still desired to be ruled by a mili- 
tary chieftain, and General Harrison received the nomination. All 
that was noblest in the character of Henry Clay shone bright in 
this defeat, as, nobly putting aside every personal consideration, 
he hid, even from himself, his bitter disappointment, and devoted 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 575 

all his strength and influence to the success of the rival candi- 
date. Harrison was borne into power with an overwhelming 
majority, but he did not live long to enjoy this crowning honor; 
he died in one month from the time of his inauguration, and Vice 
President Tyler took his place at the head of the nation. 

In 1844 he was nominated for the Presidency in opposition to 
James K. Polk, the Democratic candidate, and again defeated, 
even when his party had not thought such a thing possible. The 
Kentucky electors, who not only with justifiable pride as a states- 
man and legislator, but with affection as a public benefactor and 
friend, immediately waited upon him to tender him their heartfelt 
regrets for his defeat. Mr. Clay was evidently deeply disap- 
pointed, but he bore his disappointment nobly. Again he put 
aside all thoughts of self, and in his anxiety for the welfare of the 
country he loved, as a mother loves her wayward child even 
more tenderly and with deeper solicitude for every pain he costs 
her, so he waited and worked, and prayed that all might be well. 

The annexation of Texas was followed, as he had predicted, by 
war with Mexico, which was soon subdued by American arms, and 
once more the people desired him for their ruler, and once more 
the eyes of the masses were dazzled by the epaulets and laureis 
of Taylor. Fresh from the fields which he had won, and with 
all the glory, half fictitious though it was, of having trod, as a con- 
queror, the " Halls of the Montezumas," he was chosen Chief 
Executive. Twenty years of reverses had not soured or embit- 
tered his disposition, neither had injustice, detraction, or blasted 
hopes made him a hater of his kind. He was the same ardent 
and unselfish patriot that he had ever been ; and when Kentucky, 
believing that he was needed now, if ever, in the legislative coun- 
cils, offered him a seat in the United States Senate, though aged 
and toil-worn, he accepted the responsibility without one mo- 
ment's hesitation. It was indeed a time when the country had 
need of its truest son, for the question of slavery, always a dan- 
gerous and fearful one, presented itself with more than its usual 
terrors. Mr. Clay offered measures of compromise between the 
North and South, and as he appeared upon the Senate floor, he 
seemed to regain something of his youthful vigor. His wan cheek 
glowed again with the flush of excitement, and his eye flashed 
with the old light before which his adversaries had so often 



576 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

quailed ; while his voice grew soft and mellow — the same seduct- 
ive tones that had the power to disarm anger. To those who 
spurned the idea of compromise he exclaimed, " There are those 
who are very wise in their own esteem, and who will reject the 
idea of compromise, but that is no reason why compromise should 
not be attempted. I go for honorable compromise when occasion 
demands it. Life itself is but a compromise, until the great de- 
stroyer finally triumphs. All legislation — all government — alL 
society is formed upon the principle of mutual compromise — con- 
cession, politeness, courtesy — upon these everything is based. 
Compromise is particularly appropriate between members of a 
republic, as of a common family. Compromises have this recom- 
mendation — that if you concede anything, you have something- 
conceded to you in return. Treaties are but compromises made 
with foreign powers, which is not a case like this. Here, if you 
concede anything, it is to your own family — your own brethren. 
Let him who elevates himself above humanity, with its weaknesses,, 
its wants, its necessities, say, if he will, that he never will compro- 
mise ; but let no one who is no^above the frailties of our common 
nature, disdain compromises." 

The debate was continued through many months, and the ex- 
citement became intense, both in Congress and amongst the 
people, and Mr. Clay, disregarding the weakness of age, and the 
pains of disease, battered on to effect a reconciliation of the oppo- 
site principles of the North and the South. Mr. Foot, of Mis- 
sissippi, and Mr. Bell, of Tennessee, had aided him, presenting each 
a set of compromise resolutions, which were not favored by the 
executive, but during the continuance of the agitation, Mr. Taylor 
died, and Mr. Fillmore was understood to look upon the measure 
with more leniency, and when, on the thirty-first of July a bill 
passed entering Utah as a free territory, ignoring the existence,. 
for a time, of any other bills, he felt that the day of his triumph 
was at hand — for his far-seeing eye told him that the Senate did 
not come to this work without having made up their minds to 
carry out, separately, every one of the three bills. The irresisti- 
ble influence of Mr. Clay, so long and so well sustained, had suc- 
cessfully combatted faction in all its forms, and converted 
opposition into reluctant auxiliary. But the eloquent statesman 
had combatted error for the last time — the great chieftain had 






OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 577 

fought his last battle. He had passed the three-score and ten 
allotted to human life, and as spring advanced he sank rapidly. 
Yet even now, his sympathies were warm and quick. The people 
were running wild over Kossuth, and the greatest interest was felt 
in that oppressed country. The eloquent and fascinating Hunga- 
rian had nearly upset the neutrality policy of our government. 
The voice which had been lifted so often in behalf of South Ameri- 
can independence and the struggling Greeks, was now heard in 
friendly remonstrance. The dying statesman admitted the en- 
thusiastic Hungarian to an interview. He addressed him with 
his usual courtesy, and in terms of the highest compliment, but 
protested against the policy which had been recommended to our 
people, and demonstrated its impracticability. This was his last 
service to his country. After this he sank speedily, and intelli- 
gence was received daily with mournful interest. The calamity 
came at last. On the twenty-ninth of June, 1852, it was announced 
?n the Senate Chamber that Henry Clay was no more. 



ROBERT TOOMBS. 



W£m OBERT TOOMBS was born in Washington county, Ga., 
SlSSL J u ly 2 > ^io. Received a partial education in Georgia, but. 
completed his studies in Schenectady, N. Y., graduating 
there in 1828. His law course was taken at the University of 
Virginia, and he began his professional life in his native town. 
He served under General Scott as captain of a volunteer company 
in the Creek war, and was a dashing and gallant soldier, who^ 
feared nothing on earth — always ready for a skirmish or a frolic. 
In 1837 he was elected to the State Legislature, and continued a 
member of the lower house until 1845. In that year he was 
elected to the Federal House of Representatives, remaining in 
37 




Robert Toombs. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY, 579 

that body until 1853, and was then sent to the United States 
Senate and served his term, giving such satisfaction to his con- 
stituents, that he was renominated and returned. He served on a 
number of prominent committees, where his fine executive abili- 
ties won him the respect and admiration of his associates. He 
was from the first a member of the extreme Southern party, and 
strong in his political convictions. After Mr. Lincoln's election, 
Tie threw all his strength and influence with the party of his 
choice. He opposed Alexander Stephens, and at Milledgeville 
made, in answer to him, November 15, i860, one of the most 
brilliant campaign speeches ever listened to. 

On January 19th, 1861, Georgia passed the secession ordinance, 
and Mr. Toombs withdrew from the United States Senate, and 
became a member of the Confederate Congress. When Jefferson 
Davis was elected President of the Southern Confederacy, he ap- 
pointed Mr. Toombs his Secretary of State, and in September of 
the same year he resigned his office, and it was filled by Robert 
Hunter, of Virginia. He was better known than many of our 
Southern statesmen, partly by his brilliant oratory, his impulsive, 
impetuous eloquence that flashed and blazed out like the swift 
lightning from the heaped up banks of inky clouds that lie against 
the horizon of the tropical skies ; and by the burning, scathing 
words that rushed in resistless torrents, like molten lava from the 
bosom of Vesuvius, and won for this fervid son of the South the 
soubriquet of the " Georgia Fire Eater." Mr. Toombs belonged 
to the Whig party when first he entered political life, but after- 
wards became a Democrat. 




THOMAS A. HENDRICKS. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 5 Sl 



THOMAS A. HENDRICKS. 




WHOMAS A. HENDRICKS was born in Muskingum county, 
Ohio, September 7th, 1819. He studied law in Pennsyl- 
vania and was admitted to the bar in Chambersburg, after 
which he settled and practiced his profession in Indiana. In 1850 
he was a member of the convention to amend the State Constitution, 
and in 1851 he was Representative from Indiana and served in 
Congress two years with marked ability. Mr. Hendricks was ap- 
pointed by President Pierce Commissioner of the General Land 
Office, and during the four years he held the position, eighty mil- 
lion acres were sold. In i860 Mr. Hendricks was the Democratic 
candidate for Governor of Indiana, but was defeated, and two 
years later was elected by his party to the United States Senate. 
In 1868 his was prominent among the names in the New York 
Convention for the Presidency, and had the party decided upon 
him to lead in the ensuing campaign he would have been a leader 
worthy of them. His name was upon the ticket of this cam- 
paign for Governor of Indiana, and a second time he was defeated 
for the position. Mr. Hendricks is one of the most able and pop- 
ular men in the Democratic party. He is as much marked for the 
gracefulness of his oratory as for his eloquence, and his audience 
never weary of listening, while his politeness and good humor in 
debate make him a general favorite. His speech on the Supple- 
mentary Reconstruction Bill was one of his most masterly efforts. 
Said he, "What objection have you to the Constitutions of the 
Southern States as amended by the people ? For two years you 
have kept those States out of the Union, so far as representation 
was concerned ; for two years trade, commerce, or business have 
been afraid to put out their hand, or capital to trust to any enter- 
prise, and the spirit of confidence and harmony have been passing 
away from both sections of the country because of the strife thus 
kept up. For what have you done it, and what end have you 
attained? * * A republican form of government is one in 



582 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

which the people make their own laws through legislators selected 
by themselves — execute their laws through legislators chosen by 
themselves — and administer law through their own courts. * * 
* * Yet what have you done under a constitution that guaran- 
tees to the State a republican form of government ?" 

There is no question but that his enthusiasm, beautiful as it 
was, and seductive as was the eloquence with which he urged 
the claims of the South, was the honest sentiment of a heart that 
bled over the misery that war had occasioned, and his ready sym- 
pathy had a counterpart in many a noble heart that put aside 
every consideration but loyalty to the Union and the future wel- 
fare of our beloved country. 

He was Elected Governor of Indiana in 1873, and was nomi- 
nated for Vice-President of the U. S. by the St. Louis Democratic 
Convention in 1876, with S. J. Tilden as President. 



LOUIS ADOLPHE THIERS. 



LOUIS ADOLPHE THIERS, the veteran French statesman, was born 
at Marseilles in April, 1797. His parents belonged to the middle class, 
known in France as the bourgeoisie. Having passed his boyhood in securing 
a common-school education at the lyceum of his native city, young Thiers was 
sent to Aix, where he studied law, and was admitted to the bar. During the 
leisure usually at the command of a juvenile barrister, the future statesman 
applied himself to the study of politics, and began an exhaustive work of ten 
volumes on the French Revolution. The precocity of his intellect and the 
early age at which he began to form the political opinions of which his life 
was the exponent are illustrated by the following anecdote told of him during 
his school days at Aix : At a public examination Thiers had carried oft' the 
first prize for eloquence ; but his name was not divulged, on account of the 
Jacobin tendencies of the pupil, and the professors determined to postpone 
the adjudication of the prize to the following year. Next year Thiers seemed 
unwilling to compete. The professors were delighted, and in great haste ad- 
judged the reward to some one else. It seems, however, that Thiers, under 
an assumed name and in some one else's handwriting, had really composed 
the prize essay; and thus, notwithstanding the monarchical tendency of the 
faculty, Thiers won both the prize and the proxime accessit. 

Between 1823, the date at which the first volume of his history appeared, 
and its completion in 1832, Thiers figured conspicuously as a journalist, and 
wrote much on the liberal side against the unconstitutional government of 
Charles X. and Prince Polignac. Under the new regime which ensued upon 
the revolution of 1830, he became Under Secretary of State, and was subse- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 583 

quently elected to the Chamber of Deputies. In 1832 he was chosen Minis- 
ter of the Interior in the Soult cabinet. Afterward he was by turns Minister 
of the Interior, Minister of Commerce and Public Works, and Minister of 
Foreign Affairs, under various chiefs. In February, 1836, he was nominated 
President of the Council and Foreign Minister by Louis Philippe, but only 
held this office until August of the same year, when he passed into the Oppo- 
sition. In J840 his party was again successful, and once more he was recalled 
to the head of the ministry. As before, he failed to satisfy the demands made 
upon him. The King supported him indifferently, and the Chamber of 
Deputies crippled his home policy. In foreign affairs he had still worse suc- 
cess. The extreme measures he advocated were not sanctioned, and, after six 
months of mortification and discouragement, he resigned. 

On all occasions of political defeat, Thiers found his consolation in litera- 
ture. He now began his great work called L! Histoire du Consulat et de V Em- 
pire, and also resumed charge of a newspaper known as the Constitutionnel, of 
which he had formerly been the head. In journalism his talents were con- 
picuous. One author says of him: " He had the qualities required by the 
editor of a leading opposition newspaper. He had abundant confidence in 
his own judgment, and lost no opportunity of acquiring information. His 
articles were characterized by vigor of thought and remarkable purity of 
style ; he speedily comprehended every subject in detail which he considered, 
and his ready perception, versatility, boldness, and controversial ability were 
were almost incredible. He had unlimited confidence in his own ideas. 4 1 
only ask a quarter of an hour,' said he, ' to be able to explain the financial 
policy of Great Britain.' In the same way, at a later period, meeting Marshal 
Bazaine, he accosted him : ' I was waiting for your visit, being very desirous 
to explain the very unfortunate and disastrous capitulation of Metz,' and then 
proceeded to give the marshal for two hours, particulars of the scenes in 
which the latter had been the chief actor. Finance, the art of war, painting, 
civil administration, science, all were topics which he had at his finger's end. 
He was an encyclopedia in his information. He was impatient of control ; if 
his views were not accepted he would enforce them by a torrent of argument, 
illustration, and imperative requirements, and very likely would then refuse to 
co-operate with those who differed from him. 

Prior to the Revolution of 1848, Thiers constantly printed the most wither- 
ing attacks upon Louis Philippe's pusillanimity in foreign affairs, and favored 
political reforms, but not a republic. When, however, the king had fled and 
the republic was established, he accepted it as a protection against anarchy. 
In June of the same year he was elected to the Constituent Assembly by four 
departments, receiving in all 97,304 votes. He now spoke vehemently and 
published pamphlets against the socialists, and on the breaking out of the in- 
surrection voted to confer dictatorial powers upon General Cavaignac. Sub- 
sequently he supported Louis Napoleon for President, and fought a duel with 
Bixio for repeating a rumor that he had previously disparaged that candidate. 
Before the next election, however, Thiers became persuaded that Louis Na- 
poleon aimed at imperialism, and the great statesman labored heartily for his 
defeat. The result was that after the coup d'etat of 185 1 Thiers was arrested, 
imprisoned and politely conducted to the frontier. At the end of a year and 
a half he was permitted to return, and in 1863 he took the oath of allegiance 
to the Empire. After this he was elected to t e Chamber, but constantly 
spoke and acted against the Emperor's ministry. He disapproved of the Cri- 
mean and Italian wars, and of the Mexican expedition. He also vehemently 
opposed the war with Prussia, declaring in a powerful speech that that nation 
had given no cause for hostilities. Subsequently, however, his patriotism led 
him to visit London, St. Petersburg, and Vienna in the vain endeavor to 
secure aid for France. 



5^4 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES, 



Throughout the whole war the activity of Thiers was extraordinary, his 
intellectual resources seemed inexhaustible, and on the convention of a Na- 
tional Assembly at Bordeaux, in 1871, he was almost unanimously chosen the 
executive chief of the Republic of France. The election occurred on the 17th 
of February, and on the 18th the new chief made an eloquent addressto the 
government, urging the necessity of immediate peace. 

In spite of occasional difficulties with the Assembly, Thiers ruled France 
with great sagacity and success for more than two years, though it was some- 
times his habit to compromise his dignity by joining in the hot debates pe- 
culiar to the French government. He also threatened repeatedly to resign 
unless the course of action he recommended at the time should be adopted. 
He did this once too often. On the 24th of May, 1873, in a petulent humor, 
he resigned his Presidency, and was taken at his word. He was voted out of 
office by a majority of 16, Marshal McMahon being appointed in his stead for 
a period of seven years. 

In personal appearance Thiers was small and insignificant, but, like Pope, 
and a number of other physically deficient men, who have become famous in 
literature, art, and statesmanship, he soared above Nature's frown, having 
those qualities within him which make men great. He died Sept. 3, 1877. 




GEORGE S. BOUTWELL. 




EORGE S. BOUTWELL was born in Brookline, Massa- 
iljjD chusetts, January 28th, 1818. When seventeen years of 
age he went to Groton and commenced business as clerk 
in a store. At nineteen he appeared first as a lecturer before the 
public in the Groton Lyceum. At the age of twenty-one he was 
nominated by the Democratic party for the legislature, but lost 
the election. Three years later he was again candidate, and being 
elected, was continued in the office seven successive years. In 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



5»5 



1851 he was elected Governor of Massachusetts and held the office 
two terms. In 1853 he separated from the Democratic party and 
"became a leader of the Republicans in Massachusetts. In 1861 
lie was a member of the Peace Congress, was the first Com- 
missioner of Internal Revenue and organized the revenue system 
of the United States. 

He was elected a Representative in Congress and took his seat 
in March, 1863. He was appointed a member of the Judiciary 
Committee, and continued on it, and also on the Joint Committee 
on Reconstruction. At the close of the war he was one of the 
first advocates of negro suffrage. As a manager of the Impeach- 
ment Trial before the Senate, his honest sincerity and eloquence 
attracted the attention and admiration of the whole country. Mr 
Boutwell had just taken his seat in the Forty-first Congress when 
lie was called by President Grant to take a seat in his cabinet as 
Secretary of the Treasury. Mr. Boutwell entered upon his duties 
under many difficulties, and though he pursued a new policy, 
the practical results of which was doubted by some, the na- 
tional debt was reduced more than twenty million dollars during 
his first three months in office. There is no question of Mr. Bout- 
well's honesty, or of his integrity, while his ability, force of char- 
acter, vigorous powers and habits of thought, together with an 
attractive, kindly manner, make him a general favorite and a 
crusted statesman. 





2ACHARIAH CHANDLER. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 587 



ZACHARIAH CHANDLER. 




JgpACHARIAH CHANDLER was born in Bedford, N. H., 
ftuotl December 10, 1813. He received a good education, and 
at the age of twenty-two went to Detroit, Mich., engaged 
in mercantile business,- and as the town, then small, increased in 
size, so also did his business, until he was one of the heaviest 
wholesale dry goods merchants in the State. He was a whig in 
politics, so far at least as he was a politician, which was not to any 
great extent, and he never sought political honors. He was elected 
Mayor of Detroit in 185 1, and in the following year was nominated 
for Governor of the State, but his fine sense of honor forbade his 
silence upon what seemed to him vital points of interest to the 
nation, and he gave his views so plainly and independently as 
to offend the party in power, and lost the election. In 1856 
he was elected to the United States Senate for six years, and 
during that term was identified with all the leading movements of 
the day : for a general system of internal improvements, for pre- 
venting the further increase of slave territory, and for the sup- 
pression of the vices and corruption which disgraced the nation. 
One of our finest critics writes of him : " The country does not 
know how much it owes to his Roman firmness. The people 
have become too much accustomed to regard him as one of the 
fortresses of their liberties, which no artillery could breach, 
and whose parapet no storming column could ever reach, that 
they have never given themselves a thought as to the disastrous 
consequences which might have followed had he spoken or 
voted differently from what he did. When did he ever pander 
to position, or complain of being unappreciated by his party ? 
Yet no man ever did braver work for a party, and got less con- 
sideration than he." 

In the rebellion he advocated prompt and energetic measures, 
not half-way action. He was prompt and efficient in promoting 
the welfare of the soldiers, and in bringing about an honorable 
peace. He died in 1879. 




John C. Calhoun. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 5^9 



JOHN C CALHOUN. 



^ftHE subject of this sketch was born in Abbeville District, 
South Carolina, March 18th, 1782, and the luster of his 
name, which was never clouded or dimmed or disgraced, 
lent to the glory of the State that gave him birth, that he loved 
so well, and served so faithfully. His father was the first member 
elected to the Provincial legislature from the interior of the 
State, and of this body and the State legislature, he continued 
a member for thirty years, with the intermission of a single term, 
and held the office at the time of his death. 

At Yale College young Calhoun distinguished himself for breadth 
of intellect and for his precocious sagacity, and the learned Dr. 
Dwight, president of the College, with whom he had frequent dis- 
cussions, was astonished at his depth of thought and power of 
eloquence, and unequivocally predicted the future of his pupil. 
He remarked to a friend, " That young man has talents enough to 
be President of the United States." A high compliment in that 
day, but which, with the experience that later years has brought 
us, we are justified in questioning, and we defend our own skepti- 
cism and turn wistful eyes backward over time as we cry, " Oh, for 
the days when men like Calhoun dared to 

' Beard the lion in his lair, 
The Douglas in his halls ! " 
When fame's fingers had already begun to weave laurels for his 
brow, as he stepped forth to meet a Randolph of Roanoke, and 
in answer to that powerful antagonist, threw back, with fiery 
impetuosity, concentrated bitterness, and scathing scorn, in the 
true spirit of the proud sons of the South, the taunts and sneers 
with which he had been met in the legislature by him. 

Those who knew Randolph, and knew how haughty and impe- 
rious was his nature, can perhaps imagine his astonishment and 
rage, when this stripling stepped forth, as confidently as did 
David to meet Goliath, and exclaimed, in answer to Randolph's pro- 



5 9© FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

posal of conciliatory measures in regard to our " little unpleasant- 
ness " with England in 1811, " Sir, I here enter my solemn protest 
against this low and calculating avarice entering this hall of legis- 
lation. It is only fit for shops and counting houses ; and ought 
not to disgrace the seat of sovereignty by its squalid and vile ap- 
pearance. Whenever it touches sovereign power, the nation is 
ruined. It is too short-sighted to defend itself. It is an unprom - 
ising spirit, always ready to yield a part and save the balance. It 
is too timid to have in itself the power of self-preservation. It is 
only safe under the shield of honor. It is unworthy of our 
national government, unworthy of our nation." Loving the South 
with a passionate fervor, he was yet a man so clear-sighted as to 
refuse to gratify her at the expense of principle and honor, 
hence, when the embargo was greatly relied on in the troubles of 
181 1, to which we before alluded, and the enthusiastic South ap- 
plauded the scheme, the young statesman had the hardihood to 
oppose it in the most energetic manner. Said he, " I object to the 
restrictive system, because it does not suit the genius of our people 
or our government. To make the restrictive system effective, 
requires the most arbitrary laws. England, with the most severe 
penal statutes, has not been able to exclude prohibited articles, 
and Napoleon, with all his power and vigilance, was obliged to 
resort to the most barbarous laws to enforce this continental sys- 
tem. It is unworthy of our principles — alike insulting to them 
and our constitution." 

In 181 7 Mr. Calhoun was appointed by Mr. Monroe to the 
office of Secretary of War. Entering upon his duties under the 
most adverse circumstances, but everything was forced to yield to 
his skill and sagacity. He found upward of forty million of dol- 
lars of unsettled accounts, which he speedily reduced to three 
million ; and by the economy and exactness of accountability 
which he introduced into every branch of expenditure under his 
control, he saved the government many million of dollars. He 
was twice elected Vice-President of the United States, on which 
office he conferred a dignity and character every way worthy of 
the station and of himself. 

On the occasion of his being chosen to fill Mr. Haines' seat in 
the Senate, he met with the most bitter opposition, and on account 
of his views favoring State Rights, was even threatened with 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 59 I 

arrest, and it was at this time, when treason reared its head in the 
high places of the land, that some of his most able and eloquent 
speeches were made. We only wish it were possible to make room 
for them upon these pages, or even for lengthy extracts. He has 
been repeatedly pronounced to be the most profound metaphysi- 
cian of his age ; but in setting him at the head of American ora- 
tors we design to speak more of his clear-sighted wisdom, of his 
practical application of illustrations and of the purity and exalted 
nature of his thoughts, as expressed by his unsurpassed eloquence. 
He was incontestably superior to any of his cotemporaries in val- 
uable philosophical accomplishments. The condensing power of 
his mind, the manner in which he not only concentrated, but 
intensified thought, making a few well chosen words convey a vol- 
ume of meaning, was unsurpassed by any public man of any age. 
Said a writer, who was at a loss for words, as we now are, since 
language seems so incapable of conveying the true quality of a 
mind like this : " An indignant, fiery purity pervaded Calhoun's 
phraseology like heat and resistance in glowing steel." Awed and 
penetrated by his power, we are loth to deal with his character as 
with th>se of a more common stamp. No one could listen to him 
without feeling that his mightiest power is in clear analogies, sup- 
pressed emotion, and lofty earnestness. He was far in advance of 
his age, and his ardent devotion to the liberties of his country, 
and his jealous watchfulness of her honor and interests, have been 
mistaken by some for ambition. Ambition he had, but it was 
high aid noble, and never could exist apart from his ambition for 
his country. His nullification, so much misunderstood and mis- 
i epresmted, was, with him, a pure and almost holy devotion to the 
ronstifution and to the permanent good of the whole Union, ac- 
< ordu.'g to his understanding of them. The genial goodness, 
native to his head and heart, is manifest in the spirit of his pub- 
lic conduct. Everywhere he was as full of thought as an ocean 
h of brine, but there is no bitterness in his written or living speech, 
3 lis loftiest abstractions are embodied m that good sense, and 
keen, fine honor, which forbade him to stop in the dark ; while 
he never resorted to the paltry subterfuge of attempting to appa- 
rently enlarge an idea by clothing it in a misty, hazy, ambiguous 
cloud of words which really only bewilder the listener. 



592 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

We feel the insufficiency of any mind or pen to present to you 
a correct analysis of this great man, who stood prominent among 
the men whose great thoughts possess us like a passion, through 
every limb and the whole heart ; whose words haunt us " as eagles 
haunt the mountain crags " — thoughts which command all com- 
ing times and minds, as from a tower a warden. Carefully avoid- 
ing all discursiveness of the imagination, his speeches are 
characterized by a steady pressure to the point. In debate, a 
rapid, vehement outpouring of thought and sentiment that carried 
everything before its rushing tide. 

From 1831 until 1843 he was in the Senate, and was then ap- 
pointed Secretary of State ; he was again returned to the Senate 
in 1845, of which body he remained a member until his death, 
which occurred in 1850, at Washington, after nearly fifty years of 
steady labor and of unselfish patriotism. 



WILLIAM PITT. 




'ILLIAM PITT was the second born, but eldest living 
son of Lord Chatham. He was born May 28, 1759. 
At the age of fourteen he entered Cambridge, where he 
made rapid progress in his studies, and, as an English historian 
says of him, became " saturated with knowledge." He had been 
taught from his childhood, almost from his birth, that he was the 
hope of the country, and his ambition, naturally strong, was in- 
creased and cultivated in every possible way. He was haughty, 
reserved, cold and proud, a man while yet a boy ; indeed, the 
writer quoted says he never had a boyhood, but that at the age 
when others are blushing with boyish diffidence, he had the aus- 
terity and assurance of a man of the world, taking up its cares 
and duties as if he had known them a lifetime. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 595 

In January, 1781, he was sent to Parliament from Appleby, and 
at once threw himself into politics with the spirit of an old de- 
bater. He advocated reforms, and all the popular measures of 
the day, and stood boldly and stoutly for representation of the 
people. In July, 1782, he was made chancellor of the exchequer, 
and this, following, as it did, Lord Shelburn's accession to the ad- 
ministration, was equivalent to an invitation to retire from a party 
who were considered mad to advance in England, or indeed in 
Europe, a theory so unlikely to succeed, idle as was the dream- 
er's wildest fancies. His ambition was stronger than his love of 
reform, and in December, 1783, King George placed young Pitt 
at the head of the cabinet, and for seventeen years he, more than 
any other man, ruled the United Kingdom. When first placed 
in power, it is probable that something of the rose tints with which 
he had clothed his first love, Reform, yet haunted his vision, for 
he still talked tenderly of free trade ; but. the disastrous failure of 
the French Revolution, whose dedication page was written with 
the blood of her bravest sons, was a lesson that he was not slow 
to learn, and henceforth Pitt was the despot of the Parliament, 
measuring his strength with a boldness that was characteristic of 
the man, with any or every political power, and his resources 
seemed inexhaustible. His readiness in debate, and promptness 
in action, as well as his business capacity, were truly wonderful. 
Unfortunately he gave himself up to dissipation of every sort, and 
died of a broken constitution and exhausted vigor, January 23d* 
1806. 



DANIEL WEBSTER. 




™HE birthplace of Daniel Webster was Salisbury, Mass., the 
year, 1782. His father was a farmer, and fought both in 
the French and Revolutionary wars. Daniel Webster was 
educated in a school in the wilderness, and fed and grew strong 

38 




nON. DANTF.L WEBSTER. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 595 

intellectually on a repast not equal to the crumbs which fall from 
modern tables. He studied and was admitted to the practice of 
law in Boston, in 1805 ; his first practice was in the village of 
Boscawen, and afterward he removed to Portsmouth, where he 
struggled awhile with poverty and adversity, was burned out and 
returned to Boston with the almost hopeless hope of bettering his 
condition. Now the tide turned, the stranded barque was 
again lifted to the crest of the wave, and scarcely would it be 
amiss to wind up with the novelist's oft repeated termination of his 
romance — "he was prosperous and happy forever after." Poetic 
justice might be satisfied with this, but in the life of these " Master 
Spirits of the World," is a lesson too rich to be so easily jonned. 

Mr. Webster's career in Boston was upward, but he drew him- 
self up the steeps with patient endeavor. For six or eight years 
he avoided politics, refused to accept office, and devoted himself 
closely to business. On the 10th of March he made an appeal 
before the Supreme Court at Washington in behalf of Dartmouth 
College, and of his efforts it is said : " After his speech was finished 
there was a perceptible interval before any one seemed willing to 
break the silence, and not one in that vast crowd doubted that the 
man who had so moved, controlled, and astonished them had that 
day vindicated his right to a place at the side of the ablest jurists 
in the country." 

In 1822 he consented to accept a seat as Representative in Con 
gress, and 1826 was chosen to fill a vacancy in the Senate of the 
United States. It was not as a politician that Mr. Webster made 
his public life an honorable success, but as an orator, and as " one 
who loved his fellow T men," — one to whom humanity in any and 
every phase is dear, and whose whole object and purpose is to ele- 
vate it. 

His oration at the laying of the corner-stone of the Bunker Hill 
Monument, before the assembled multitude who stood with un- 
covered heads, while their feet pressed the turf that had been 
reddened by the blood of the martyrs who defended it, was one 
of the most thrilling outbursts of eloquence that ever fell from 
his lips, and its closing sentences awed the listeners into a silence as 
if it were a voice from the skies. There was always in his ora- 
tory a dignity that amounted to formality and stiffness, and a 
solemnity that would have been oppressive but for the purity and 



596 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

beauty of his ideas, and their polish, which, if it made them seem 
cold, gave them a brilliancy never excelled. One object he had 
forever in view. It was never lost sight of, no matter how trivial 
the occasion that called him into action, and that was moral ana 
intellectual greatness. It was this, adhered to so persistently, 
which seemed to lift him above the head of every one with whom 
he came in contact. It is doubtful if his eloquence lay in speech 
alone — it was in manner, gesture, look. It was a part of him. He 
was a most careful speaker, never advancing what he could not 
substantiate, never raising a pyramid of argument without being 
sure that the base would support it. He had the power, without 
the heat of enthusiasm in himself, of arousing it to the highest 
pitch in others. He reminded one always of the Alpine mo^r 
tains, 

" the mountains, 



Round whose snow-clad crest 

The clouds forever lie, the clouds 

From out whose breast the lightnings flash, and 

To whose breast the lightnings leap and hide." 

His audience might sun themselves in the warmth of the fruit- 
ful valley; he was towering above them in thought's sublimest 
realms, cold, strong, majestic, immovable. He died in Marshfield, 
Massachusetts, in the 71st year of his age. 



DEMOSTHENES. 




[HE father of Demosthenes was a cutler and cabinet- 
maker, and the great Greek orator was born B. C. 382. 
His father died when he was but seven years old, and his 
property, consisting of fifteen talents, was put into the hands of 
three guardians who were appointed by his father. Upon arriving 
at his majority he demanded his money but could not get it, and 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 597 

at once instituted proceedings against those who held it, and not 
being able to employ an advocate, pleaded his own case, and 
obtained a verdict for the sum of ten talents against one of them. 
The speeches made by himself on the occasion were amongst the 
finest specimens of his oratory. They were the eloquent, fiery 
outpouring .of his indignation and wrath, the hot, passionate, 
though almost boyish expression of his sense of the injustice done 
him, and his impetuous demand for justice fr®m the Athenian 
court for one of her citizens. Encouraged by his success, and by 
the admiration he had excited, he now determined to devote him- 
self to lecturing, and at once commenced the work; but his 
second attempt ended in a failure as mortifying and humiliating 
as his first had been gratifying. Without the stimulant of that 
intense excitement which had nerved him then, his voice was 
weak and feeble, and the impediment in his speech was so great 
as to render it difficult for him to be understood at all ; and he 
met with only contemptuous ridicule. In no way discouraged by 
the ill-fated beginning of a public career which he had destined 
to be life-long, and with an unconquerable determination to suc- 
ceed, to make his way in the face of every obstacle, and to rise 
above those whose sneers stung him almost into frenzy, he ap- 
plied himself to study, going through the most vigorous course of 
practice, never wearying, and never doubting his ultimate victory. 
B. C. 355 he reappeared before the public, from which he had dis- 
appeared so entirely as to have been forgotten, and delivered two 
orations against Septimus and Androtion, which were exceedingly 
fine, especially the first, and these being rapidly followed by 
others, his fame as an orator spread far and wide, and, as one 
of those "whose resistless eloquence wielded and swayed 
that fierce Democrat, he became one of the leading statesmen 
of Athens, and took an active part in all public affairs. He 
strongly opposed the expedition to Euhoar, and endeavored, 
without success, to dissuade the people from taking up arms 
against the Persians. Thenceforth his life belonged to his coun- 
try, and in anything which could serve her interests, or promote 
her honor, or add to her fame, he was a zealous and untiring 
laborer, and any measure which threatened encroachment upoD 
her liberty was watched with jealous and sleepless eyes. 



598 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

B. C 358 Philip, of Macedonia, began his aggressive war upon 
the northern part of the Macedonian possessions, and as their 
encroachments were patiently borne, and no opposition brought 
to bear, but the territory quietly given up, there seemed no 
probability that they would withdraw, or retreat, or give back that 
which was not demanded of them. The proud and patriotic 
spirit of Demosthenes could ill brook this insult to his nation, 
and to rouse his countrymen to a sense of the degradation of 
their position he uttered his Philipics, probably the most eloquent 
series of orations ever delivered ; and they moved upon the hearts 
of the people as did the voice of Moses when he commanded the 
Israelites to submit no longer to the oppression of Pharaoh. 
The Olynthiacs are ^equally celebrated, and were delivered with 
a view to prevail upon the Athenians to aid the inhabitants of 
Olynthus, which had been besieged by Philip, and which, not- 
withstanding all the exertions of the orator, was taken the next 
spring. 

Demosthenes was now sent, with nine others, on an embassy to 
treat with Philip, and concluded a superficial peace, which lasted 
ten years. At the end of that time hostilities again commenced, 
and the disastrous battle of Chaeronea left Philip master of the 
destinies of Greece. Defeated and disgraced, the people yet rec- 
ognized the heroic efforts of Demosthenes, and his love for the 
Macedonians remained unabated ; but upon the accession of Alex- 
ander to the throne, so strong was the power which seated and 
neld him there, that all opposition was overawed ; and soon there 
was a revulsion of feeling, and Demosthenes, who had been the idol 
of the people, came under their condemnation. Harpacus, who 
had been left at Babylon in charge of the immense treasure there, 
absconded with it, and, arriving at Athens, by a judicious distri- 
bution of part of it, secured his personal safety. Demosthenes 
was suspected of being one of the recipients, and was tried for 
the offence. No proof was found, but he was declared guilty ; and 
the suspicion, and the weight of shame attached to the unsus- 
tained charge, almost broke the heart of the heroic old man, and 
he retired to Trozene, where he remained until the death of Alex- 
ander, when he returned to Athens, but was not allowed to remain ; 
he fled again from his ungrateful country to Calauria, where 
he found refuge in the temple of Neptune. He died suddenly in 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 599 

this lonely spot, an exile from the land of his birth, an exile from 
the country to which he had been so true — a victim of " man's 
inhumanity to man." His orations are familiar to every reader, 
and are pronounced by Hume as being the most perfect of the 
kind ever given to the world. " His manner," says the author 
just quoted, " is rapid harmony, exactly adjusted to the sense ; it 
is vehement reasoning without any appearance of art ; it is dis- 
dain, anger, boldness, freedom, involved in a constant stream of 
argument, and of all human productions, the nearest perfect." 



EDWARD EVERETT. 




'DWARD EVERETT, the fourth of a family of eight 
children, was born in Dorchester, Mass., in 1794. He 
was educated in the public schools of Boston, to which 
place his parents removed while he was quite young ; prepared for 
college at Exeter, N. H., entered Harvard August, 1807, and 
graduated, with the highest honors of his class, in 181 1. He was 
induced to study theology, and in 181 2 was appointed Latin tutor 
in the University. Before he was nineteen years of age he was 
settled over the Brattle Street Church, Boston, but being ap- 
pointed Professor of Greek Literature in Harvard, he resigned his 
pastorate in the third year ; and, to improve his health and mind, 
was assisted by the Corporation of the University to travel, and 
spent some time in Europe, visiting its old colleges. He was in 
London when the battle of Waterloo was fought, and remained 
nearly five years abroad, at the end of which time he returned to 
his duties. He accepted the editorial charge of the North Amer- 
ican Review, and under his care it became equal to any of the 
foreign Reviews. Mr. Everett's literary works are numerous, and 
familiar to every one. In 1824 he was chosen to fill a vacancy in 



6O0 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

the Congressional district to which Cambridge belongs, and 
elected by a large majority. He was returned for five successive 
Congresses, and his legislative labors were able and effective. For 
ten years he was on the Committee of Foreign Affairs, much of 
the time as Chairman. In the spring of 1835 he declined re-elec- 
tion, and took leave of the House of Representatives. On the 
election of Gov. Davis to the United States Senate, Mr. Everett be- 
came his successor in the gubernatorial chair, and in 1836, and 
again in 1837, was re-elected to the position. He afterwards be- 
came resident Minister at the Court of St. James, where he re- 
mained several years. On his return he was made President of 
Harvard College. 

As an orator, it is almost needless to speak of Mr. Everett to 
the people of America. So lately he was in our midst — so late 
our tears fell as they said, "He is dead!" — that his gifts and his 
virtues are fresh as is the memory of our loss. He was calm and 
earnest in his manner, his words and his measure were like a soft, 
liquid flow, never wearying you with sameness, never startling you 
with sudden outbursts of passionate rhetoric. He was no eagle, 
that— 

" Bared its bosom to the storm, 
And swept where darkest roll the clouds," 

but holding to the world of humanity with tender, clinging grasp, 
that placed no space between himself and them. While Mr. 
Everett's ideas combine in themselves every element of strength, 
they were so finely wrought, so daintily finished, so cunningly 
woven with sweet fancies, and broidered with all the poet's sweet 
devicct, that in their beauty we forget their grandeur. In after 
times, the soft raiment with which he clothed them left our mind 
imperceptibly, as the dew is dried from the rose, nor seen as it 
exhales ; but after this, we saw how massive was the structure 
,hat— 

" Autumn leaves distained with dusky gold, 
And clinging tendrils almost hid." 

His taste his learning, and nis education cdmbind power to 
enchant his heares ;while his maner, like his matter, was studied, 
elaborats but not so much so as to be degraded into a trifling 
bauble or a splendid fault. Edward Everett died in Boston 
Mass. Jan 15. 1865. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 6 OI 



HENRY WILSON. 



Henry Wilson, late Vice-President of the United States, was 
one of those rare examples of men who have won a prom- 
inent place in the politics of the country without any advantages 
of birth, or culture in early life. He was born at Farmington, 
New Hampshire, on the 16th day of February, 1812. His parent- 
age was of the humblest, for he was barely ten years of age when 
he was apprenticed to a farmer in the vicinity for eleven years. 
His master was a kind and generous man, who sent the young, 
hard-working boy to school in the intervals of agricultural labor, 
and here he soon developed a great taste for reading. He hun- 
gered after knowledge, and his evident desire to learn induced a 
lawyer of Farmington to offer him the free use of his library, 
which was fortunately a very extensive one. Here the statesman 
in embryo reveled, and in after life he has declared to friends, 
that he believes he read during those eleven years, a hun- 
dred volumes a year. When he became twenty-one he had 
exhausted the library. His indentures were now completed, 
and, if he had chosen to become a farmer, opportunities of ad- 
vancement were not wanting, for everybody liked the shy, 
awkward youth, with his broad, high forehead, his honest eyes and 
his immense but somewhat desultory stores of information. But 
he had resolved upon quitting Farmington and seeing the world. 
Putting his few clothes and his books, his only treasures, into a 
bundle, he slung it across his shoulder and walked gayly off to 
Natick, in Massachusetts, where he hired himself to a shoemaker 
with the resolution of working at this trade until he had accumu- 
lated a fund sufficient to maintain him in some good academy. It 
took two years to do this, when he returned to New Hampshire 
and studied for a time in the academies at Stafford, Wolfsborough 
-and Concord. Most unfortunately, the man to whom he had con- 
iided his little heap of savings became insolvent, so Henry Wil« 




HENRY WILSON. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 603 

son was obliged to return to the shoemaker's bench at Natick. He 
was now twenty-six, and noted everywhere in the neighborhood as 
a modest, well-educated young man, with a great turn for debat- 
ing. He delighted in discussion, and was so redoubtable an 
opponent that no one in the academies or among his comrades at 
Natick cared to enter into an argument with one who was so log- 
ical, so keenly alive to the weak points of others, and who had, 
moreover, so powerful a flow of language. Everybody predicted 
that at the next election the people would hear of Henry Wilson. 

They did. 

In 1849 he was chosen Chairman of the Free Soil State Com- 
mittee of Massachusetts, which post he held for four years. In 
1850 he was sent to the State Senate, and unanimously elected 
President. Two years afterward he was elected, by acclamation, 
President of the great Free Soil Convention, which was held in 
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, when he electrified the members by the 
most wonderful displays of eloquence. The Free Soilers put him 
up as candidate for Representative in Congress, and though de- 
feated, he ran ahead of his ticket by thousands of votes. Next 
year the same party put him up for Governor, but he was again 
defeated, though still running largely ahead of his ticket. Two 
years afterward things changed, and the Free Soilers being in the 
ascendant, Henry Wilson was elected United States Senator in the 
place of Edward Everett. No sooner had he taken his seat than 
he made the Senate Chamber ring with the most eloquent denun- 
ciations of slavery. He made a great speech advocating the 
repeal of the Fugitive Slave law, and for the abolition of slavery 
in the District of Columbia. He next took an active part in or- 
ganizing the Republican party on the basis of equal and exact 
justice to all. 

In May, 1856, Mr. Sumner, his colleague, was assailed in the 
most dastardly manner by Preston Brooks, of South Carolina. 
He rose to his feet and denounced the assault as " brutal, mur- 
derous and cowardly." At the same time he intimated that should 
any one assault him as his colleague had been assaulted, it would 
be seen that he believed most fully in the right of self-defense. 
And now the whilom farmer-lad and shoemaker stepped into the 
front rank of the Senate, and was recognized by all as emphatic- 
ally a strong and shrewd man, a keen debater, and a wise, fore- 



<504 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

seeing statesman. His great speech in defense of free labor, in 
reply to an attack of Senator Hammond, of South Carolina, was 
circulated in every workshop of the free States, and taught the 
working-men to recognize their champion. His term of senator- 
ship expiring the next year, he was re-elected by an immense ma- 
jority. When the Senate assembled in March, 1861, he was made 
Chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs. In this capacity 
he introduced the act to authorize the enrollment of 500,000 men 
as an army, besides other matters of equal military importance. 
Gen. Scott declared that no man ever did so much work in one short 
session as Senator Wilson, and this only reechoed the general 
sentiment of the country. From that date his actions in the Sen- 
ate have embraced all the important work that has been done by 
the Republican party. He was reelected in 1865, and again in 
1871, 

He was elected Vice-President of the United States by the 
Republican party in 1872. 

He died at Washington, Nov. 22d, 1875, of apoplexy. 



- BRIGHAM YOUNG. 

YOUNG was the son of John Young, a poor farmer of the town of Whiting, 
Ham, Windham County, Vermont, where the future "prophet" was born 
June 1. 1801. In 1804 the family removed to Chenango County, New York ; 
from there he went to Steuben County in 1817, and ten years later he removed 
to Monroe County. The Young family were all Methodists but Brigham, 
who was skeptical as to religion till he was converted to the Mormon faith 
in 1832. In early life Brigham Young worked on his father's farm. He 
afterward learned the occupation of a carpenter, painter, and glazier, and 
followed this business for eighteen years. In 1824 he married Miriam 
Works, who died eight years afterward, leaving two daughters. 

When about thirty years of age Brigham Young first saw the Book of 
Mormon. A year later he became a convert to the teachings of Joseph Smith, 
and was admitted to the Mormon Church. His first sight of the "prophet " 
took place five months afterward, when he made a journey to Kirtland, Ohio, 
for that purpose. On this occasion Smith invited the new convert to pray. 
In the course of the prayer he suddenly began to " speak in tongues," and 
Smith assured those present that the unknown sounds were " the pure Adamic 
language— the language in which Adam courted Eve!" Brigham Young 
often resorted to this device in after-times, and his ignorant followers were 
roused to strange frenzy while listening to senseless ejaculations, which they 
believed to be the primal language of the human race. 

Smith soon perceived that he had secured a valuable ally in Brigham 
Young, whom he induced to settle in Kirtland, and shortly afterward ordained 
him one of the Twelve Apostles. From that time Young devoted all his 
energies to the building up of the Mormon Church. He shared in the pri- 
vations and tribulations of his leader, took part in important missions through 
the Eastern States and in England, where he made many converts to the new 
faith, and rose to a position of influence among the Mormons hardly second 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 605 

to that of his chief. To him the Mormons owe the most revolting feature of 
their system, that of polygamy. He has himself boasted that "the Lord 
revealed it to him " while he was in England. On his return to this country 
he communicated the scheme to his leader, who informed him that it was a 
"true principle." Shortly after Smith had a "revelation," and promulgated 
the hideous doctrine as a rule of the Mormon faith. 

After the assassination of Smith, in the Carthage jail, on the 27th of June, 
Brigham Young succeeded in placing himself at the head of the Mormon 
Church. The new " prophet " did not find his position one of ease. The 
" Gentiles " looked with disfavor on the Mormons, and sought by every means 
to break up the community. At length the westward-movement was decided 
upon. Brigham Young's intention was, no doubt, to found an independent 
state in a region far from the bounds of civilization. The idea was not 
his own. Some time before his death, Joseph Smith had sent pioneers to 
explore the West, and they had selected the region about the Great Salt 
Lake as the future home of the l< Saints." 

The first band of Mormons reached Salt Lake July 24, 1847 After staking 
out the future city, and setting pioneers to work at ploughing and sowing, 
Brigham Young retraced his steps for the purpose of conducting another pil- 
grimage across the mountains. The greater part of the Mormons arrived 
during the next year ; and the population was still further increased by a 
large emigration from every country in Europe. 

In 1849 the State of Deseret — the name signifying, according to the Mor- 
mons, " the home of the honey-bee " — was provisionally organized, and 
Brigham was chosen Governor. Congress, however, refused to look with 
favor upon the application of|the newly organized State for admission into 
the Union, and a Territorial government was established in 1850, President 
Fillmore appointing Brigham Young Governor. Though Brigham accepted 
this office, he defied the authority of the United States from the beginning. 
As early as 185 1 the Federal judges came into collision with him, and left 
the Territory. This led to a resolution for Brigham's removal, but his suc- 
cessor was not able to get control of the government for some years afterward. 
Colonel Steptoe was first appointed, and he arrived in Utah in 1854 with a 
battalion of soldiers , but he found the Mormons so strong and so hostile that 
he did not think it prudent to assume the office, and found an excuse for 
getting away. 

The following year the position of Governor was conferred upon Alfred 
Cumming, of Georgia, and a force of 2,500 men, under ihe command of 
Colonel Albert Sidney Johnson, was sent to Utah to enforce the authority of 
the United States. The troops remained in the Territory, and there was a 
nominal Governor, but all actual authority was in Brigham Young's control. 

As the advance of emigration and the rapid settlement of the Pacific coast 
brought Utah in closer communication with the rest of the country, public 
sentiment demanded that the government should take action in regard to 
the Mormon system of Polygamy. In 1862 Congress passed a law prohibit- 
ing the practice, and punishing the transgressor with fine and imprisonment. 
There were no United States troops in Utah, and Brigham Young had 
nothing to fear. He denounced the law from the pulpit. He took a new 
wife, Amelia Folsom, of Iowa, who soon became the queen and favorite of 
his harem, and his example was followed by many of his flock. 

Brigham Young's death was perhaps hastened by the anxieties arising from 
the trial and execution of Lee for his participation in the horrible Mountain 
Meadow Massacre — a crime which Young is suspected of instigating. He 
knew that efforts were making to discover legal evidence of his guilt, and 
dread of being brought to trial preyed on his mind day and night. He had 
been in feeble health for several months, but was only a week seriously ill. 
He died August 29, 1877. He was supposed to be very wealthy. 




Rev. Henry Ward Beecher. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 607 



HENRY WARD BEECHER. 




'HIS distinguished clergyman and orator was born in 
Litchfield, Connecticut, June 24, 1813, and his father, Dr. 
Lyman B'eecher, was quite a celebrated New England di- 
vine, who has the honor of being the father of some of our 
brightest literary lights. In every flock is some weak lamb, and 
Henry enjoyed the distinction, in childhood, at least, of being 
considered, both by his family and the neighbors, the "dunce of 
the Beecher family," a distinction which, we have heard, gave him 
no pain in those days, and but little since. Although he has 
taken so kindly to theology in later life, he has declared a never- 
failing distaste for the doses of catechism and ten. command- 
ments which he was forced to take. His memory was very poor, 
and he had a slight impediment in his speech, and a thick, indis- 
tinct utterance, which, together with his aversion to study, ren- 
dered it up-hill work to learn anything. 

His mother died when he was three years old, and the lady who 
was chosen to fill her place appears to have been a most estima- 
ble person, though gloomy, stern and uncomfortably pious, with 
an ever-abiding, sense of her responsibility for the brood of little 
Beechers whose rearing she had assumed. 

The father's early choice was, for Henry to be a minister of 
the gospel. Henry promptly decided that he would be anything 
else first, and suggested the sea. The boy looked with indescrib- 
able longing at the wild, free waves. In other years he under- 
stood this — now it is one of the mysteries of life to him, and stirs 
his soul with a joy that is yet a pain — a vague, subtle charm that, 
though he loved it well, he could not grasp or hold. 

His father was too shrewd and too good a reader of human 
nature to openly oppose the boy's wish to be a sailor, and accord- 
ingly proposed an education that would fit him for the navy, 
trusting to time, but more to his repugnance to study, to wean 



608 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

him from his fond fancy ; and he was sent to Mount Pleasant to- 
perfect himself in mathematics, at that time his " favorite aversion." 
But, stimulated by his desire to be a sailor, he applied himself dil- 
igently, and did his teacher credit, not for his proficiency, but for 
his progress. He also took lessons in elocution of Professor J. 
E. Lovell, and obtained in this way a control over his voice and 
utterance, which had been so bad before. He had been a stu- 
dent at Mount Pleasant but a short time, when, at a protracted 
religious meeting then being held there, he was converted ; and 
now, with broader views of life and labor, he looked out upon the 
ocean again, and it was typical to him of life, and of his sphere 
of action. He remembered the fishermen of Galilee, and how 
the Master had said, " Follow me — henceforth ye shall be fishers 
of men," — and his soul and all that was within him leaped for joy 
as it recognized and answered the call. 

Mr. Beecher's first call was to Lawrenceburg, Indiana, and 
from thence to Indianapolis, where he remained eight years, when 
he received and accepted the call to Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. 

There are no questions of general or special interest, either to 
his people, the public, or himself, that he does not inform himself 
upon and preach about them if he chooses. His church is sup- 
ported by the sale of its pews, and from a weak organization 
whose failure was popularly predicted, it has grown to be one of 
the strongest churches, both financially and numerically, in the- 
East. No description of Plymouth Church is needed. Every- 
body knows there are grander and more pretentious edifices 
and yet from that plain red brick building goes out an influence 
that is felt all over the world. 

The unassuming simplicity of his dress, speech and manners 
might make it well worth while for some of our aspiring young 
clergymen to imitate — an example every way good. His sermons 
are the very soul of eloquence — warm, earnest and glowing with 
the love that fills his great soul — love for God and love for man, 
love for the meanest creature that ever the power of Omnipotence 
kindled life in. He is a professional thinker, and a hard student, 
yet genial and sunny as sunshine itself. In the fullest sense of 
the term, without exaggeration or flattery, we can say of him, that 
he is one of the mightiest pulpit orators of the day and one of 
the Master Spirits of the times. ' 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 609 



GEORGE WHITFIELD. 



$j^E was the son of an Inn-keeper, and born in Glou- 
> '(S V K cester, England. He, the Wesleys and others formed 
i|r$r^ themselves into a praying band at Oxford University, 
where they received the sobriquet of "Methodists." Polemical 
controversy soon divided them into two parties, — Calvanists and 
Arminians. Whitfield cast in his lot with the Countess of Hunt- 
ington, and became the most popular preacher in her ladyship's 
denomination. He ranged the entire length of the United King- 
dom, often crossed the Atlantic, traversed nearly every State, and 
was undoubtedly the greatest preacher that either continent ever 
produced. He had no family to enrich, no earthly care to distract 
him, and no wife to divide his time, for his marriage was short 
and late in life. He was the mere ambassador of God ; he carried 
with him a gloAving love and a burning zeal, which frequently 
broke forth in the most thrilling, dazzling and electrifying elo- 
quence, such as swayed the mightiest masses, until like the 
awful deep they surged and swelled as though wrought up under 
the lash of the stormy Eurus. He became at length a living 
Gospel, full of nothing else but Heaven reconciled and man 
restored. He overleaped the ordinary bounds and preached at 
fairs, on commons, in fields, and by the road-side. He could be 
heard in the open air by twenty thousand people at once ; his 
charming voice being distinctly articulate in the softest strains of 
music or in rolling peals of thunder. He effected more than the 
civil magistrate, when he brought the whole rabble of Bartho- 
lomew's fair down in crouching submission, wringing every heart 
with grief and blanching every cheek with terror. By a single sen- 
tentious stroke he laid open alike the hidden arcana of every man's 
heart and the unseen realities of the eternal state. A glance 
would paralyze the hand of a skulking miscreant ready to 
hurl a brick bat at his head, while furrows on sooty faces 
39 



6lO FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

often told that poor colliers were weeping. The quivering of an 
ostrich plume bespoke its elegant wearer's deep emotion. People 
often said to him, " I came to break your head, but, through God, 
you have broken my heart." For years he received a thousand 
letters, on an average, weekly from such as were convinced under 
his preaching. 

The great secret of his strength was, he invariably preached in the 
full confidence of accepted prayer. He spoke as one having 
authority and not as the hired clergy. He addressed the people 
in the spirit of the old Hebrew prophets. His only argument 
was, "Thus saith the Lord." He stooped to neither please nor 
rationalize with the pretended sophist. He flattered no man's 
vanity and retreated before no amount of threatening. Many 
more ornate in language have preceded and followed him, but 
none had his power of electrically darting the truth directly into 
the conscience, until the whole man quivered and lowered, like a 
bird struck and rankling with the barbed arrow of the archer 
firm fastened within. He was strong in the singleness of his aim, 
the simplicity of his purpose, the directness of his effort and the 
sincerity of his actions. He was alone the herald of the cross, 
the ambassador of Christ, the preacher of righteousness, the min- 
ister of the New Testament, and the servant of God. Every 
second thought to him was foreign, an unknown tongue, a grand 
impertinence, a wicked fraud, and a cruel mockery. To his eye 
the invisible was more palpable than the visible, heaven and hell 
were far greater certanties than earth, and eternity was a fathom- 
less, boundless ocean, with which time could no more compare 
than a point to infinity. But however magnificent and great the 
character of the man, such he was by no other agency, not even 
through the least alliance or in the smallest part, than the glori- 
ous gospel of the blessed God. He had so adoringly and persist- 
ently gazed on the cross, that, as by the principle of induction 
or assimilation, he was changed into the same image. He 
frequently found an entire audience pretty much the trans- 
fusion aflid reflex of himself even as he himself was of the message 
he conveyed. His immense influence lives on, and can never, 
never die ! Countless millions through the cycles of time and the 
eons of eternity will stud, gem and radiate, like clustering and 
corruscating diamonds, the victors crown of rejoicing. He was 
born December 16th, 1714; Died September 30th, 1770. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 6ll 



REV. C. H. SPURGEON. 



)T is astonishing that, although we commonly believe the 
world to be six thousand years old, — and Agassiz is rapidly 
convincing us that it is at least ten times that age, — she has 
not yet wearied of producing an endless variety of human 
beings, among which some are pigmies in intellect and education, 
while others are grandly gigantic — subjects of our unbounded ad- 
miration and wonder. In this latter mood was she when she gave 
to the nations that sit in darkness the subject of this sketch. 
When there came to us across the water the first notices of the 
" Boy Preacher," we smiled indulgently, and gave the matter not 
even attention enough to fix his name upon our memory ; until 
fame, with a thousand tongues and a clarion voice, demanded 
for her favorite the homage that was his due. Then, rousing our- 
selves to look, we realized that he had sprung, like Venus from 
the wave, full grown, into power ; and in an incredibly short space 
of time, he ranked with the first preachers of the day. 

Mr. Spurgeon was born in the village of Kelvedon, on the 19th 
of June, 1834, so that he is at present 38 years of age. In his 
infancy he was much in the company of his grandfather, pastor 
of an Independent church at Stonebourne, Essex. His precocious 
piety attracted much attention, and it is said that at six years of 
age he had read repeatedly the Pilgrim's Progress, Baxter's 
Saint's Rest, and others of the same class. At fifteen he was sent 
to school to Newmarket, and while here was sorely tempted to 
adopt the principles of a freethinker. About this time he heard 
a sermon preached by a Methodist from the text, " Look unto 
me, and be ye saved, all the ends of the earth, for I am God. and 
none else." Said Mr. Spurgeon, " The command seemed to me 
as much a direct command to me as if there was not on all the 
Uce of the earth another sinner, and I made not one effort to 




C. H. SPURGEON. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 01 3 

^vade it, but I looked that moment, the grace of God was vouch- 
safed that instant ; and I shall never forget that hour while 
memory holds its place ; nor can I help repeating that text every 
day of my life." 

He preached his first sermon in a cottage at Teversham. From 
this time his labors as a preacher were incessant. His friends 
wished him to attend college, to which he al'so inclined, and the 
cause of his failure upon this point may be best given in his own 
words. " I had agreed to go to college, the tutor had come to see 
me, and I had gone to see him. We were to meet at the house of 
a mutual friend. I was shown by the servant into one dark draw- 
ing room ; he was shown into another. He sat and waited for 
me two hours, and I sat and waited for him two hours. He could 
wait no longer, and went away, thinking I had not treated him 
well ; and I went away thinking he had not treated me well. As 
I left the house, the text ' Seekest thou great things ? Seek them 
not,' came to my mind, and I declined to go to school." In the 
autumn of 1853, he was invited to supply, temporarily, the pulpit 
of New Park Street Chapel, Southwork, which had in former times 
been occupied by such men as Rev. Benjamin Keach, the well 
known author of " Scripture Metaphors ;" Dr. Gill, the celebrated 
commentator ; Dr. Rippon, of hymn book fame ; Dr. Angus, the 
present highly respected and able President of Regent's Park 
Baptist College ; the Rev. James Smith of Cheltenham, and Rev. 
R. Walters, now of Newcastle-on-Tyne. Notwithstanding the 
fact that so many eminent men had at one time or another labored 
there, the church had almost entirely lost all spiritual life and in- 
terest, and the congregation had declined until the young preacher 
found the chapel so empty as to be almost desolate. He created 
quite a sensation at once, and at the end of a probation of but 
six weeks the chapel was full. He was called to the pastorate, 
and entered upon the ofhce when only nineteen years old. It is 
impossible to write of Mr. Spurgeon as we would write of common 
men. He has made for himself more friends and more enemies 
than any other preacher of his day ; and gained for himself an 
unparalleled notoriety. His congregation is the largest in the 
world, and hundreds of converts yearly assert the power of the 
gospel he preaches, while his discourses are regularly published, 
and circulate all over the world. Yet there are those who de- 



614 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

nounce him bitterly, and deny his claim to confidence or respect 
He is one of the most catholic though one of the most isolated 
divines of the age. He is a Baptist, and does not attempt to con- 
ceal his views, yet is never restricted by them in his Christian sym- 
pathies, or his manly genialities, or his religious charities. He is 
not the pampered idol of a sect or faction of the Church Uni- 
versal, and has never sacrificed his individuality to partisanship, 
neither has he submitted to narrow denominational bondage; 
his time, his talents, and his influence are at the service of those 
who are engaged in good works. Even in the most stormy 
weather, when drenching rains fall, or wild winds blow, the 
Tabernacle, an immense building, arranged so as to economize 
space, is filled from top to bottom ; leaving no doubt of his al- 
most unbounded popularity; and spacious as is the edifice, his 
magnificent voice fills it without taxing it in the least ; it is never 
husky — never hoarse — never weak, but clear as a bell and soft as a 
harp ; and he speaks as easily to his vast audiences, and reaches 
each one with as little effort as if he were speaking to a few 
friends in his own private drawing-room. There is no question 
but this gives him a very great advantage. No one who judges 
by mere outward signs, or who never looks below the surface, or 
has studied the intricate workings of the human heart, can say 
correctly that they know him. We believe the world generally does 
not understand him. He has sometimes been supposed to be a 
flippant egotist — a grotesque humorist — a low comedian in the 
pulpit, while nothing can be farther from the truth. It would, of 
course, be absurd to deny that he has a vein of comic humor in 
his nature, and that his quick appreciation of and relish for the 
humorous, or for that which may be said to verge upon the ridic- 
ulous, are not in accordance with the strictest rules of ministerial 
dignity ; but it is at least pardonable. He has said funny, auda- 
cious, and startling things, and provoked his auditors to laughter 
by the sharpness of the ready wit, that sprang, unpremeditated to 
his tongue ; indeed I doubt if he was aware that he had even beeD 
witty. The faults which he has been charged with are even vir 
tues in his case, and lie at the foundation of his great success in 
the ministry. They are the fruits of a nature and temperament 
without which he could never have gone through one-half the 
work he has accomplished. He has an immense fund of animal 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 615 

spirits, a fecund mind and a racy tongue ; quick perceptions, 
thoughts that come to him, not always with regard to strict pro- 
priety, but with most perfect adaptability to circumstances ; hence 
he may be said to have ready wit. The strange sayings in which 
he indulges are not stock-in-trade, carefully accumulated, pre- 
served, assorted, arranged and labeled for ready use, but the ex- 
uberance of a strong, youthful, vigorous and prolific mind — exu- 
berance which only a prude or a Pharisee would punish, but 
which a friend would seek at once to excuse and restrain ; for 
they are the fruits of superabundant energy, vivacitv fluency 
verbal aptitude, and unstudied, Saxon simplicity of speech. 

In listening to Mr. Spurgeon,one is impressed with a peculiarity 
of his nature which goes far to account for what some people call 
nis wonderful popularity and power as a preacher. Religious life 
is with him real life. His spiritual experiences are actual, vivid, 
living and practical. He speaks of his love for Christ as one 
speaks of a human love ; as if it were the most natural thing in 
the world — indeed the only natural or proper thing. God is not 
a concealed being, but an actual, living presence, a Being who 
walks and talks with him ; not only at eventide in the garden, but 
everywhere in life; and heaven is not afar off, but even in his 
own heart; and he scarcely looks forward to the time when death 
must open the door and give him a glimpse into that land whose 
glories eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither hath it entered 
into the heart of man to conceive. The Songs of Solomon are not 
difficult of interpretation to him. Their tender and beautiful words 
of endearment are just what his own soul, with its strong emo- 
tional love would prompt him to lavish upon the Saviour. His 
church work is very extensive, and the Sabbath service, though 
important, is but a small part of it. Ordinary Christians will be 
surprised at the extent of Mr. Spurgeon's labors. The zeal to 
which he has trained his people has always been seconded by his 
own efforts and by his attractive and encouraging example, being 
literally first in all good words and works. 

In connection with Mr. Spurgeon's church is a college, of which 
he is himself president, numbering seventy students; and the 
evening classes number one hundred and eighty-two members. 
This institution is supported at a cost of 3,000 pounds per year. 
In addition to the very large Sunday schools, no less than eight 



6l6 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

preaching places are regularly supplied. The church is kept in 
admirable discipline, and exhibits a strength of attachment for 
their pastor which is little less than idolatry. Though sneered at 
as a boyish upstart by a few, whose ignorance and prejudice on 
their only excuse, he is respected by all candid men as an earnest, 
eloquent, Christian minister of the gospel, full of energy, untiring 
in devotion, and practical in his godliness, hence triumphant over 
his enemies A long and wide extended career of usefulness 
seems to lie before him. He labors in the fields that are white 
for the harvest, as one who feels that he was called by his Master, 
and many of the sheaves which he has gathered, are already gar- 
nered in the storehouse of the Lord ; and the souls of such as 
were ready to perish, those for whom no man cared, will shine 
brighter than the stars of the firmament in the crown of his re- 
joicing in the day of the Lord. 



JOHN WESLEY 



Jflffi^HE founder of the Arminian branch of Methodists, John 




$K Wesley, was born at Epworth, Lincolnshire, June 17, 
1703. His father was rector of that place, and un- 
like many divines of that day, he was a rigid disciplinarian, and 
the strict enforcement of church rules and laws created so great 
a hostility against him that more than once the good man was 
driven almost to distraction. The education of his son was of 
an entirely religious character, and at the age of seventeen he 
became a student at Oxford, and while here formed, with fifteen 
other young men, a society which soon attracted attention by the 
austerity of their manners and the fervor of their piety. Their 
nightly meetings for social prayer and religious converse were 
held in Wesley's chamber, and from personal improvements they 
soon began to turn their eyes toward the poor, to whom, in these 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY, 



617 



days, the gospel was not especially preached, and they visited and 
Labored with them in a systematic way that was productive of 
much good. 

At the close of his university studies he was offered the position 
of assistant and successor of his father, but declined on conscien- 
tious principles, and returned to Oxford to labor amongst the 
students. In 1735 he was sent to the colonies of Georgia as mis- 
sionary. He embarked for America with his brother Charles and 
settled at Savannah. He soon rallied a large congregation, which 
increased and nourished several years, until his rigid and sudden 
enforcement of every measure of discipline, raised such a storm 
of indignant protest from the people that he resigned. He re- 
turned to England where he met Whitfield, and the two erected 
one banner and commenced an active career of field preaching 

At Bristol, in 1739, the first Methodist Chapel was built, under 
the supervision of these two active laborers. Soon after this a 
rupture between them occurred on account of a difference which 
they could not reconcile — Wesley being an Arminian, while Whit- 
field was a stubborn adherent to the creed of Calvin. Wesley, 
however, was as undaunted as he was indefatigable, and he 
preached all over the country, employing lay preachers, and pro- 
mulgated his doctrines far and near, and in the conversion of 
thousands of souls he met his rich reward. 

It is estimated that twelve million of the human race are taught 
weekly the lessons of religious experience wrought out in the 
active intellect of John Wesley ; that no part of the known world 
has been unvisited by his disciples ; that the tide of reform set in 
motion by his pure and lofty energy is still in the ascendant, is 
moving slowly onward with ceaseless vigor, and shows no traces 
of decay. Wherever the Anglo Saxon race penetrates it is pursued 
and softened by the influence of this unassuming saint. In Aus- 
tralia and South Africa, in America and the islands of the Pacific, 
the genius of Wesley is ever active. His schools and churches 
have belted the world with an illustrious chain. His writings 
have been translated into nearly all the languages of Europe, and 
are made familiar to the worshipers of Bramah and of Buddah. 
Since Luther, no other man has exercised so wide, so benign an 
influence upon his race. Nor is it unjust to assert that but for 
his English successes the Reformation of the German Church 



6l8 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

into an empty formalism, at least in England, amidst the coi opt- 
ing alliance of Church and State. It was the aim of Wesley to 
withdraw religion from the control of the great and the powerful, 
of statesmen or of bishops, to make it the light and the solace of 
the worship and the cottage, the almshouse and the jail; to diffuse 
its sacred teachings among the people, and preach, with saintly 
earnestness, the gospel of the poor. 

As contrasted with all other successful teachers of a faith, 
whether true or false, it is a striking trait of Wesley's triumph that 
he was never aided by the civil power ; that his disciples have 
never wielded the sword of persecution, nor gained any victories 
but those of peace. History, indeed, has no record of any other 
great religious movement, except the founding of Christianity, 
that was not perfected in violence, and sealed with the blood of 
its opponents. The Greek Church was planted in Russia by the 
civil power; the Romish Church won its supremacy by bitter 
wars and endless cruelties. Bernard and Dominic enforced their 
teachings by the sword ; Luther and Calvin were often sustained 
by the arms of their adherents ; the dark and treacherous brother- 
hood of Loyola obtained its ascendency by arousing in every land 
the fiercest flames of religious persecution. But of the millions 
of devout believers who have lived and died in the simple faith 
of Wesley, not one has yielded to any sterner influence than the 
power of Divine love. As the vast wave of reform has swelled 
from the poor cottage at Epworth over England and America, 
over .the Pacific and the Indian seas, it has never needed a Con- 
stantine or a royal protector ; has been governed in its holy victo- 
ries by no human hand. 

It is said that the domestic life of the noble reformer was any- 
thing but that foretaste of heaven which wedded bliss is supposed 
to be. At about the age of fifty he married a lady whose beauty 
of face and form, rather than of mind, attracted him, and she 
proved to be a shrew and a vixen, and poor Wesley learned to his 
sorrow that he had caught a Tartar. Her terrible temper embit- 
tered and destroyed the peace of his remaining years. 

He died March 2, 1791, in the eighty-eighth year of his age, and 
in the sixty-fifth year of his Christian ministry. 



OUR GOVERNMENT A.ND HISTORY. 619 

THE PERSONALITY OF JESUS CHRIST. 



Much has been written by writers of different schools concern- 
ing the personality and portraiture of Jesus Christ. Eusebius, of 
Cesarea, refused to procure for the sister of Constantine the 
Great, a picture of Christ, and a century later, St. Augustine 
declared that as regards the personality of Christ nothing is posi- 
tively known. The origin of the first pictures of Christ was 
said, in the early centuries, to have been a picture by Jesus him- 
self, or by Pontius Pilate or St. Luke, or by Nicodemus. Some 
founded their idea of his looks upon old manuscript. 

The following is a correct translation of an epistle sent by 
Publius Lentulus to the Roman Senate : '' There appeared in 
these days a man of great virtue named Jesus Christ, who is yet 
among us»; of the Gentiles accepted for a prophet of truth; but 
his disciples call him the Son of God. He raiseth the dead, and 
cureth all manner of disease. A man of stature somewhat tall 
and comely, with a very reverend countenance, such as the be- 
holder must both love and fear. His hair the color of a chestnut 
full ripe, plain to the ears, whence, downward, it is more orient, 
curling and waving about his shoulders. In the midst of his 
forehead is a stream or partition of his hair, after the manner of 
the Nazarites; forehead plain and very delicate; his face without 
spot or wrinkle, beautiful, with a lovely red ; his nose and mouth 
so forked as nothing can be represented ; his beard thick, in color 
like his hair, not over long ; his look innocent and mature ; his 
eyes gray, quick and clear. In reproving, he is terrible ; in 
admonishing, courteous and fair-spoken ; pleasant in conversation, 
mixed with gravity. It cannot be remembered that any have 
seen him laugh, but many have seen him weep ; in proportion of 
body most excellent ; his hands and arms delectable to behold ; 
in speaking, very temperate, modest and wise ; a man of singular 
beauty, surpassing the children of men." 

John, of Damascus, wrote in the eighth century of Christ : 
" Jesus was of stately height, with eyebrows that met together, 
beautiful eyes, regular nose, the hair of his head somewhat 
curling and of beautiful color, with black beard and corn-yellow 
complexion, like his mother's, and with long fingers." 



•620 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



GEN PHILIP H. SHERIDAN. 




jfcv F the boyhood of General P. H. Sheridan little is known. 

\/f He has not been handed down to posterity by the pre- 
cocious wit of infantile prattle, or by wonderful exploits 
in his baby boyhood, and has not yet, to our knowledge, been 
spoken of or made famous by any doting biographers as the 
41 curly-headed little boy who never told a lie." In years to come, 
when he has passed away, and there is no one living who can, 
from personal recollection, contradict it, even this honor may be 
lavished upon his memory, in addition to those which belong to 
it in reality. 

General Sheridan was born in Perry county, Ohio. His parents 
were plain, unpretending Irish people, and their boy was early set 
at such employment as would enable him to do something towards 
his own support. At seventeen he drove a watering cart through 
the streets of Zanesville, the genius, howevetthat was in him attract- 
ed the attention of a member of Congress, who secured him a cadet- 
ship for West Point. The next five years, we fancy, were a curious 
compound of good and evil, and often his progress was like climb- 
ing a slippery hill, where the pedestrian takes " two steps forward 
and one back," until by this slow manner he reaches the top — for 
" Phil." did reach the top at last. He was quick tempered, proud 
and rash, as full of frolic as it was possible for human nature to 
be, and as fond of fight as frolic. Indeed, it is said, that " black 
marks " counted up so fearfully fast against him that it was almost 
impossible for him to remain in the academy ; and sometimes the 
matter of turning away the troublesome but brilliant boy was se- 
riously considered. At last, however, less through fear of the 
disgrace than from a desire to succeed, he managed, by the exer- 
cise of a vast amount of self-control, to keep his temper in check, 
and his mind on the rules ; and he won the sympathy of his teach- 
ers, who knew how strong was the effort this required. They were 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 621 

afterwards indulgently blind to his little slips. Yet with all the 
favoritism that could be shown him, he just nearly failed to grad- 
uate. He got through somehow, though, as he expressed it, " with 
the skin of his teeth." 

His first exploits were in Texas, where, among the savage tribes 
on the frontier, he grew more bold and reckless than heretofore, 
and his quick, but impulsive Irish nature found abundant food 
to mature upon ; if, indeed, there were need for circumstances to 
develop it. In 1856 he was put in command of the forces at Yo- 
kima reservation, and here his treatment of the Indians was so 
kind, and his negotiations so judicious as to win him compliments 
from General Scott. At the breaking out of the war of 1861 he 
was ordered east, and received the rank of first lieutenant. Soon 
after he was promoted to captain in the Fifteenth and sent to Jef- 
ferson Barracks. He does not seem to have been ambitious for 
promotion, or to have craved glory so much for himself, as to 
desire, with something like jealousy, that full justice should be 
done his men. Refusing, at one time, to forage on the enemy's 
country to the extent that some of the commanders seemed to 
think the fortunes of war allowed, he wrote a letter to General 
Curtis in which he expressed his opinion on the subject in terms 
more remarkable for honesty and force, than for elegance or 
respectfulness, and was ordered to be placed under arrest for 
"contempt of his superior officer." It is said that when the 
charge was read, Sheridan's only answer was a significant smile, 
and a slowly drawled out " very likely." The pressing need of good 
cavalry officers, however, was so great that he was not long kept 
in " durance vile," but was released and sent as captain of the 
Second Michigan Cavalry, to Corinth. After his brilliant exploit 
at Booneville he was made brigadier general. At the battle of Mur- 
freesboro — we wish we could give you all the story, it cripples it so 
to speak of it in fragmentary sketches, as our space compels us 
to, — but there he won laurels that will never die, and saved the 
reputation of Rosecrans, as he himself admitted in the dispatch 
in which he praised in the highest terms — not too extravagant — 
they could not be — the bravery of the men. His division was 
literally butchered under his eyes, as he held them firm in the 
martyrdom which they willingly suffered, for their sacrifice saved 
the army. Negley was pushed forward at last to cover their retreat, 



622 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

when their ammunition was exhausted and tne bayonet could not 
be used, and they left the field in sullen silence, with firm step — 
that little handful — and shouldered arms, like men who were going 
out to victory. In his dispatch he said : " I knew before I reached 
the thicket that hell was in there ; but I knew it better when I got 
there and saw the men fall right and left, while Sheridan rode 
bareheaded, sword in hand, through the fire and smoke, begrimed 
with powder, stained with dust and blood, lightning leaping from 
his eyes and curses from his tongue — he did indeed seem the 
incarnate Spirit of Darkness." 

After the battle of South Mountain he was made Brigadier 
General in the place of General McPherson, that noble chief, who 
went down in the early morning of his life. In the battle of Mid- 
dleton, whose glory is of so terrible a brightness that the pen of 
the historian pauses while his mind gropes blindly for words that 
will paint its colors, and whose appalling gloom chills the blood 
in its haste to the heart, and whose victory was tempered by the 
sad, sad loss it cost us, Sheridan performed the feat which will 
be remembered so long as time lasts. Of this, Thomas Buchanan 
Reed wrote his masterpiece, the poem called " Sheridan's Ride." 
No poet could do it justice ; only the gratitude of the country 
can do that. 

In person, Sheridan is not one's ideal of a military commander. 
He is short, broad, well-knit, compact, and though not exactly 
meriting that title, is known among his soldiers as "Little Phil." 
His face is a pleasant one — rather handsome it looks to partial 
eyes, — with eyes that are always either dancing with fun or flashing 
with feeling. In private intercourse he is frank, genial, social 
and a general favorite. As a military commander, he ranks with 
our first officers, and well deserves the fame he has won. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 623 



GEN. W. T. SHERMAN. 




'M. TECUMSEH SHERMAN was born in Lancaster, 
Fairfield county, Ohio, on the 8th day of February, 
1820, and was but nine years of age when his father 
died, leaving eleven children to the care of the mother. For six 
years previous to his death he held the position of Judge of the 
Superior Court of Ohio. After Mr. Sherman's death his friend, 
the Hon. Thomas Ewing, proposed to adopt Tecumseh, and as the 
mother wisely looked more to the child's interest than her own 
feelings, he was at once given up and placed by his adopted father 
at school and kept there until he was sixteen, when he was sent 
to West Point. Four years later he graduated in the class of 1840, 
and stood sixth in the examination. He at once entered into the 
regular service, and was ordered to Florida with the rank of Sec- 
ond Lieutenant of the Third Artillery. At the end of the year 
he was made First Lieutenant and stationed at Fort Moultrie, 
South Carolina. In 1846 he was sent to California, and during 
the Mexican War was promoted to the rank of captain. 

In 1850 he married the eldest daughter of Mr. Ewing, between 
whom and himself there had been a strong attachment since his 
childhood. Wearying of a profession that in time of peace con- 
sisted of a monotonous round of mechanical duties, he resigned his 
commission and was made president of a banking house in San 
Francisco, where he remained several years. In i860 he was 
offered the Presidency of the Louisiana State Military Academy, 
where he remained until the gathering of the war clouds black 
with their pent up volumes of wrath, warned him that the storm 
was near, when he resigned his position, only three months before 
the attack upon Fort Sumter. In his letter to the Board of Super- 
visors, he says : " I beg you to take immediate steps to relieve 
me the moment this State resolves to secede ; for on no earthly 
account will I do any act, or think any thought hostile to, or in 



f' 2 4 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

defiance of, the old government of the United States." His resig- 
nation was accepted and he went to St. Louis to make prepara- 
tions to enter into the combat the notes of which were already 
sounding far and near through the land. 

The history of General Sherman for the next four years is the 
history of our country's struggle to maintain and defend the con- 
stitution. His success is the old, old story of the triumph of those 
who loved better than life the principles on which our government 
was founded — who were ready to give life and more, if more was 
theirs to give, for the triumph of right. His brother officers and 
those who were his superiors in command speak of him in un- 
measured terms of admiration ; and when a division of the army 
was placed in his charge, when he came to be only second in com- 
mand in all our army, his skill, courage and lion-hearted bravery 
saved our troops from destruction and our cause from disaster. 
O, noblest of the noble men who rallied under our banner, who 
with heart breaking under wrong and injustice, under the calumny 
and misinterpretation which it met, had yet the inward strength 
that was born of patriotism in that dark hour, to forget self, to 
bear the pain until such time as your country should vindicate 
your honor! 

Of his conduct at the bloody battle of Pittsburg Landing his 
historian says : " Through all that fearful Sabbath day he seemed 
omnipotent, and to bear a charmed life. Horse after horse sunk 
under him, and though struck several times, he was not wounded 
so as to give up the command, and from the first to the last, where 
the fight was fiercest and the leaden hail fell thick around him. he 
blazed like a meteor here and there over the field. His intrepid- 
ity saved Rosecrans at Stone River, and Thomas at Chickamauga, 
and Grant at Shiloh. Of this last battle Rosseau says : " No liv- 
ing man could surpass him ;" and just a few days before his death 
the lamented Nelson said : " For eight hours the fate of the army 
on the field of Shiloh depended on the life of one man — if Sher- 
man had fallen the army would have been captured or destroyed ;" 
and Halleck comes up and generously declares in his dispatches - 
" He was a strong man in the high places of the field, and hope 
shone in him as a pillar of fire when it had gone out in all other 
men." It is useless to write what the world already knows so 
well ;' but it is pleasant to linger over these grand deeds and to 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 625 

think from what source came the inspiration under wmch they 
were enacted. 

Do you remember, oh, grateful country, the long marcn from the 
"River to the Sea?" Do you remember the storming of Port 
McAllister, and the dispatch which, meaning so much, yet only 
modestly said, to the president, " I make you a Christmas present 
of the city of Savannah" ? 

A critic says : " Personally, General Sherman is anything but 
heroic in appearance, a plain looking man, six feet high, slender, 
brawny, like a vast bundle of muscles. He is abrupt and 
rapid in conversation ; a man whose temperament will keep him 
forever busy." 

You all know what his face is like ; stern, yet kindly, lighted by 
a pleasant smile sometimes, and a pair of glorious eyes always. 



GEN. ROBERT E. LEE. 



POBERT E. LEE was born at Stratford, Westmoreland 
county, Virginia, January 19th, 1807. His father died 
while he was yet a child, and at the age of eighteen he 
entered the Military Academy at West Point, from which he 
graduated in four years. He stood second in a class of eighteen, 
many of whom have since risen to distinction. Some of them 
fought at his side and shared the brilliant conquest of Mexico — 
and in the sharper and sudden conflict where, on southern battle- 
fields, brothers stood face to face as foemen, they met again. It 
was no war for conquest now, but a war for principles—no war for 
glory, but a war for that which was dearer than life to each — the 
rights of the land they loved, and though divided in opinion and 
in action, they were brothers still, and equally honorable. 

When he left college he was at once appointed to a lieutenancy 
in the corps of topographical engineers. When the Mexican war 
40 




ROBERT E. LEE 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 627 

opened, Lee was appointed chief engineer of the army, under 
General Wool, and it was to his skill that General Scott was always 
pleased to admit that he owed the victory of Vera Cruz. He was 
placed on the general's staff, and the skill and bravery of the young 
officer was often referred to by his seniors in command. He 
received two promotions in the campaign. For his noble conduct 
at Cerro Gordo he was breveted major, and the laurels thickened 
in his wreath of glory at Contreras, and at the terrible battle of 
Chepultepec. He was appointed to the rank of lieutenant colonel, 
and at the end of the war was made Superintendent at West 
Point, still retaining his military rank. While he was yet at the 
head of the academy, two regiments were ordered by Congress to 
be raised, equipped, and sent to the Texas frontier. Of the sec- 
ond regiment Colonel Lee was appointed Lieutenant Colonel, and 
remained four years in the southwest fighting the Indians and per- 
forming general garrison duty. Upon his return from Texas he 
went to Europe, where he studied army tactics closely, storing 
away in his mind many a suggestion which came to be of use to 
him in after years. 

He was a man of pleasing appearance, fascinating manners, and 
possessed a high type of physical beauty. He soon became a 
general favorite in the old world, where he had relatives among 
the nobility, having descended from the Lees of Ditchley, one of 
tvhom married a daughter of Charles II. and the Duchess of 
Cleveland. 

Up to the time of the breaking out of the war between the 
North and South, General Lee had taken no part in politics ; indeed, 
had little taste for it. With all his heart he loved the Union, 
but with all his soul he loved the State that gave him birth — 
that had been the home of his fathers, far back beyond the 
Revolutionary War, and he believed that he owed a stronger alle- 
giance to Virginia in particular than to the United States at large. 
There was much in the character of General Lee that was noble, 
and now all that was strongest and best was roused into action. 
The struggle was long and severe. He was not prepared for 
neither did he desire secession. General Scott, who may be said 
to have been the foster-father of Lee's military talents, appreciated 
him very highly, and when he resigned his commission in the 
Union army remonstrated most earnestly with him ; but Lee 



628 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

though heart-broken at the necessity of chosing, remained firm. 
" I am compelled to," he said ; " I cannot consult my own feel- 
ings." 

When the secession of Virginia was formally decided upon* 
General Lee was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Confed- 
erate armies. He was a brave soldier and a skillful general, and 
while there are numberless evidences of his humane and generous 
disposition, our space will not allow us to give them. He never, 
even in the heat of battle, in victory or defeat, forgot the courtesy 
which is due from man to man, for General Lee possessed that 
crowning grace which adds luster to the most perfect character 
and to the most brilliant intellectual attainments, — he was a Christ- 
ian. His public life, while connected with the army of which he 
had the honor to be commander-in-chief, is too well known to 
make it necessary for us to go into detail. 

He has sometimes been severely censured for the surrender of 
his army to General Grant, but it was not cowardice nor treason, 
nor even an error of judgment. He had fought long and bravely, 
and done all that lay in his power for the cause he defended; 
even in the last act was more thoughtful for others than for him- 
self, since his heart had never known a throb of fear, but he 
would not allow a useless sacrifice of the lives of his men, and he 
accepted terms that were honorable both to his own army and to 
those who offered them. In his last interview with General Grant, 
General Lee spoke in the most earnest and emphatic manner of 
his desire for a total cessation of hostilities and for a return of 
peace, and when that peace was declared, he never, by word or 
act, encouraged a feeling of dissatisfaction amongst the people, 
nor entertained for an instant a sentiment of rebellion against the 
government. Fully aware of his influence, he exerted it to the 
utmost to promote union of sentiment and a restoration of pros- 
perity and harmony. He suffered much, pecuniarily, by the war, 
but he never murmured nor complained, if he had lost ; he had 
staked, and like a man who wisely does the best he can under the 
circumstances, he looked around for some way to make good his 
loss. 

In 1865 he accepted the position of President of Washington 
College, an office for which he was eminently fitted ; and under 
his excellent management it became one of the most popular 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 629 

institutes. Its sectarian character was laid aside, and from North 
and South, and East and West, students filled its halls. 

It was the intention of General Lee to have written a history of 
the war, but his severe labors wore sadly upon his constitution, 
and his overwrought strength gave way; his work and his life 
were ended together. His loss was mourned by the nation, for 
he had warm admirers everywhere, but in the South where he 
was most intimately known and most deeply loved, a wail of pas- 
sionate grief surged over the land. 

Mrs. Robert E. Lee is a grand-daughter of Mrs. Martha Wash- 
ington, and General Lee's father was a personal friend of Wash- 
ington, and highly esteemed by him. He died in October, 1870. 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT, 




»E have never been able to banish the idea that men go 
back too much into the dead and buried ages to find their 
models and examples, overlooking the fact that we live 
in a generation when heroes are plenty, not only those who go out 
at the call of duty to defend their country, or die for her, but moral 
and spiritual heroes whose courage would lead them unflinchingly 
to the stake, if need be, to defend the principles they teach, not 
by precept alone, but by the example of a pure and honest life. 
The heroism of warfare and battle, may be grand in its own 
way, but unutterably grander is the heroism of him who dares to 
gird on the sword of truth, and in the face of established wrong, 
that has grown to gigantic proportions by the nursing care of 
ages, grown defiant by centuries of indulgence, proclaims the 
everlasting principles of right, justice and Christianity. How- 
aver, since we write of the Master Spirits of all ages, we cannot, in 
justice to our work, leave untouched a life so eventful as was 
Alexander's. The ruling passion of his life, strong even in 



630 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

death, was ambition, and in youth he thirsted for glory as the 
hunted stag thirsts for cool streams. He accustomed himself 
to hardship and deprivation, scorning luxuries which would 
render him delicate or effeminate. His desire for knowledge was 
insatiate, and his education was entrusted to Aristotle, the first 
philosopher of the kingdom, if not of the world, at that time. 
At sixteen years of age he was appointed regent of Macedonia, 
and at the age of twenty he succeeded his father, Philip, upon 
the throne. He had already, by force of arms, or by subtle pol- 
icy, subdued Greece to his dominion, and laying aside his arts 
long enough to pay funeral honors to his father, wearied of the 
constrained quiet which decency and decorum imposed, he, 
at the earliest moment, rallied his forces and set out on an expedi- 
tion to conquer Thebes, and subjected it. But he was cruel and 
brutal, and the Thebians hated, with double reason, the power 
they could not break. His boundless ambition and haughty 
spirit could brook no control. With him, life must lay everything 
with which she was freighted at his feet, or withhold all. " The 
knowledge of the human heart," says Rollin, " and the art of gain- 
ing it, is of great importance to a friend." Alexander fully under- 
stood this, and he endeavored to bind his subjects to him by the 
ties of interest as well as of loyalty. 

When he had proposed to his generals the project of invading: 
Persia, they opposed him with reason and argument and entreaty,, 
urging the nature of the country, the depth and swiftness of the 
river Granicus, on whose opposite banks the Persian army were 
encamped, also the rocky and almost perpendicular nature of those 
banks, which they must climb in face of the enemy's fire ; but it 
all made no impression upon the headstrong king. His only 
answer was, "Forward! I lead you." They crossed the river and 
gained a foothold with great difficulty, and the swift waves rushed. 
on crimson with the blood of the flower of the Macedonian 
and Persian armies. The struggle was fierce and sharp, the 
slaughter was terrible, and the Persiarj army was cut to pieces and 
totally destroyed, with the exception of 2000 who were taken 
prisoners. Sardis, looking on, terror-stricken at the fate of Persia, 
discreetly sent to Alexander, even while he was afar off, her sur- 
render, in consequence of which he allowed them all their rights. 
After a long succession of victories which seem marvelous as a 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 631 

romance of the Arabian Nights, he met Darius, near tne city of 
Issus. The spot where the battle was fought was bounded on one 
side by the mountains and on the other by the sea, but must have 
been of great extent since the two armies encamped on it, and it 
is known that the force commanded by Darius was immense. 
The river Pinarus ran through the middle, dividing it very nearly 
in two parts. The armies being drawn up in line of battle, Alex- 
ander addressed his men with eloquence and energy, appealed to 
their ambition and their pride alike, told them of the glory of the 
past, of the high reputation they enjoyed, of the rich spoils which 
would fall into their hands. He bade the Illirians and Thracians, 
nations who used to subsist by plunder and rapine, "view the 
enemy's army, blazing with purple and gold, not loaded so much 
with arms as with wealth ; that they had but to push forward and 
with one bold stroke, strip it from them." When he had ended, 
the troops sent up deafening shouts, and eagerly desired to be led 
on to victory. The forces met, and Darius, with a cowardice that 
no circumstance can palliate or excuse, abandoned his army, his 
mother, his wife, his sisters, and his little son, who was heir to the 
crown he deserted ; and all fell into the hands of Alexander, who 
treated them with the greatest consideration and kindness ; 
nothing but the remembrance that they were captives, could have 
made them sensible of their calamity ; and of all the luxuries they 
possessed before, nothing was wanting, and the confidence 
and trust which it is so hard to give an enemy, were not withheld 
from him by them. 

The siege of Tyre was one of the most memorable events in 
history, confirming and fulfilling, as it does, so many of the proph- 
esies of Isaiah. After a siege of seven months it was forced to 
yield, but not until he had sunk their fleets, destroyed their forti- 
fications, and reduced the besieged garrison to the greatest suffer- 
ing. The city was in a grand and flourishing condition when it fell 
into the hands of Alexander, and here began, according to Isaiah, 
the seventy years of obscurity and oblivion in which it was to, and 
did lie. She had filled up the measure of her iniquity, by her 
impiety against God, and her barbarities against His people. She 
had rejoiced over the ruins of Jerusalem, Exulting, as she cried, 
" Behold, then, the gates of this so populous city are broken down. 
Her inhabitants shall come unto me, and I will enrich myself with 



632 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

her spoils, now she is laid waste." But the day of her own humil- 
iation was at hand, and, dispossessed of her dignity as a queen 
and as a free city, boasting no more her diadem nor her girdle, 
she will be reduced to the mean condition of a slave. " The Lord 
hath purposed it, to stain the pride of all glory, and to bring into 
contempt all the honorable of the earth." It is scarcely to be 
wondered at, that so many and so great victories should in some 
measure raise him in his own esteem, but for the arrogance which 
led him to take upon himself the importance and demand for 
himself the honors of a god, we see little excuse. 

Two years after the battle of Issus, Darius and Alexander again 
had an engagement, which gave to Alexander a victory and an 
empire. The loss of the Persians in the famous battle of Arbela, 
was 300,000 men, besides the wounded and prisoners, while the 
loss of the Macedonians was very trifling. Flying, sore pressed, 
from Alexander, Darius was betrayed, and put in chains by the 
Governor of Bactriana, who, upon the approach of the foe, de- 
serted his post and basely murdered the helpless prisoner whom 
he had bound with chains. He expired, but not until he had sent 
to Alexander a message of gratitude for the generous care and 
treatment which his family, who were still retained by him, had 
always received at his hands. Little by little, Alexander yielded 
to the vices and the passions of which he had heretofore been 
master, and abandoned himself to sensuality ; whom the arms 
of the Persians could not conquer fell a prey to the uncon- 
trolled lusts of his own nature. From his earliest years, as if he 
realized the mighty things to which he was born, he endeavored 
to shine on all occasions, and would not tolerate the thought of 
a superior; no one was ever fired with so strong a love of 
glory, and the unbounded ambition which is looked upon by 
Christian nations as almost a vice, was, to the heathen nations he 
ruled, a high if not the highest virtue. But though he claimed 
for himself something more than humanity, — that he was a god, 
and the son of a god, — he died at the age of 32, before he had yet 
reached his manhood's prime — died from the indulgence of the 
basest and lowest passions and appetites of man ; and his kingdom 
was divided and passed into the hands of those who, with less 
ambition and more discretion, ruled perhaps more wisely than he 
had done. * 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 633 



NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 



T is impossible," says Gregorovius, than whom we have no 
better authority, perhaps, " to establish with any accuracy 
the origin of the Bonaparte family." Certain it is, that 
when the author whom we quote, and to whom we are indebted for 
these facts, first introduces them, they are a quiet and unknown 
family, living in seclusion in Corsica. There the three young 
sisters grew out of their beautiful childhood into more beautiful 
girlhood, and the young brothers prepared themselves for the life 
that lay before them. 

Napoleon, who was not eldest, yet in every way took precedence 
of Joseph, and the Archdeacon Lucien, their uncle, said on his 
death-bed, to Joseph : " You are the oldest of the family, but there 
stands its head — you must not forget this." Even in childhood 
he showed a marvelous passion for military life, and was almost 
constantly with the soldiers in their barracks at Ajaccio, imitating 
and practicing their duties and exercises. While very young he 
was sent to military school at Brienne, and in 1783 to the military 
school at Paris to complete his studies. He had already an am- 
bition that was more than master of every other faculty he pos- 
sessed, a vivid imagination aflame with the excitement of ancient 
history, and he aspired to re-enact the bold and valiant deeds ot 
the Caesars and of Alexander. Having finished his military stud- 
ies, we find him at Ajaccio, and a zealous democrat. How in after 
years, when he with his own hand placed the crown upon his 
head, where the Pope had so recently rested his hand in conse- 
cration, did he reconcile his change of views? Corsica, as every 
reader knows, was forever in an uproar or a revolution — first the 
prey of one and then of another power, and when the time came 
that the democratic party, under the leadership of Joseph and 
Napoleon Bonaparte, drew up a congratulatory address to the 
convened assembly, it was filled with the bitterest denunciations 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY.- 635 

of the previous government of Corsica, and was most artfully but 
positively coupled with a request for the incorporation of Corsica 
with the Kingdom of France. 

Napoleon watched every event with an eagle eye, reading the 
signs of the times with an accuracy that was almost prophetic, and 
when the right moment came, threw aside the Corsican patriotism 
in which he wrapped himself, as in a garment so long as it best 
served him, gave himself heart and soul, to France, and flung his 
life, his talents and his sword into the revolution. 

After his conquest of the Austrians, he became an object of ter- 
ror and dread to the French government, for his unbending'will, his 
ambition and the military fame which he had won. To get rid 
of so formidable a rival, they adopted the plan of David, and sent 
their Uriah to the front of battle. In. other words, they gave him 
the command of the great expedition which was about to be sent 
into Egypt. Napoleon was too shrewd to be deceived as to their 
motives, but the time had come for him to open the great revolu- 
tion which he meditated against Europe — the great revolution 
which he had already decided should envelop the continent in a 
sea of blood ; in which nation should rise against nation, and 
kingdom against kingdom. On the ruins of a world he would build 
a throne and unite the fragments into a kingdom more powerful 
than any that ever stood before, and it should be his own. There 
he would found the Napoleonic dynasty that should be upheld by 
a long line of his successors. His Egyptian campaign is one which 
we shudder to look at now, marked as it was by barbarities which 
disgraced the age, and the commander who not only permitted 
but ordered them. The cruel massacre of 4000 prisoners taken at 
Jaffa, unarmed and helpless, by his order, is a terrible stain upon 
his name, as also was the slaughter of the Ottomans at Mt. Tha- 
bor. Beyond Acre, no more triumphs awaited him. Sir Sidney 
Smith met him there with a legion of brave English soldiers, and 
Napoleon was compelled to retreat, as he did so poisoning several 
hundred of his own wounded men, whom he was unable to trans- 
port, knowing the Turks would wreak their vengeance upon them 
should they ever fall into their hands alive. Returning to France 
he found that Suwarrow with his horde of Austrians had defeated 
the French on the plains of Lombardy, and, crossing the Alps, 
appeared on the shore of the Var. There seemed but one man 



6$6 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

who had the courage to advance to the now shattered front — but 
one general who could gather the demoralized forces and lead 
them to certain victory ; if he failed, woe to France. With one 
bold stroke, Napoleon drove the legislature from the halls of the 
capitol at the point of the bayonet in the hands of his soldiers, 
to whom his order was law, and seated himself on the throne, 
under the title of First Consul. His next step was to expel the 
Austrians from Italy, defeating them at every point with frightful 
losses, and peace was granted to humiliated Austria upon the 
terms of the conqueror. The peace, however, was of short dura- 
tion, for Russia united with Austria and advanced as far as Ba- 
varia. Napoleon crossed France and the north of Germany by 
forced marches, with the most incredible speed, defeated the Aus- 
trians in several encounters, and at length hemmed in 30,000 at 
Ulm, where they were forced to surrender. He hastened down 
the valley of the Danube with an army of 180,000, captured Vi- 
enna and defeated the united armies under the Emperor Alexan- 
der himself. The next year, with blind fanaticism, or fool-hardy 
recklessness, the Prussians rushed on to combat with the hero of 
the day, and at Jena and Auerstadt, dwindled into insignificance 
until they were joined by the Russians, when for a short time they 
not only withstood him, but won the victory of Eyelau, with 
heavy loss to the French. But the star of Napoleon was irresist- 
ible. After the battle of Friedland came the treaty of Tilsit, 
which swept into obscurity all minor powers and virtually divided 
Europe between Napoleon and Alexander. 

Napoleon had now divorced Josephine, and was looking around 
for an alliance with one who would add to the glory of his name 
and make yet stronger his position. Austria was only too 
proud to give him the hand of the Archduchess Maria Louise, 
daughter of the Emperor. He had sacrificed every personal feel- 
ing to his ambition, but he had reached the summit of his great- 
ness. Alexander was far from being pleased with the marriage of 
Napoleon, as he had been upon terms which indicated, and indeed 
intimated a proposal for the hand of his sister. 

War again broke out, and at Moscow the man at whose name 
all Europe had trembled, began the downward road which he 
never retraced. When his confused and distressed soldiers 
reached and crossed Neiman in their retreat, of his magnificent 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 637 

army of three hundred thousand men, not thirty thousand re- 
mained ; and these worn with fatigue, sickness and famine. They 
were in the midst of misery and poverty, and to save his own 
life, Napoleon deserted them and fled to Paris almost alone. 
Encouraged by his defeat, all the nations took heart anew, and the 
Emperor found himself in the center of a world in arms. At 
almost every step defeat awaited him. The most brilliant military 
abilities, and the almost superhuman efforts of himself, his officers 
and his men were powerless to avert ruin. At last he was over- 
powered and overmastered, and the Bourbon seated on the throne 
of France. At Elba Napoleon was allowed the emblems of roy- 
alty, and as if in mockery of the olden times, set up a mimic 
court. But his restless and ambitious spirit could not endure the 
forced inaction and quiet, and he escaped from Elba, returned to 
France, and at the head of but a handful of men, marched unmo- 
lested to Paris, dethroned Louis XVIII. and resumed his own 
place at the head of the nation. Again, when success seemed so 
certain, and safety so near, the allied monarchs of Europe arose 
against him, and at Waterloo he fought his last battle, except as he 
lived over the past in dreams. He was captured, banished to St. 
Helena, guarded with the most vigilant care, and here spent the 
remainder of his days. His captivity was worse than death to the 
proud and ambitious man, and only for the hope, never given up, 
of escape and triumph, no doubt his life would have ended sooner. 
He was magnificently treated by the English government, who 
expended 12,000 pounds sterling on his private establishment, and 
400,000 more on the island, but he chafed and pined like a caged 
eagle, and died May 5 th, 1821. His remains were removed by 
the consent of the English government to France, in 1841, and 
interred in Paris. 



638 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



CESAR. 



'ULIUS CAESAR was born 100 years B. C, and for two 

thousand years his name has been the synonym for 
bravery and patriotism. Thrown, from his birth, into public 
life, he filled a position which was inherited on one side, and 
forced upon him by marriage on the other, and early threw all 
the strength of his mind into the study of war and politics. He 
was as ambitious as he was brave — as honorable as he was 
patriotic ; in eloquence and power of expression he was scarce- 
ly second to Cicero. He was a formidable opposer of the aristo- 
cratic party, and all his sympathies were with the people. He 
distinguished himself early, both in the camp, on the battle field 
and at the forum, and studied closely the changes in public 
opinion, never neglecting an opportunity to increase his popu- 
larity. During the great Catilinian conspiracy he was so eager 
and bitter in the expression of his hostility to the aristocratic 
rulers, as to subject himself to the suspicion of being in league 
with them ; but the most jealous of his enemies could bring no 
proof of a charge so opposed to his usual policy, and so fatal to 
his advancement and interest. 

In the year 64, B.C., he obtained the province of Further Spain, 
and it was there that he won the first of a long line of triumphs 
which ranked him with the greatest generals of all ages. Crown- 
ed with glory, he returned to Rome just at the time that Pompey, 
disgusted and disappointed at the failure of his own schemes, was 
ready to desert the party in power. Caesar's influence effected 
a reconciliation between him and Crassus, and he formed with 
them that combination known as the First Triumvirate, By 
this new party he was elected to the consulship, and obtained the 
provinces of Transalpine Gaul, Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, 
with an army of six legions for five years: This placed him in 
an important position, and with an immense army at his command 
he prepared for the war that he foresaw impending between the 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 639 

Romans and the Gauls, who for generations had been hereditary 
enemies. The hope or necessity of subduing a fierce and war- 
like race, who were, and had so long been on hostile terms with 
his own nation, was motive enough to have urged one who 
thirsted less than Caesar for glory, to have undertaken their sub- 
jection, and for nine years he literally lived in camp, and slept 
with his harness on. The Gauls were conquered, however, and 
he twice led his armies into Britain and received the submission 
of the people of the southern part of the island. 

These years had wrought great changes in Rome, and Pompey, 
hating the man who had eclipsed him, fearing the chieftian who 
far outstripped him, and jealous of his growing popularity and 
power, again joined the Aristocrats, and plotted with them how 
best to crush the mighty conqueror of the Gauls. A decree 
was passed by the Senate that Caesar should disband his army by 
a certain day and retire from the command, or be considered an 
enemy of the State. Knowing to whom he was indebted for this, 
the haughty spirit of the " leader in a hundred battles " refused to 
accept terms dictated by petty spite, and his army refused to 
leave him except at his own command. Accordingly he crossed 
the Rubicon, and opened the civil war which resulted in giving 
him the dictatorship. The sharp engagement made him master 
of Italy, and he next drove Pompey from Spain, followed him to 
Greece, and on the plains of Pharsalia fought the decisive battle 
which gave him the entire Roman Empire. Pompey fled to 
Egypt,' where he was murdered, and Caesar proceeded to Africa, 
where he defeated Scipio and Cato, and then, by the battle of 
Theopsus broke the strength of the Pompeian party. 

During his absence he was elected Dictator of the Romans, 
and upon his return was received with magnificent display. He 
laid aside the profession of war, studied peace and legislation, 
brought about many needed reforms, corrected abuses, sifted cor- 
ruption and exercised the unlimited power vested in him with so 
great moderation and leniency as to cause him to be called " The 
Benefactor," and to win the respect and admiration, as much as he 
had excited the surprise of his enemies. A conspiracy was form- 
ed against his life, however, and he was assassinated in the Senate 
on the 15th of March, B. C, 44. As statesman, warrior and 
scholar, Caesar was one of the most remarkable men of any age. 



64O FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



STONEWALL JACKSON. 




ggXJ^HOMAS JACKSON, better known as " Stonewall " Jack- 
son, was born at Clarksburgh, Va. He entered upon his 
studies at West Point three years in advance of his class- 
mates, but far behind them in every respect, as to education. 
His disposition was retiring and taciturn, but his face brightened 
in conversation, and he was animated and interesting. By a 
singular coincidence, he graduated in the same class with FosterJ 
Stoneman, McClellan, Sturges, Couch, Reno, Seymour and many 
others who have since distinguished themselves in our late con- 
flict. He served in the Mexican war, where his gallant and 
meritorious conduct won him the respect of his superior officers.. 
He was several times rewarded with well deserved promotion,, 
and for the bravery he displayed at Contreras, was raised to the 
rank of lieutenant, with the brevet of captain ; and so much dis- 
tinguished himself at Chepultepec as to receive the rank of major. 
The actual facts of the Mexican war do not furnish the name of 
another person entering that war, without position or office, who 
attained so high rank within the brief campaign and series of 
battles from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico. The gallantry and 
cool courage of the young officer were such as to win the highest 
commendations from his senior officers ; and in the special dis- 
patches of Gen. Scott he was frequently spoken of as "the brave 
Lieutenant Jackson." 

As a professed christian he was earnest, faithful, and zealous 
of good works ; not only a regular teacher in the Sabbath school, 
but an earnest laborer among the poor, especially the negroes, to 
whom there was seldom so patient and faithful a friend, and wherev- 
er his influence could be exerted for them, his voice was heard. 

At the outbreak of the war Jackson was living in Lexington, 
and it was not until the secession of his State that he laid by his 
peaceful pursuits, girded on his sword, and went out at the 




STONEWALL JACKSON. 



41 



642 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

call of his country. Like his celebrated comrade in arms, Gen. 
Lee, he was a Unionist up to the very date of Virginia's secession, 
and the struggle between his duty to his State and his country 
was long and sharp, and at last he threw his strength, his influence, 
and his life into the struggle. It was at Harper's Ferry that he 
gathered the first leaves of the laurel wreath with which the 
South delights to crown her men. 

The engagement at Falling Waters was but a prologue of the 
great drama in which he was to take so prominent a part. It was 
at Bull Run that he played the most conspicuous part, and is 
thought by Beauregard to have contributed so largely to the 
Confederate success ; and here he won the sobriquet which fol* 
lowed him so long as he lived. Gen. Beauregard, fancying 
Jackson's troops to be raw, asked if they would stand fire? 
""Yes," answered Jackson, "like a stone wall!" And from the 
memorable day when Southern men and Southern arms were 
victorious on the bloody field of Manassas, until the day of 
his death, the name of" Stonewall " Jackson followed him, though 
lie modestly insisted that it belonged to his boys, not to himself. 
In all the battles of the Shenandoah Valley he took a prominent 
part. His bravery and courage were unsurpassed and marked 
him as one of the truly great men of that period which called out 
the strongest feeling and put in action the dormant qualities of 
those who, untried before, proved themselves heroes then. Though 
the battle of Winchester pales into insignificance before many of 
the conflicts of the war, conflicts in which twenty times as many 
men were ranged on either side, yet it was never surpassed by 
any in the almost inhuman fierceness of the combat. It has 
b>een said of both armies that they fought like infuriated fiends ; 
and though many of them were never in an engagement before 
they behaved like veterans, and were led by commanders worthy 
of their valor. Although Jackson suffered the mortification of 
defeat on this occasion, had he been opposed by a less prac- 
ticed and less gallant soldier than he found the Federal Com- 
mander to be, his well-known strategy must have won for him the 
honors of the day , as it was, so cool and brave was he, so slowly 
and reluctantly did he yield to the immense force against him, so 
ably did he handle and dispose of his men, that defeat had in 
it almost the glory of victory. The dogged courage and persist- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 643 

ent endurance of the Northern men were such that it was simply 
impossible to stand before them. So terrible was the engagement 
fhat four times was the color-bearer of the Fifth Ohio Volunteers 
laid prostrate in death, and the banner was borne forward to 
victory by the Lieutenant Colonel of another regiment who 
caught it from the hand of the dying sergeant. 

To capture Jackson was a darling project of Gen. Banks, and 
more than once he barely avoided falling into the hands of the 
Federal forces. At Bull Pasture Mountain he narrowly escaped 
being captured, and was only saved by the accidental disobedience 
of the officers of the Richmond Zouaves. Again the fortunes of war 
made Jackson victorious, and he drove Gen. Fremont from his 
position on the Shenandoah mountains, and turned upon Banks 
with such rapidity that he had scarce time to retreat in order. 
At the second engagement between the Federal and Confederate 
forces at Winchester, the troops under Jackson were victorious, 
but his men so far outnumbered the enemy that it can scarcely be 
considered so complimentary as was his defeat, there certainly was 
not half the ability displayed as upon the former occasion. After 
a succession of skirmishes which were of no benefit to either party, 
Col. Fremont and Jackson again met at Cross Keys, and after a 
long and terrible contest, Jackson was compelled to yield ; then 
within reach of their outstretched hands he slipped again through 
the very fingers of the Federals, when Fremont had marched 
fifteen days through rain and mud to capture him. 

We said before, that Jackson was a devoted christian. Amid 
the dreadful scenes which were being daily enacted, he never 
omitted to appeal to his Maker for support in the trying ordeal 
through which he had to pass. Having foiled his pursuers in the 
valley of Virginia, he hastened to join his forces to those who 
were defending the Capital against the expected attack of McClel- 
laa. The Confederates now being in sufficient force to become 
the attacking party, determined to rid their Capital of a besieg- 
ing host. A great council of war was then held at the Rebel 
headquarters. In it were assembled all that were eminent in the 
Rebel army. Johnson had been severely wounded in the battle 
of Seven Pines, and Lee was his successor. Gazing cheerfully 
over the countenances, for each of whom a part was assigned, the 
new Commander-in-chief stood like a rock. Thoughtfully and 



<>44 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

sadly from one to another his eyes wandered, as if he was fixing upon 
his memory loved faces that he might never see again. Beside 
him towered the knightly form of Gen. Baldwin ; at his other side 
stood Stonewall Jackson, now the idol of his troops, his face pen- 
sive, yet with an impatient light in his eyes, swinging his saber to 
and fro as if the narrow room stifled him, and he longed to be in 
the field, leading his men in the fierce combat. A little apart 
stood the two Hills, speaking in almost whispered tones, while 
around them were grouped Generals Wise, Hughes, Longstreet, 
Branch, Whiting, Anderson, Ripley and Magruder. Gen. Lee 
laid his plans before them, assigned each his part ; there was a 
silent clasping of hands, a silent look into eyes that might never 
meet again, and they turned away to the duties that awaited 
them. 

The seven days siege of Richmond has passed upon the pages 
of history as one of the most fearful the world ever knew. (Treat 
was the slaughter, and while it is not known how great on either 
side, it is feared, from the sad havoc wrought by a destructive ar- 
tillery, that the sackcloth of mourning palled from twenty-five to 
thirty thousand American homes, rendered dark and sorrowful from 
the fact that countless thousands of the flower of the land were 
laid low in death. Among all the officers who planned and exe- 
cuted that seven days' work, none were more brave, composed and 
cool than Jackson, and there is no doubt but he was largely in- 
strumental in compelling the Federal forces to raise the siege of 
the city. We find his name at that time a tower of strength to 
his own cause, and a source of continual annoyance and appre- 
hension to the enemy. At Gaines Mills, the only battle of the series 
in which can be claimed a distinct and decided victory, Jackson 
struck the decisive blow which sent terror and defeat through 
the ranks of his opponents. 

It was Jackson's fortune, during his short but brilliant military 
career, to have crossed swords with some of the best and bravest 
of the Federal Generals, each of whom acknowledged him 
their peer, and recognized his military genius. . We find him op- 
posed by Lander, on the Upper Potomac ; by McDowell, at Bull 
Run ; by Shields, and Banks, and Fremont, in the Virginia Valley ; 
by Porter and Heintzelman,with McClellan as Commander-in-chief, 
in the combats near Richmond, and by Hooker and Sumner, with 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 645 

McClellan again as their chief, at Antietam. The rest of his career 
was upon different fields, with still older Generals to resist his 
might and genius. It was at Chancellorville that General Jack- 
son received his death wound, and on that hotly contested field, 
where the soil drank in the ensanguined tide that flooded it, his 
own life blood mingled with that of nearly three thousand brave 
men from both armies, but no foeman's shot or shell or saber 
wound cut short the life of this man who gave it cheerfully for 
the sake of the land he loved. Three shots struck him, but all 
were from the guns of his own men. Unconsciously they killed 
the leader they worshiped, and though it was known from what 
company they came, in mercy their number was never given. 
During the month of May the Federal army lost, in killed and 
prisoners, twe?ity-five thousand. The Confederate loss was smaller, 
but they suffered one loss which was irretrievable. 

Gen. Lee said of him, " Pure, high-minded, unselfish, he has no 
thought of his own advancement. The sole aim and object of 
his life is the good of his country " Sunday, the twelfth day of 
May, 1863, will ever be a day of mournful memory to the people 
of the sunny South. On that day set the most resplendent star in 
their galaxy of Generals. He who had forsaken the quiet of his 
professional life to put himself at the head of charging columns, 
on that day breathed his last. He who, amid the blaze of cannon, 
the rattle of musketry, and the clash of steel, had won honor 
and renown, died a soldier's death — died as he had lived, strong 
in his religious faith — strong in his reliance on Him who is mighty 
to save ; going down into the valley and shadow, fearing no evil. 
At his own request, the sermon was preached from the words : 
" For we know that all things work together for good to them 
that love God." 



646 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



GUISEPPE GARIBALDI. 




)E was born at Nice, Italy, in 1807. Little can be said 
of his early parentage, and this is to our radical repub- 
lican purpose, as it will compel us to base the man where 
all ought to be based, — upon merit alone. Who would honor a stupid 
mule simply because he can trace in its lineage a noted horse 
which once won the Derby? In refreshing contrast with all such 
empty boasts, we find the hero of Italy is the son of an industrious 
sailor. His father never had more than a bare competency. 
When but a stripling he gave evidence of great aptitude for 
study, so that at eight years he was proficient in geometry and 
algebra. He refused, when young, to be articled to any profes- 
sion, and declared his preference for a sea-faring life. In short, 
as a boy, he was no lisping finic, no long-haired dandy, no lily- 
white fingered gentleman, but a strong, hardy and robust germ, 
from which has broken a spirit that, like a rod of iron, has smitten 
and dashed to pieces the old despotisms of Europe. 

The year 1834 effected great changes for Garibaldi. On the 
accession of Charles Albert to the throne of Sardinia, that mon- 
arch belied his previous character by refusing to adopt more lib- 
eral principles as the basis of his administration. Then 
Garibaldi, Mazzini, and others conspired to revolutionize their 
country, but were betrayed by a perjured professed adherent. 
Thus baffled in his first revolutionary attempt, branded with the 
black name of a conspirator, and disguised as a peasant, he 
sought refuge in flight and hastened to Marseilles. Here, under 
circumstances of great daring, he saved a youth from drowning,. 
and indignantly refused a liberal reward offered by the family. 
He proved himself no leech, no loafer, no pensioner on the bounty 
of others, but a high-minded, honest-hearted, horny-handed 
working man. 

The failure of the above plot sent Garibaldi on his first visit to 
South America. Here he found many exiles like himself, and with 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 647 

their assistance, procured a small coasting boat with which he 
traded between Cabo Frio and Rio Grande. Presently, hearing 
of a republican outbreak against the Brazilian government, he vol- 
unteered the former his ship and crew. Soon he found the 
movement degenerating into a miserable, mercenary scramble. So 
he left it, from the very motive which induced him first to join — 
disinterested patriotism. Shortly after, at the head of the Italian 
Legion, of whose exploits all his countrymen are justly proud, 
with only 134 men all told, raw, half- fed and undisciplined troops, 
he succeeded in expelling a force of the enemy over 500 strong, 
and they hardy veterans, long experienced and self-confident 
soldiers, apparently impregnably entrenched on the confines of 
the country. Next morning more than half the imperious enemy 
were found slain in battle, and the few remaining, mostly maimed 
and wounded, were easily taken prisoners. The news of this vic- 
tory, so disastrous to the imperial party, produced great rejoicing 
in Monte Video. The name of the Legion was emblazoned on its 
banner in letters of gold by order of the government. The first 
officer of the French admirality wrote a letter of eulogy to Gari- 
baldi, with his own hand, in which he declared that such an 
exploit would have lent luster to the renown of the first Napo- 
leon's grand army. 

With the more recent events of the last thirty years the reading 
community are familiarized by all the papers of the globe. The 
battle of Magenta and Solferino, and the treaty of Villafranca 
have been followed by events which have made the ears of the 
eastern continent to tingle. Kingdoms have been quickly revo- 
lutionized. Crowns have been torn in the grasps of popular fury. 
The floods of the people have been lashed into madness, and then 
left, like the rolling sea after a frantic storm, to rock themselves to 
rest. The last of the accursed house of Bourbon has been cast 
aside as a withered branch. He, who conquered the Philistines 
by the hand of a shepherd boy, who dispersed the Midianitish 
army by the breaking of earthen vessels and the acclaim of voices, 
who brought down the fortifications of Jericho by the tramping 
of feet and the blowing of horns, He has seized a poor sailor, 
and made him a scourge in His right hand with which to lascer, 
ate and scatter the tyrants of Europe. The hero, meanwhile, 
humbly seeks his Caprera Island home. 

In 1876 Garibaldi was elected to the Italian Parliament. 



648 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

VICTOR 'EMMANUEL. 



VICTOR EMMANUEL, King of Italy, and formerly King of Sardinia, 
died at Rome January 9, 1878. He was born at Turin March 14, 1820, and 
early entered political life. After distinguishing himself in the war of 1848, 
he was made King of Sardinia in 1849. He reorganized the Cabinet, making 
the distinguished statesman, Cavour, his chief adviser, and commenced at 
once the vigorous work of reform that drew down on him the displeasure of 
the Roman Church and made him the rallying point for the friends of Italian 
unity. 

He curtailed the privileges of the clergy, secularized the property of the 
church, and took from the religious associations the monopoly of education 
He was excommunicated by the Pope, but issued a protest that made him 
more prominent and more influential in European politics. He became a 
party to the Anglo-French alliance against Russia in 1855 that he might 
advance Sardinia as a political power. The result was as he anticipated, and 
important events followed in quick succession. In 1859, with France as ally, 
he took the field against Austria in the war for Italian independence. The 
King was a good soldier, and Cavour a master of diplomacy ; and while he 
won distinguished honors at Palestro, Magenta, and Solferino, the Minister 
took good care that the results of good fighting should not be lost. Napoleon 
III. made the peace of Villa Franca to suit himself, holding out to the Italians 
the promise of an Italian confederation under the Presidency of the Pope. 
The stipulations dictated by Napolon caused great discontent in Italy, and 
many of the States transferred their allegiance to the King of Sardinia. In 
May, i860, Garibaldi assumed the leadership 01 the insurrectionists in Sicily, 
and, supported by Victor Emmanuel's army and navy, secured a triumph that 
virtually settled the question of Italian unity. 

The first Italian Parliament assembled at Turin, Feb. 18, 1861 . Eight 
days later the Deputies decreed to Victor Emmanuel the title of King of Italy. 
The decree was officially promulgated March 17, 1861, was recognized by 
England March 30, and by France June 15. In 1866 the King entered into 
the alliance with Prussia that ended, after the war between Prussia and Aus- 
tria, in Austria ceding Venetia to Italy. Taking advantage of the Franco- 
Prussian war in 1870, Victor Emmanuel took possession ol Rome, and in 
December of that year Rome was declared the capital of Italy. In May, 1871, 
the Italian Parliament, sitting at Florence, passed the bill of the papal guar- 
antees which regulated the relations of Church and State. The first Italian 
Parliament held in Rome was opened by the King Nov. 27, 1861. Since that 
date Victor Emmanuel had devoted himself to perfecting the unity of the 
kingdom, avoiding complications with the church without making any con- 
cessions, and avoiding complications with other European States, while rais- 
ing the position of Italy as a political power. 

The King's oldest daughter, Clotilda, was married to Prince Napoleon 
Jerome Bonaparte in 1859. His second daughter married the King of Portu- 
gal. His second son, Amadeus, was for three years King of Spain. Hum- 
bert, or Umberto, succeeded his father as King of Italy at 34 years of age. He 
was with his father through the war for Italian independence in 1859. 

Victor Emmanuel, first king of Italy, was buried in the Pantheon at Rome, 
over the gateway of which is the following inscription : " Italy, with a mother's 
pride, with a daughter's grief, supplicates for the great King, who was a faithful 
citizen and triumphant soldier, the immortality of the righteous and the heroic.*' 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 649 

THE EMPEROR WILLIAM OF GERMANY, HIS FAMILY, 
AND CHIEF GENERAL. 

^flHE Emperor William is an economical, unostentatious 
sovereign, who lives now very much as he did when he was 
Crown Prince. Perhaps he came back from Versailles 
with a couple of trumpets and drums the more, but that was all. 
He is a robust, bald old man, with a remarkably healthy face. 
His head is enormous, aud rests on very broad shoulders ; his eyes, 
gray and bright, under thick eye-brows which frown with facility ; 
his mustache, joined to thick white whiskers, completely covers his 
mouth and conceals its expression. War for him has always been 
a divine mission, and in his visions the world appears only under a 
luminous cross formed by a gun and a sabre. His method of life 
is very simple ; his love of discipline and regard for strict military 
dress arid deportment are profound. It is said that Bismarck gained 
his good graces by hindering him one day from appearing before 
the troops in a uniform not entirely buttoned up. He opens his 
mail every^day, and charges his Privy Councilors to reply to all 
letters. After this performance he receives his doctor, who, ac- 
cording to the color of the imperial tongue, allows outside exer- 
cises or exacts staying in-doors. He regularly studies the bills-of- 
fare proposed by his cook as carefully as one of Bismarcks reports. 
The Emperor likes plain, but classical, and especially economical 
cooking ; the dinners given by him when Crown Prince were no- 
toriously scant. At his desk near the window he is often seen 
seated, and writing with an eagle's quill; before him are the pho- 
tographs of his children and grandchildren, as well as various 
battlefield souvenirs — balls, bits of shells, and metallic cartridges. 
His vigorous constitution allows him to indulge in excessive work ; 
travels, fetes and reviews seem only to increase his toughness. 
His thirst for popularity is unbounded, and the Court historio- 
graphers are continually writing him up. Born March 22, 1797. 

The Empress Augusta has always been liberally disposed, and 
for a long time struggled against the belligerent tastes of her hus- 
band and liege lord. She tried hard to prevent all his wars, but 
in vain, and hence there arose an antagonism between herself and 
Bismarck, which still continues. She heads the Court party of 



650 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

opposition to the Chancellor, as the Crown Princess, Queen Vic- 
toria's daughter, heads the English party. French ideas have 
always met with the sympathy of the Empress, and she was very 
kind to the prisoners of Metz and Sedan. 

The Crown Prince also lives in the simplest style. No war 
tools are to be found in his private apartment. His tastes are 
agricultural, and rather averse to arms. His delight, indeed, lies 
in blue skies, green fields upon which the sun only flashes, the 
hum of bees and of mills. While his cousin, Prince Frederick 
Charles, reviews army corps, he visits sehool-rooms and amuses 
himself by putting his helmet on the heads of the pupils. 

Moltke resides in the office of the Grand Staff of the army. 
The room in which he works is large and well lighted by three 
high windows fronting on King's place. The table around which 
the staff assembles in council is heaped with maps, books, pamph- 
lets and journals. A piece of shell is the General's favorite let- 
ter-weight. The frescoes of the walls represeut some of the 
events of the war, and the hero himself is depicted under various 
costumes. His bed-room, adjoining, is of monastic severity. 
Moltke is tall, thin, slightly stooping ; he is only straightened up 
on horseback, and then looks like a man of 30. His close-shaven 
face is very much wrinkled ; his profile recalls vaguely Caesar's ; 
his prominent nose indicates will, perseverance, courage ; his lips 
are thin and expressive of melancholy ; his chin sharp ; eyes black 
and brilliant; neck long. He is a great worker and an early 
riser ; passes sometimes as much as nine hours at his desk 
without taking anything save a glass of Bordeaux and a bis- 
cuit ; dines at two and sups at eight. He is always punctual in 
Parliament, where his colleagues style him the " Great Silent." 
Less a captain of genius than an admirable organizer, he is as 
cold-blooded in a battle as the gods who dwell in Olympus. 
His amusement is to walk in the Theirgarten, with his hands 
behind his back in the old Napoleonic style. A Dane by birth, 
he married a young English girl who fell violently in love with 
him ; her premature death, in 1868, came near killing him. 

He was born Oct. 26, 1800. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 65 1 



BENJAMIN DISRAELI. 




^HIS great British author, orator and statesman, was born 
in London, England, in 1805, and is the oldest son of 
Isaac Disraeli, the author of "Curiosities of Literature." 
He received his early education at a private academy in the sub- 
urbs of London, whence, while yet a mere boy he was transferred 
to the office of an attorney as an articled or bound clerk. Here 
he remained three years, but the monotony and confinement of 
his daily labor was galling in the extreme to the ambitious soul 
that already aspired to soar into realms far higher than the sphere 
of the most successful attorney, and availing himself of the assist- 
ance of distinguished friends of his father, " Disraeli the Young- 
er," as he loved to call himself, with self-caressing conceits that 
were very soothing to the vanity which was strong in the talented 
young genius, obtained admission into what was called the " best 
society " of London, where his magnificent physical beauty, re- 
fined manners and brilliant conversational powers soon made 
him a favorite. 

From the day when he filled an uncongenial post in a solicitor's 
office ; from the day when he wrote novels and satires which did 
something more than amuse society, which added new treasures to 
the literature of his country ; from the day when he was one of 
that gay throng of wits and fops of which he is now, alas ! almost 
the last man left to us — Mr. Disraeli's life has been one that de- 
serves, and will unquestionably receive the study and the criticism 
of future generations. He was a man of mark before he entered 
Parliament ; he had made himself a man of mark, he — the obscure 
son of a man of the middle class, foredoomed to the drudgery of 
conveyancing — was looked upon as a successful novelist and social 
critic, at a time when the great rival, who has pressed him so hard 
throughout his political career, was still a youth at Oxford. His 
whole life is a tempting theme to dwell upon, but the limits of 



652 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

these pages afford no opportunity of giving way to the tempta- 
tion; and, though when diamonds are photographed little but 
the flaws are shown, we must try in this brief sketch to reproduce 
something of the light and the brilliancy, the depth and the splen- 
dor, of this " diamond of the first water," with whom we have to 
deal. His past career is part of English history, and to the his- 
torian we must leave it ; our duty is simply to draw the ex-Pre- 
mier of England as you may see him to-day in the House of 
Commons. 

A man of middle height, of spare but well-proportioned frame, 
of scrupulous neatness of dress, and possessed of a countenance 
which no one can forget who has once looked upon it — this is Mr. 
Disraeli, as we see him now quietly walking up the floor of the 
House to take his place on the front Opposition bench. Arrived 
at his seat, he removes his hat — he alone among the gentlemen 
upon that bench — and sits down, folding his arms, and stretching 
out his legs in a fashion which recalls by-gone days, when, out of 
every twenty honorable gentlemen in the House, nineteen of them 
stretched out their legs in exactly the same way. 

Over the high-arched forehead — surely the forehead of a poet-^ 
there hangs from the crown of the head a single curl of dark hair, 
black as jet, a curl which you can not look at without feel- 
ing a touch of pathos in your inmost heart, for it is the only thing 
about the worn and silent man reminding you of the brilliant 
youth of "Vivian Gray." The face below this solitary lock is 
deeply marked with t he furrows left by care's ploughshare; the 
fine dark eyes look downward, the mouth is closed with a firmness 
that says more for this man's tenacity of will than pages of eulogy 
would do ; but what strikes you more than anything else is the 
utter lack of expression upon the countenance. No one, looking 
at the face, though but for a moment could fall into the error of 
supposing that expression and intelligence are not there ; they are 
there, but in concealment. 

Much is said of the power possessed by Napoleon III. of hid- 
ing his thoughts from the keenest scrutiny ; but more than once 
even his power over his countenance has been sorely taxed, and 
he has been glad of the grateful shelter of the curling mustache 
that shades his mouth. Without any such help, however, Mr. 
Disraeli has a face that is simply inscrutable. Again and again 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 653 

have hundreds of keen eyes been turned at critical moments 
toward that face, to read, if it might be possible, something of the 
mysterious thoughts of the man himself; but never once, not 
even in the most exciting crisis of personal or political conflict, 
has the face unwittingly relaxed, or friend or foe been able to read 
aught there. It is the face of a sphinx, inscrutable and unfathom- 
able ; it is, as men of every party will admit, the most remarkable 
face in England. 

Mr. Disraeli's mind is no more to be analyzed than his counte- 
nance is to be fathomed. He is here ; we know what he has done, 
we have seen his labors, we acknowledge his genius, we believe 
him to be intellectually one of the greatest men, not of his own 
time, only, but of all English history. Beyond that we can not go> 
and we must leave to future critics, who will see him through a 
clearer medium than that through which it is possible for us to 
behold him, and who may have new lights thrown upon his charac- 
ter which are withheld from us, to decide what he is, and what 
precisely is the motive-power of his life. All that we know at 
present is, that he is an intellectual prodigy, and, like other prod- 
igies, he must be tried by exceptional rules and standards. But 
this has nothing to do with the mere sketch which we propose to 
attempt of the man himself, of the place he holds in the House of 
Commons, of the work he does there, and of the qualities he dis- 
plays in doing it. 

He is a great party-leader. That is beyond dispute. To him 
belongs the honor of having, with an exquisite tact and skill, led 
the House of Commons, when he had only a minority of support- 
ers at his back, and of having led it in such a way that the most 
watchful of foes were unable to trip him up, or even to change 
the secretly formed purpose of his mind. Those who saw him first 
as chancellor of the exchequer, then as prime-minister during the 
last conservative administration, leading his party and the house 
of commons at the same time, witnessed a spectacle the like of 
which has perhaps never before been seen ; for we have no previous 
record of such generalship as that which Mr. Disraeli then displayed. 

He was himself engaged in a task which, to the most sanguine 
of his own followers, had but a short time before seemed an ut- 
terly hopeless one, and which, to those of them who were unable 
to see as far as he did, seemed worse than hopeless — suicidal. 



654 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

But he went on, in spite of difficulties and discouragements 
which would have broken the spirit and destroyed the strength 01 
any other party-leader of modern times. And he went on with 
wonderful success. Past rocks and shoals and quicksands with- 
out number, and by a channel on which it had never before 
entered, he steered the vessel of the state ; he faced obstacles 
which seemed insurmountable, and which, to any other man, 
would have been what they seemed, and lo ! they vanished under 
his marvelous manipulation. With a party sorely reduced in 
strength, he kept at bay the overwhelming numbers of the enemy 
— nay, he even used them as instruments of his own, and it was 
by their aid that he passed the great reform bill which will hence- 
forth be associated with his name, and balked his rivals. This is 
what Mr. Disraeli has accomplished within the last few years ; and 
no impartial man will deny that it is one of the greatest political 
achievements recorded in the history of Parliament. 

It was during the trying period between 1866- 6g that he de- 
veloped his ripest powers. Until he became the leader of the 
House of Commons on the last occasion, he had never shown his 
remarkable fitness for such a post. On previous occasions he had 
done well ; but then he did his work superlatively well. It is true, 
that, when he had formally been leader of the house, he had la- 
bored under the disadvantage of having opposed to him a skilled 
veteran who was the most popular party-man ever seated within 
the walls of parliament. 

But, making allowances for the difference in his position which 
was made by Lord Palmerston's death, we yet can not doubt that 
there was a ripening and maturing of his powers during the long 
interval of opposition through which he passed, while that noble- 
man and Lord Russell were at the helm of the State for the last 
time, which contributed materially to his success when he himself 
was recalled to the leadership. It was not until he was recalled 
that, in addition to all his other great qualities, he displayed that 
geniality and humor which the House of Commons is so quick to 
appreciate in its leader, and the absence of which in the present 
prime minister it feels so strongly. 

And somewhat akin to this humor is that higher power of sar- 
casm for which Mr. Disraeli has been famous throughout his whole 
public life. He is not, in one sense of the word, a good debater. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 655 

It can not be denied that at times he contrasts unfavorably with 
Mr. Gladstone. But upon some subjects he makes speeches which 
are far above the level reached by any other man in the House of 
Commons. No one has the power of investing a great political 
event with more of the interest attaching to domestic affairs than 
he has. Over and over again he has brought down incidents 
which were so far above the ordinary level of the House of Com- 
mons as to be beyond the reach of its sympathy, to the region of 
everyday life — as, for instance, in the case of Mr. Lincoln's assas- 
sination, when he made the speech of all the speeches made, the 
world over, upon that most terrible, most touching of tragedies, 
and brought tears to the eyes of men to whom, before that mo- 
ment, the President of the United States had been a mere 
abstraction. 

But while upon such topics he is a perfect master of words and 
ideas, when he is speaking upon the mere party-question of the 
hour, he often fails to produce that impression upon his audience 
which one would expect from a man of his genius. No doubt 
many causes unite to produce this effect. Chief among them, we 
believe, is the fact that he has not the passion of the ordinary 
party-man. The range of his sympathies is so catholic, that his 
mind is seldom roused to passion upon a question which is only 
a question of party ; it is not until he is really touched by one 
of those few topics which have power to move him deeply, that 
the fire of genius in his soul pours forth its sparks, and that he 
shows all the depths of passion and enthusiasm hidden within 
him. And yet even when he is in his coldest mood, what an in- 
tellectual treat it is to listen to him speaking upon one of the 
great questions of the day. 

The political career of Mr. Disraeli is one of the most remark- 
able in English«history. By force of talent, industry and perse- 
verance, unaided by wealth or family relatives, with his Jewish 
origin working against him with terrible force, and the reputation 
of being a clever novelist, he has raised himself to the position of 
leader in the House of Commons and minister of finance in the 
greatest commercial empire of the world. Mr. D. succeeded 
Gladstone as Prime Minister in 1874, and accepted a Peerage 
in 1877, with the title of Earl of Beaconsfield. 



656 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES.. 



CHARLES DICKENS.. 




^[HARLES DICKENS was born at Portsmouth, England, 
February 12, 181 2. His father was a retired Navy-depart- 
ment clerk, and in his latter years a reporter for the 
London daily press. Charles was intended for the profession of 
an attorney, but could never learn to love it, and though he 
plodded through a course of study, it was never of use to him 
except that it gave him a knowledge of law phrases, and a famil- 
iarity with the intricacies so dearly loved by the impartial 
goddess of Justice. He threw it aside without ceremony, for the 
more congenial duties of reporter to the London papers, and was 
afterwards attached to the " True Sun," then to the " Morning 
Chronicle," in which latter he won his first literary reputation 
under the signature of "Boz." He was possessed of rare powers 
of delineating character, and while some of his friends have re- 
gretted that he had given his talents to the portraiture of a class 
of the human family who would otherwise never be known to the 
world, it is here, perhaps, that he won more fame than in any 
other class of literature. The first of the " Pickwick Papers " was 
published in 1830, but the series was not complete until 1837,. 
when it was brought out by Mr. Seymour. It was a favorite both 
in England and America, and is still considered his best work. 
His next was the "Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby," then 
" Oliver Twist." " The Old Curiosity Shop," more than any other 
work of his, paved the way for his enthusiastic reception in 
America, and when he came here in 1842, he had certainly noth- 
ing more to desire of our people. His views of American life 
were published on his return to England, but were too much of 
the Trollope school of criticism to be thoroughly relished, 
added little to his reputation, and nothing to his popularity. 
About this time he wrote several short Christmas stories which 
were very pretty, and the most amiable of his works. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 657 

In 1844 he published "Martin Chuzzlewit," and in the same 
year went to Italy and remained some time. " Dombey & Son " 
came out in 1848, and "David Copperfield," his own favorite, in 
1850. In 1853 he finished "Bleak House," and in 1857 "Little 
Dorritt," both of which were favorably read. 

Dickens' wonderful success as a novelist lies in his humor and 
originality, and no one, not even the most selfish of critics, can 
deny this. Wordy he is — even to a fault, perhaps, — but his words 
are so prettily chosen as to be forgiven by the charmed reader. 
As a public reader of his own writings, Mr. Dickens was certainly 
a success, and the stories already familiar to our mind borrowed 
a new grace from his pleasant intonation. His last visit to Amer- 
ica is too recent for any to have forgotten the rapturous crowds 
who nightly listened to him. His domestic life has not been free 
from pain, and to this, perhaps, in a great measure may be attrib- 
uted the under-current of deep pathos that is traceable in all his 
writings. He died June 9th, 1870. 



HOMER. 



PISCUSSION and speculation have proven fruitless in lo- 
cating the birth-place of Homer; even the exact age 
in which he lived is also lost. Seven cities of Asia claim 
the honor of having given the poet to the world, each with some 
show of truth, and seven more would be willing to share the honor 
had they a shadow to found their claim upon. Between the ear- 
liest and the latest dates in which he is said to have lived, lies a 
period of nearly five hundred years. It is impossible to state 
more than the probabilities of the case, which are, that he was 
a native of Smyrna, an Ionian city, on the coast of Asia Minor, 
and was therefore an Asiatic Greek ; lived in the second century, 
after the taking of Troy by Achilles; most likely from B. C. 1019 

to B. C. 984. 

42 



658 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

It is well established that he was blind, not from birth, but from 
an accident, occurring at some unknown date. The songs and 
poems of Homer were scattered until the time of Pisistrus, who 
gathered them together and formed the collection much as it is 
known now. To the Iliad and Odessey he owes his fame, though 
all his works are worth preserving. Scholars differ much in opin- 
ion of his minor poems and epigrams, many doubting their 
authenticity. The Iliad is claimed to be not only the oldest 
specimen of historic and national poetry, but the most perfect 
poem of the kind ever produced. The subject is well known — 
the siege of Troy, which was invested by Achilles, in order to be 
revenged on Agamemnon, who had supplanted him in the affect- 
ions of his mistress, Briccis. It is divided into twenty-four books, 
and ends with the death and burial of Hector. The long con- 
tinued and terrible sufferings of the Greeks ; the horrors of the 
siege ; the barbarous mode of warfare of that day ; the full grati- 
fication of the revenge of Achilles, and the reaction of feeling at 
last, are vividly portrayed. The Odessey, preferred by some to 
the Iliad, we can not think its equal. It is also divided into 
twenty-four books, and contains the history of Ulysses and his 
adventures while on his return from Troy to Ithaca. There is no 
doubt but that, so far as the subject gave scope for expression, the 
poem is equal to any he wrote, but in the death and funeral ser- 
vices of Hector, the author had opportunity to portray all the 
heights and depths of sublime endurance, of heroism, affection 
and grief. 

The criticism of Colonel Mure upon Homer is very fine. He 
says : " In conception and portraiture of character, and the deep- 
est vein of tragic pathos, he may be equaled by Shakspeare ; in 
moral dignity of thought and expression, by Milton ; in the grace 
and delicacy of his lighter pictures, by Petrarch and Ariasto ; and 
in the gloomy grandeur of his supernatural imagery, by Dante ; 
but no one of these poets has combined in so great a degree those 
various elements of excellence, in each of which they may sepa- 
rately claim to compete with him. 

Like the works of Shakspeare and Dante, Homer's may be com- 
pared to a fine old painting, whose rare colors and exquisite shades 
have been mellowed by time, and age has but made them more 
attractive to the scholar. 




WILHELM, EMPEBQB OF GEEMAffY. 



6 60 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



SHAKSPEARE. 



)T is said that no other man ever swept the complicated 
strings of the human heart with so masterly a hand as Will- 
iam Shakspeare. It is said that no other mind was ever so 
familiar with every shade and phase of human nature as he, and 
that no one could so well uncover the dark passions that were hid- 
den from the world with cunning skill, or that slumbered unchal- 
lenged and unseen. No works, dramatic, poetic, or prose, in 
ancient or modern literature, have had so much influence in every 
grade and sphere of life, and their popularity increases with the 
increase of knowledge and education. 

He was born in 1564, probably, though not certainly, in Strat- 
ford-on-Avon. The house in which he is said to have been born 
was unquestionably the property of his father in 1546, and after- 
wards came into possession of the poet. Very little light is 
thrown upon his early life, for he was only a yeoman's son, and 
nothing in his childhood gave promise of the glorious manhood 
that lay before him, or the laurels that in every land under the sun 
were budding for his brow. Every theory has been advanced ; 
that he was a pale-faced student in the grammar school of his na- 
tive town ; that he was an attorney's clerk ; that he was a dissi- 
pated young blade who shamed his honest, hard-working parents ; 
that he was a reckless poacher, who heeded no game laws and 
feared no magistrate. 

A mile from Stratford stood an old, gray farm-house, whose 
porch was smothered in honey-suckles, and from whose mossy 
eaves long, slender sprays of ivy swung down, catching the win- 
dow ledges and draping the diamond-paned lattice with its veil of 
dainty green. Here lived sweet Annie Hathaway, to whom the 
poet when but eighteen years of age, was married and the mar- 
riage was full of happiness for both. Three children were born 
to them, two daughters who survived their parents, and a son, who 
died young. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 66l 

When Shakspeare was only twenty-five years old he was one of 
the proprietors of the Blackfriars Theater, and he afterwards be- 
came its entire owner. The date of the production of his first 
play is lost ; indeed, accurate dates can be affixed to but few of 
his writings, except his poems. It would be folly to criticise an 
author whose genius and talents are so widely acknowledged, and 
to whom such universal homage has been paid, as there is 
scarcely a mind in the old world or the new whose treasure house 
does not hold gems that this master poet has polished and fitted 
for their setting. 

He became immensely wealthy from his theater. He died April 
22, 1616, and no descendant of him lives to bear his name, indeed, 
it is defunct, but in every home and at every hearth his memory 
is honored and loved. 



JAMES F. COOPER. 



JXJpAMES FENIMORE COOPER was born at Burlington, 
Mr New York. His parents removed, while he was in his first 
year, to Otsego Lake, and there, in the almost unbroken 
wilds, the pioneer began life anew by the erection of the home- 
stead, or " Hall," as it was styled, — the " Hall " so often referred 
to in the novelist's works. His father was a man of a good deal 
of shrewdness and sagacity, and possessing an immense tract of 
land that came to him in some way, how does not seem to be made 
quite plain by history, of course became the possessor of almost 
boundless wealth as civilization brought it into demand. 

Mrs. Cooper, his mother, was a woman of strong and cultivated 
intellect, of great personal beauty, and a romantic turn of mind. 
At the age of thirteen the author was entered in the freshman 
class of Yale College but seems neither to have been fond of 



662 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

study or to have any indications of his future greatness. At the 
end of his third collegiate year he left school, tired of the re- 
straint and of study, and entered the United States navy, where 
he remained two years. On board the " Sterling " he was promoted, 
first to midshipman, and later to lieutenant. 

In 1811 he was married to Miss De Lancy, sister of Bishop De 
Lancy, of New York, and removed to Mamaroneck, and it was 
not until several years after this that, reading from an English 
novel, he exclaimed to his wife, as he yawned over its pages, " I 
could write a better novel," and it is said that her quiet answer, 
" You had better try," gave him his first idea of authorship. A 
few weeks of secret labor resulted in the first few chapters of 
"Precaution." It was published anonymously, and not acknowl- 
edged until several years later ; indeed it is said, he was never at 
all proud of it. Three years after he published the " Spy," and 
with this book began his success and his popularity. In Europe 
the work was even more overwhelmingly popular than in Amer- 
ica. From this time forward he devoted himself to literature, and 
in two years more he produced the " Pioneer." This work is said to 
have been his favorite, of all he wrote, because, as he remarked, his 
first was written for the world and the world rejected it ; the sec- 
ond was written to compel its notice, and to obtain for it the 
position that was refused the first. Having gained this, he wrote 
the third to please himself, and succeeded here also. The next 
year came the " Pilot," which far out-ran the others, and then in 
rapid succession followed the " Red Rover" and "Lionel Lincoln ;" 
the last not equal to either of his former works, not even except- 
ing his first. His failure seems again to have roused the spirit of 
the author and put him to his mettle. The next work took the 
world by storm. The romance, the sentiment, and the wild ex- 
citement of Indian life were never so developed by any one as in 
his " Last of the Mohicans." It gave him a name in every quar- 
ter of the globe, and his " Prairie," which came next, is scarcely, 
if at all, inferior to it. 

In 1828 he went abroad with his family, residing in Europe until 
1833. Mr. Cooper, though not a politician, was a most passion- 
ate lover of home, and a jealous lover, too. His keen percep- 
tion of the light estimate placed upon his country and his 
countrymen, and the false interpretations and slanders so common 



. OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 663 

in Europe at the time, cast upon her, as he believed, a degree of 
odium that was unendurable. Like a gallant but overhasty knight 
he threw down the gauntlet and took up the pen in defense of his 
" lady love," and in this spirit were written " Letters of a Travel- 
ing Bachelor," " Residence in Europe," " Home as Found," and 
the " Mannikins ; " all of which it would have been to Mr. Coop- 
er's credit never to have written. Next followed " Bravo," which 
certainly went far to redeem his lost reputation. 

Before he returned home he published the " Wept-of-the-Wish- 
ton-Wish," " Hieldenmanor," and the " Herdsman of Berne." He 
became involved in lawsuits which he instituted on account of the 
too free and too frequent criticisms of his historical work, " Naval 
History of the United States," and thus, in a measure, lost some 
of his last years, or rather, the world lost the benefit of his 
genius. His last finished book was " Ways of the Hour," pub- 
lished in 1850. The next year, while engaged upon a historical 
novel, his physical powers, always wonderfully strong, suddenly 
gave way, and to the astonishment and grief of his friends, he 
died. 

Mr. Cooper was a spjendid man — tall, finely built, with a most 
perfectly symmetrical form ; generous, even to a fault ; kindly and 
social, a true friend, an honorable enemy. His talents have built 
for him an imperishable monument, and his name is loved and 
familiar. 



JOHN G. WHITTIER. 



>OHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER was born in Haverhill, 
Massachusetts, December, 1807. His family were mem- 
bers of the Society of Friends, and the poet was brought 
up in that faith, to which he still adheres. He spent the first few 




TOMB OF FRANKLIN. 




WASHINGTON AS PRESIDENT. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 665 

years of his life upon a farm, living, acting, and working after the 
fashion of farmer boys. At that time he was sent to the town 
academy two years. In 1829 he became editor of the " American 
Mechanic," published at Boston, devoted to the maintenance 
of the tariff, then in the first stages of decline, and threatened 
with speedy reduction. In 1850 he succeeded George D. Pren- 
tice as editor of the New England Review, at Hartford. In the 
same year he wrote a memoir of Brainerd, to be used as a prefix 
to a volume of his poetical works. The Legends of New Eng- 
land emanated from his pen at about this time, overflowing with 
thrilling incidents of the wild life of the early settlers of the con- 
tinent. From the same fruitful source he drew the material for 
many of his later poems. " Mogg Megone " and the " Bridal of 
Pennock " are so strongly marked by the same spirit as to be 
easily recognizable. He soon returned to the old homestead, and 
for two years, 1835-36, was a member of the Massachusetts legis- 
lature. His political sentiments were in accordance with those of 
most of the Friends, and he was, if not an abolitionist, at least in 
sympathy with them. 

In 1836 he went to Philadelphia, where he edited the " Pennsyl- 
vania Freeman." Several of his best short poems were written at 
this time. In 1840 Mr. Whittier removed to Amesburg, Massa- 
chusetts, and has resided there since. He has devoted his life to 
literary pursuits, and is one of our most popular poets, with very 
little of the sensational or sentimental in his writing, but a strong, 
healthy, earnest tone, different from the sickly trash of some who 
have even gained a day of popularity — why, one would wonder. 
His best prose works are " Legends of New England," " Leaves 
from Margaret Smith's Journal," "Old Portraits and Modern 
Sketches," and " Literary Recreations." His first poems were 
published in 1850, and since that time he has published "Songs 
of Labor, and other Poems ; " " The Chapel of the Hermits, and 
other Poems," and " Home Ballads." His " Songs of Freedom " 
were also brought out about this time. His " Snow Bound " is an 
exquisite picture of winter-life, dainty and pure, cold and white, 
only rich and warm in its coloring and delineation. Another of 
Whittier's best efforts is the " Tent on the Beach." There is a 
tone of mournful grandeur — of solemn majesty and of sublimity 
beyond criticism in its beautiful lines. 



666 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

You can imagine him lying prone upon the strand, with the 
boundless blue of heaven above him, from which the clear stars 
shine out like lamps lit by angel hands ; before him the deeper, 
darker, denser blue of the ocean, with its great dark waves on 
which lies a crest line of white, soft, feathery foam. You can fol- 
low it with your eye as it rolls in and breaks with a sullen, deaf- 
ening, thundering roar, with a sound like the "voice of many 
waters." There were with him a few friends, a poet, editor, trav- 
eler, one whose weary feet had lingered on every soil beneath the 
sun and who had turned his face homeward and rested again under 
the spreading branches of the roof- tree that sheltered him in his 
boyhood days. Ah ! that was long years ago ; threads of silver 
mingle plentifully with his jetty curls now, contrasting with 
the fire in the eyes that are fierce as an eagle's and yet gentle as 
those of an Arab girl. Here they wrote, walked, sang and 
held sweet converse with nature, their own hearts and each 
other, and here was born, at least in Whittier's brain, the " Tent 
on the Beach." 

You have not forgotten — no one can — his gem written while yet 
the glare of the red light shone brazen against the western sky r 
and given to the world while the pall of smoke hung heavy over, 
the ruins of Chicago, as if in pity, as much as in sullen despairs, 
they veiled the burning of that magnificent city. 

" Men said at vespers : ' All is Veil !' 
In one wild night the city fell ; 
Fell shrines of prayer and marts of gain, 
Before the fiery hurricane." 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 667 



WASHINGTON IRVING. 




>ASHINGTON IRVING was born in New York, April 
3rd, 1783, and died at his residence in Sunnyside, 
November 28th, 1859. He had but an ordinary edu- 
cation, and his school days ended when he was fifteen years 
old. He had brothers older than himself who were literary 
men, and he gave indications, before his school days were over, 
of the promise which afterwards made him so favorite an author. 
At sixteen he began the study of law. This, however, was a mere 
form, and a useless one too, for he was so utterly destitute of 
system, so impulsive and changeable in his moods, that he could 
not bear the confinement, and the dull, musty volumes of lore dis- 
gusted his mind. 

His brother, Dr. Peter Irving, edited the " Morning Chronicle," 
and for that paper Irving wrote a series of sketches upon every 
subject, over the signature of "Jonathan Oldstyle." In 1804 
symptoms of pulmonary consumption drove him abroad. Added 
to, or perhaps stronger than, his desire for health was his eager, 
insatiate desire, amounting almost to passion, to visit foreign 
lands. Leaving New York in May, he passed through France, 
visited Naples, and in Rome passed many happy months with 
Allison, the painter. He fell so deeply in love with art that he 
believed, for a time, that he had mistaken his calling, and should 
have been an artist. Everywhere the eye of the young American 
scanned European life and manners closely, and his active mind 
stored for future use many a bit of romance or little episode to 
be wrought over by imagination for future use. 

In 1806, after nearly three years abroad, he returned to New 
York, and resumed the study of what he was pleased to term 
his " profession," and actually made such proficiency that he was 
admitted to the bar in due course of time. He did not love law 
— there was no use in trying to believe it ; he could not endure it, 
and he turned to the flowery fields of literature, to his own de- 



668 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



light and the disgust of the more practical of his friends. Ameri- 
can literature was just then below par ; in fact, an American author 
was in the disgraceful position of a prophet at home, literally 
without honor. His first articles were a sort of partnership affair, 
in which both his brother and John R. Paulding had a share in 
the making, and the lion's share of the spoils, if spoils there were 
any. Irving was at that time, and indeed always, a spasmodic 
writer ; must work when, as he expressed it, the " fit was on, or not 
at all." A serial was published by them, entitled "Salmagundi, 
or the Whim- Whams of Launcelot Longstaff, Esq., and Others." 
This was very popular, and each number was hailed with delight, 
though the modest young authors declared their only intention 
was " to simply instruct the young, reform the old, correct the 
town, and castigate the age." The work became one of much more 
importance than they had imagined it would, and was a favorite 
for its keen wit and rich humor. Blackwood spoke favorably of 
it ; what better lease of life could it ask ? Two years later was 
announced a " History of New York, from the beginning of the 
World to the end of the Dutch Dynasty/' It is said that the 
" sell " was complete and the parody was read as a veritable his- 
tory. Irving was no less a favorite with English readers than 
with the Americans, though an ill-natured critic " over the sea" 
has intimated too plainly that he made more use of Dean Swift 
than he had any legitimate right to. As a delineator of scenery 
and character, perhaps Irving has had few equals; in the latter 
he resembled Dickens, in the former, Cooper. For some years 
after the Knickerbocker history, his pen lay idle, and he made no 
attempt to produce anything. With one of those revulsions of feel- 
ing peculiar to himself, he seemed to have lost his taste for any- 
thing of the kind. 

In 1810 he wrote a biographical prefix for a volume of Thomas 
Campbell's Poetical Works, and in 18 13-14 he edited the "Analytic 
Magazine," in Philadelphia, and published in it the lives of Com- 
manders in the American Navy. They are the best of the kind 
ever given to the world, and if he had .never written anything 
else, history would still be indebted to him for them. In 1814 
he became an aid on Gen. Tompkins' staff, and at the close of 
the war, went to Europe and remained seventeen years, although 
the visit was at first intended to be short. He formed many 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 669 

pleasant friendships there, and was much with Sir Walter Scott> 
whom he admired and loved tenderly. While in Edinburgh he 
learned of the financial failure of the mercantile house in which 
his money was invested, and henceforth his talents must win his 
bread. His "Sketch Book" was written abroad ; also "Brackenridge 
Hall, or the Humorists." His " Tales of a Traveller,'* were written 
in Paris, and the writer's well earned reputation made it as popular 
as might justly be expected. From Spain he gave the world 
the " Chronicles of the Conquest of Grenada," and " The Al- 
hambra," which is doubtless the finest galaxy of word paintings in 
the English language. 

In 1842 he was appointed Minister to Spain, and filled the post 
four years. It is impossible to notice all his works, or to criticise 
even the most prominent. They are so full of genuine humor — 
so witty, yet kind and gentle, so rare in coloring, that even in his 
satires and burlesques is nothing to wound those who may be car- 
ricatured, and if an age or an individual fancies that " the coat 
fits him," he puts it on, laughing at the sweet-tempered, sunny,, 
genial spirit of him who cut and made it for him. As a historian 
he is well known, and his writings are standard works in every 
library. He was never married, although once devotedly attached 
to a young lady who died ere the day which had been set for their 
marriage, arrived. For some years before his death he resided at 
his home at " Sunnyside," surrounded by a host of friends and 
relatives who were, scarcely more than the worlds bereaved by 
his sudden death, 




670 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

CUVIER. 



EORGE CUVIER, the most eminent Naturalist in mod • 
ern times, was born August 23, 1769, at Montbelaird, 
Switzerland. His father was a distinguished officer in a 
Swiss corps in the pay of France. 

Cuvier was intended for the church and, from the poverty of 
his parents, was a candidate for admission to the free school of 
Tubingen. Cuvier first began his anatomical collection, of a 
few skeletons tied together like so many fagots, in the lumber- 
room of the College. 

Circumstances by degrees contributed to the success of Cuvier's 
labors. Wherever French armies marched, it was their pride to 
collect whatever might enrich the increasing collections at Paris ; 
and under the directions of Cuvier, the numerous contributions 
thus received were arranged according to the system which his 
eloquent lectures explained. By labors which knew little inter- 
mission, and with the help of these daily increasing stores, he was 
enabled to lay the foundations of Comparative Anatomy, to make 
the discovery of ancient Zoology, and to introduce a reform 
throughout the whole series of the Animal Kingdom. The death 
of M. Daubenton, in 1799, opened the way for the succession of 
Cuvier as professor at the College of France ; and thus he discharged 
the double duty of leaching Natural Philosophy at the latter insti- 
tution, and lecturing on Comparative Anatomy at the Jardin des 
Plantes. It is painful to state that his pecuniary remuneration 
for this great labor was neither commensurate in amount nor reg- 
ular in its payment. 

In 1800, Cuvier commenced his celebrated " Lectures on Com- 
parative Anatomy," which were completed in five years. His 
skill in delineating forms was so great, and the rapidity and ex- 
actness with which he produced them so extraordinary, that it 
seemed to his pupils as if he rather created living objects than 
inanimate representations. He did not consider the whole organic 
structure of each animal separately, but examined an individual 
organ through the whole series ot animals in succession It was 
by this method that he was ultimately led to the revealment of an 
order of facts illustrative of the theory of the earth. 

To his researches into Fossil remains, Cuvier ever attached the 
utmost importance. His writings on those and other subjects are 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 67 1 

indeed so numerous, that it is impossible for us even to attempt a 
list of them. His labors increased with his years in magnitude 
and diversity, but only to show the extent of his capacity. 

The extraordinary talents of Cuvier, blended as they were with 
so much dignity of character and so much experience, were indis- 
pensable to France under all the successive changes of govern- 
ment which happened during his lifetime. The Consulate, the 
Imperial Government, the Restoration, the Monarchy of July, did 
but anew direct public attention to the civil services of a man 
whose attainments and sagacity were for all time. 

After the restoration, Louis XVIII. bestowed on him the dig- 
nity of Councilor of State, and he was thus called on to take a 
considerable share in the internal administration of his country* 
as President of the Committee of the Interior, an office which 
involved him in endless details of business. In 1818 he visited 
England for six weeks, and during his absence from Paris had the 
distinguished honor of being created one of the forty of the 
Academie Francaise. In 1819 he was named Grand-Master of the 
University, and in the same year was created a Baron. In 1826 
Charles X. bestowed on him the decoration of grand officer of the 
Legion of Honor, and his old sovereign, the King of Wurtemburg, 
about the same time made him commander of the order of the 
Crown. During the same year he lost the favor of the Court, by 
steadily refusing the appointment of Censor of the Press ; but he 
incurred a much heavier dispensation in the loss of his only 
remaining child, Clemantine, a beautiful young woman, on the 
eve of marriage. 

In 1830 he again visited England along with his step-daughter, 
Mademoiselle Duvancel, and they happened to be in London 
during the Revolution of the Barricades. On his return to Paris, 
Cuvier was most graciously received by Louis Phillipe, by whom 
he was, in 1832, created a Peer of France. But he lived not long 
to enjoy his dignity. On the 9th of May he was attacked by 
partial paralysis in his arms, and aware in what it was to termi- 
nate, made his will. To M. Pasquier, who saw him on the 12th, 
he remarked : "I had great things still to do. All was ready in 
my hand. After thirty years of labor and research, there remain- 
ed but to write, and now the hands fail to carry with them the 
head." He expired May 13th, 1832. 



672 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




WILLIAM B. ASTOR- 

THE RICHEST MAN IN AMERICA, 

>ILLIAM B. ASTOR died in New York, the 24th of 
November, 1875, of pneumonia, in the 84th year of his 
age. 

John Jacob Astor, the father of William B. Astor, was born in 
Heidelberg, and coming to this country in early life, embarked in 
the fur trade and amassed a fortune. William B. Astor was born 
at 149 Broadway, on the 19th of September, 1792. There his 
father carried on his business as furrier, and lived with his family 
in the same house. Six years after the birth of the future million- 
aire, the elder Astor, having accumulated between $200,000 and 
$300,000, hired a house at 223 Broadway, the site of the existing 
Astor House, and moved into it with his family, retaining the 
premises in the lower part of the city as a place of business only. 
From a very early period of his life, William B. Astor was his 
father's principal assistant. He learned the fur business thor- 
oughly, and acquired, too, those habits of industry, perseverance, 
and economy which finally made him the Rothschild of America. 
His father intrusted the trade he had built up so well almost 
wholly to the management of his son, so that the latter may be 
said to have himself accumulated much of the fortune accruing to 
him when John Jacob Astor died. 

After some years the old fur trader began to send his wares to 
China, receiving in return consignments of tea, a business that 
soon became enormously profitable. John Jacob Astor doubled 
his already large fortune in a very short time. Hitherto his son 
had received no book education beyond what he had been able to 
give himself in the few hours snatched from the pursuits of his 
business. But now his father, realizing that the future manage- 
ment of his increasing business must, to continue successful, be 
intrusted to one possessed of a better education than he had given 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 673 

his son, sent him to the university of his native town, Heidelberg. 
Thore the young student made excellent use of his opportunities,, 
learning fa^t, and obtaining numerous honors in the college. He 
became a thorough German linguist, a branch of knowledge which 
subsequently was of inestimable service to him. He was also an 
accomplished musician, and, like all German students of that day, 
and indeed, of our time, he became a skillful swordsman. He 
remained in Germany several years, and returned to America only 
when his father felt his presence indispensable to the management 
of his business, now swollen to colossal proportions. 

William B. Astor had not lost his taste for business, and after 
traveling entirely over Europe which at that time was by no 
means the simple journey of to-day, he returned to New York r 
and once. more entered the fur store. His uncle, Henry Astor, 
in whom was the same aptitude in amassing money that seems 
to have characterized every member of the family, had accumu- 
lated a vast fortune. He was greatly attached to his nephew, and 
on his death he bequeathed to him $500,000. This legacy did 
not tempt William B. Astor to forsake his father's business. He 
invested the money, and carried on the fur trade with greater en- 
ergy than ever. His father's increasing age and infirmities ren- 
dered his attention to the business uncertain, and finally almost 
the entire management fell upon the son. Out of the profits of 
his trade John Jacob Astor had purchased the site upon which 
his dwelling in Broadway was built, and in 1835 he built the Astor 
House on it, and transferred the whole property to his son. Soon 
afterward he gave him the residence in Lafayette place adjoining 
the Astor Library. 

' In 1848 John Jacob Astor died, at the age of eighty-three or 
eighty-four years, leaving an estate valued at upward of $20,000- 
000. 

The institution with which William B. Astor's name is popu- 
larly identified is the Astor Library. The original fund for found- 
ing it was $400,000, of which $100,000 was for the site, building t 
and purchase of books, and $180,000 was to be used from time to 
time to increase the library. The remainder was to constitute a 
reserve fund. Since the institution was founded upward of $900,000 

43 



674 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

has been expended on it, and William B. Astor, out of his private 
funds gave Mr. Cogswell, former librarian, an annuity of $5,000. 
The first gift was made in 1859, when the first building was fur- 
nished. Afterward Mr. Astor gave the trustees a site of 150 feet 
deep by eighty feet wide, upon which a second and better build- 
ing was erected. In 1866 he gave the library $50,000, of which 
$20,000 was invested in books. Among the original trustees of 
the library were William B. Astor, Washington Irving, Joseph C. 
Cogswell, and Fitz Greene Porter. 

Mr. Astor was a much more liberal man than was generally 
supposed, but he gave unostentatiously, and many of the charities 
benefited by his benefactions never knew the giver of the most 
liberal gifts. On one subscription list, in possession of Mr. Isaac 
H. Brown, appears the entry $250 from "the son of a Mason;" 
the giver was Mr. Astor, who was not a Mason himself, though his 
father had been an active member of the order. 

William B. Astor's eldest brother was a person of eccentricities, 
and could not be trusted alone. His tutor was appointed his 
guardian at a handsome salary and attended him wherever he 
went. He was often very violent in his dealings with those with 
whom he came in contact, and his quarrels with his guardian were 
frequent. He was secluded from society as far as possible, and 
was ior a long time confined in his house at Fourteenth street and 
Ninth avenue, and there died a few years ago. 

William B. Astor lived, for a long time, in Lafayette place, in a 
mansion adjoining the Astor Library. He owned 2,500 houses 
.and building lots in the city, and his total wealth was recently 
estimated at $150,000,000. 

Mr. Astor had more improved real estate than any four men in 
New York, excluding William Rhinelender, the Goelets, A. T. 
Stewart, and the Beekmans, Most ot the large tenement houses 
around Tompkins square and along First avenue and Avenues A 
and B belong to the Astor estate, as also do whole blocks in Sixth 
avenue, from Sixteenth street to Fortieth street. The old Bowery 
Theatre and the old Park Theatre were on his land. He was al- 
ways ready to buy real estate where he could get it cheap. It was 
his rule never to sell any of his houses or lots. He leased the most 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 675 

of his lots for twenty-one years, with the stipulation that the 
lessee should build on them. On the expiration of the leases the 
buildings reverted to him with the lots. 

None of William B. Astor's property was insured. He believed 
like Mr. Stewart that the cost of insurance would be greater than 
his losses. The terms of his father's will prohibited the building 
of brown-stone houses, as they were too extravagant. He strictly 
abided by this rule, aud the brown-stone houses that he owned 
he bought from others, as they reverted to him on the expiration 
of leases. The most of the residences that he built on Madison 
and Fifth avenues and Thirty-third and Thirty-fourth streets in 
recent years were of Nova Scotia free stone or brick with stone 
trimmings. Mr. Astor attended personally to the rental of his real 
estate, and was assisted by his sons and agents, Mr. Hallock and 
Mr. Bruce. His office was at 85 Prince street, and he went to the 
office every day up to 4 days before his death. He retired Mr! 
Bruce on a pension. In 1870 Mr. Astor paid two million dollars 
taxes on his houses and lots. 

Wm. B. Astor married Margret, daughter of Gen. Armstrong who 
filled many positions of honor, among those of Minister to 
France and Secretary of War. By her he had three sons, John 
Jacob, William and Henry, and two daughters, Mrs. Carey and 
Mrs. Delano. All these survived him. 

Mr. Astor never held a public office. His whole life was spent 
in the management of his fortune. 

Henry, the youngest son, inherited the estate of his uncle, 
John Jacob, six years ago. He married the daughter of a poor 
farmer in Barrytown, Duchess county, against the wishes of his 
relatives. Since his marriage he retired to a place near Hudson, 
and he rarely goes to the city, although the most ot his property 
is there. 

It has been the custom of the Astor family for three generations 
to deposit one hundred thousand dollars in bank at the birth of 
a son or daughter, the money and the interest to be given to the 
child when he or she became of age. 



676 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

The world has heard little of Mr. Astor ; he never mingled in 
politics nor connected himself with the public questions of the 
day. For a space of about thirteen years prior to 1873 he was 
engaged in extensive building operations, until at the expiration 
of that time nearly all of the property which had been purchased 
by him in an improved condition was built upon. His rent rolls 
were enormous. He became the great landlord of the great city, 
and was said eight years ago to own 720 houses. As a landlord 
he gained the reputation of a prompt, obliging business-like man, 
and his affairs were conducted in a little dingy office in Prince 
street, without either display or confusion He was faithful to 
his clerks as they were to him, and there were some who had spent 
long lives in the service of father and son. Mr. Astor also in- 
vested largely in the stock of several railroads, as the Harlem, 
New York Central, Pennsylvania, Delaware & Lackawanna and 
others, in various coal companies and in several insurance compa- 
nies. The good fortune which has seemed to attend the accumu- 
lation of this great property, besides the peculiar business tact, 
was seen in his withdrawal from several insurance companies 
shortly before the Chicago fire, thereby saving himself from con- 
siderable loss. But a short time before that fire he began 
to dispose of that kind of stock, and in one instance, at least,, 
sold his stock in a fire insurance company only one week before 
the great fire, thus escaping serious loss. 

Mr. Astor's business habits were fixed and regular. Every 
working day that he was in the city he called at his office in Prince 
street, and received the reports of his subordinates, and examined 
papers which required his signature. He was plain in his attire 
averse to show of all kinds, and of a retiring disposition. If a 
subscription paper was brought to him, he would request that 
other signatures be procured, and then bring it back to him to 
sign. He was careful not to give offence by speaking roughly to 
those with whom he was brought in contact. He was genial to 
those with whom he was intimate, but he did not encourage ad- 
vances from others. For many years past he has contributed to 
various charitable institutions in a quiet way, giving from $1,000 
to $5,000 each, but not desiring that the fact should be made 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



677 



public. The most noteworthy of his gifts was that of $50,000, 
made to aid St. Luke's Hospital, several years ago. He was a reg- 
ular attendant of Grace Church. 

Considering his advanced years, Mr. Astor was a man of great 
physical vigor, his mind clear, and his faculties unimpaired. He 
was the sole survivor of the children of John Jacob Astor. 




Cincinnati and Covington Suspension Bridge* 

View taken from the Covington Side of the River. 

DIUVEIE IfcTS I03STS: 



Main Span, 1057 feet. 

Length of Bridge, 2252 feet. 

Height from Low Water, 100 feet. 

Height of Towers, 230 feet. 

Towers, at base, 86 by 52. 

In the two cables are 10,360 wires. 



Diameter of the Cables, 12^ inches, 

ing one million pounds- 
Amount of Lumber, 500,000 feet. 
Strength of Bridge, 16,300 tons. 
Width of Bridge in the clear, 36 feet. 
Total cost, $1,750,000. 



weigh- 




COMMODORE VA^DEKBILT. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 679 



CORNELIUS VANDERBILT. 



>N a low, brown farm-house, on Staten Island, covered with 
moss, and embowered in vines and shrubbery, Cornelius 
Vanderbilt was born — and there in his island home, where 
the waves murmured soft lullabys, and the ebb and flow of the 
tide marked the hours of the day and night, he grew up a sturdy,, 
active boy, who seems, even in childhood, to have had a very good 
idea of the value of money, and a knack for making it. He was* 
fond of a boat and " took to the water as naturally as a duck 
does." At twelve years of age we find him entrusted with a man's 
work, in superintendence of the removal of freight from a lighter 
to the city. He was always anxious to be a sailor, but as his 
mother opposed his wishes, he was obliged to give it up for a 
while ; still his love for the water was so great that at last he carried 
the day, became the possessor of a boat, and worked steadily and 
faithfully. He formed no bad habits, contracted no vices, and 
laid up all his money. During the war of 1 812, the harbor de- 
fenses were fully manned and a large number of boats were con- 
stantly in port, and between these and the city a stream of 
passengers, givmg steady work to the young man, who profited by 
it to the best advantage. In 1814 our whole eastern sea coast 
was guarded against an attack from England, the militia was called 
out, and forced, under heavy penalty, to serve ; and about the same 
time the commissary called for bids from the seamen to convey 
military stores to the different ports — six in number — where sol- 
diers were stationed. The contractor was to be exempt from mil- 
itary duty. Of course every seaman in the port sent in a bid,, 
most of them at the most absurd prices, not intended, or expected 
to cover the expenses, but simply to exempt them from duty. 
Vanderbilt did not at once send in a bid, but at last, to satisfy his 
father, made an estimate which would give him a moderate profit, 
and sent it in, and to his surprise it was accepted. The work was 



68o FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

done to the entire satisfaction of the commissioners, and Vander- 
bilt made enough money to build the schooner " Dred," the dain- 
tiest little thing that ever shot over the blue waters. 

In i8i8he turned his attention to steamboat navigation, which 
now seemed to be establishing itself beyond doubt or question, 
and when satisfied that it must supercede everything on the water, 
he gave up his now flourishing business and took the position of 
captain on' a steamer owned by Captain Gibbons. His friends 
were astonished at this movement, but he looked more to the fu- 
ture than the present, and moved on in opposition to their views. 
He had charge of the steamers through all those long, vexatious 
troubles between the courts and the steamboat proprietors, and 
for seven years was harrassed, annoyed and impeded in every 
way. The State of New York had granted to Fulton and Living- 
ston the sole right to navigate the waters of New York, and Mr. 
Gibbons, being of opinion that the grant was unconstitutional, 
determined to run his line in defiance of it, or until it was proven, 
at least. The supreme court at last decided that point, leaving 
every channel of navigation open to all. In 1827 Mr. Vander- 
bilt left the service of Mr. Gibbons, and built his first steamer, 
the " Caroline," and after the opposition which the comparatively 
young and poor meet in competing with the rich and strong, he 
established his line safely and firmly, and made his way gradually 
in the business until he stood at the head of steamboat interests 
in the United States. He has, perhaps, controlled more money in 
that way than any other man. Even those who had been estab- 
lished for years in the business, dreaded the young giant whose 
energy and determination rendered him almost invincible. It is 
related of Mr. Collins, that when his ocean steamer, the " Arctic," 
was lost, he asked to be allowed to run his magnificent " North 
Star " in its place, until such time as Mr. Collins could replace his 
own, and was not only refused, but his offer was declined in terms 
so insulting that Mr. Vanderbilt declared to him that he would 
run his line off the ocean if it took all the years of his life and 
every farthing of his fortune, and he kept his word ; still, as to 
whether his course was the most honorable or not, we do not pre 
sume to judge. He at once applied to the government to give him 
the mail to carry, pledging himself to carry it quicker and more 
regularly than it had ever been done before, without one cent of 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 68l 

subsidy. The offer was accepted, and Collins' magnificent line 
went to ruin and its owner into bankruptcy. There is no doubt 
but this might have been avoided by a wise liberality on Mr. Col- 
lins* part, or even by the outstretching of a kind hand to one who 
had had so much to contend with and struggle against. 

At the time of the rebellion Commodore Vanderbilt was one of 
the stanchest defenders and supporters of the government ; as 
unselfish as patriotic, as honest as fearless. When the navy de- 
partment was in need of gunboats, he equipped his magnificent 
steamer, the "Vanderbilt," and offered it to them at very low 
terms ; but learning that an enormous per cent, of the purchase 
money would have to go into the hands of the " sharks," who 
stood between himself and the government, he withdrew his offer, 
saying his boat was not for sale, and, making a thorough investi- 
gation to know that it was in perfect 1 order, presented it to the 
government. It was a noble, generous thing, and can not be 
forgotten. 

On Wall street Mr. Vanderbilt is one of " the powers that be," 
and though not quite so demonstrative or blustering as some of 
New York's money kings, his word is law in many departments of 
commerce ; and his judgment is unsurpassed. He is a regular 
attendant at Dr. Hutton's Church, on Washington Square, and a 
warm personal friend of the pastor. In his domestic life sorrow 
has come to him, as it comes to every one, and the shadow of the 
messenger of death has darkened his hearthstone as remorselessly 
and mercilessly as that of the humblest cottage in the land. One 
noble boy died during the late war — died as did those who had 
dedicated their lives to the preservation of the Union. His wife, 
the loving and patient sharer of his years of toil, and of the suc- 
cess that rewarded them, was taken from him two years ago. Re- 
cently he has married again. Mr. Vanderbilt is considered one 
of the handsomest men of his age in New York ; and is a living 
illustration of the truth of the saying of the wise man, " The hand 
of the diligent maketh rich." He died January 4th, 1877. His 
estate was estimated at $100,000,000. 



682 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



ALEXANDER T. STEWART. 




>0 name is more familiar to the American public than that 
of A. T. Stewart, and none shine brighter in the 
galaxy of self-made men, — those who by patient, tire- 
less, persevering industry, and unimpeachable honesty, have won 
mammoth fortunes. He was born in Belfast, Ireland, in 1802, 
and was educated by his grandfather, his own parents having 
died while he was an infant. The intention was to fit him for the 
church, but his grandfather dying while he was only in his sec- 
ond year, the idea was abandoned, and he embarked for the New 
World. Fortunately he was not compelled to come destitute to 
America, as do so many of his countrymen, but with a sum of 
money which was sufficient to meet his wants. For some time he 
tried in vain to obtain work, and at last accepted a position as 
assistant in a small commercial school, but not liking the work, 
for which he had neither taste nor adaptation, he opened a dry 
goods store in New York. Of course, his first effort was made 
in a very small way ; but he was patient almost to humility, and 
knew it would be uphill work to establish himself in a city where 
rich and prosperous merchants already held the ground. He had 
no special business capacity, no extraordinary talents, nothing 
peculiar about him, but his extreme youth ; for he was only twenty- 
years old. On reaching his majority he received a small inherit- 
ance, amounting to about one thousand pounds, with which he 
extended his business. He worked unremittingly ; he filled ever) 
office, from porter to proprietor ; he gave every moment and every 
thought to business. His goods were almost always bought a\ 
auction, small, cheap lots of everything, and pressed, dressed, and 
sorted over by himself and his wife after business hours, then sold 
lower than at first or even third rate houses, yet at a fair profit 
to himself. Unswerving honesty was his constant rule, both in 
buying and selling goods — he gave no advantage consciously — he- 
would take none. Another rule was, one price, from which there 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 683 

was no demur and no deviation. His law was as unchangeable as 
were those of the Medes and Persians. 

On one occasion while still struggling to gain a foothold on the 
road that leads to success, he was, for the first time in his mercan- 
tile life, without the means to meet a note that was near maturity. 
He had no credit ; if he would he could not borrow the money ; 
times were very hard, the market dull, and money scarce. To fail 
to meet it would be ruin, and once down how could he ever rise 
again ? He cast about for ways and means, and soon hit upon 
the plan of offering his goods at a price but little, if any, in ad- 
vance of cost ; and with this in view he had hundreds of large 
posters printed and scattered the length and breadth of the city. 
This course had the desired effect ; throngs filled his little 
store, and long before the note was due, almost every dollar's 
worth of goods was disposed of, and the money was in his pock- 
et. He " lifted " his note, and had enough money left to buy a 
new stock. From the small, old-fashioned store he had occupied 
he was obliged to remove to a larger and more fashionable one on 
Broadway, and his stock of goods was increased in quantity and 
quality to suit the stylish and elegant people who were his custom- 
ers. It is said that he noticed how apt the ladies were to trifle 
and chat with the clerks, and that they invariably purchased more 
goods of the handsome, than of the plain ones ; accordingly he 
filled his store with the finest looking young men that he could 
find, and from the first the plan was successful, his trade- was 
immensely advanced. When the war broke out, he sent a com- 
pany who were known all over the States as " Stewart's lily fin- 
gered regiment," but they were brave boys, and never flinched or 
swerved from meeting either hardship, privation or suffering. In 
the great crisis of 1837, many a stanch barque, that had breasted 
storm and disaster, went down, but Stewart was fully established, 
both in business and reputation, and profiting by the necessities of 
those who must sell at any loss, to save themselves at all, he bought 
largely of confiscated goods, that at the very lowest prices, and 
selling at low figures, still made a handsome profit for himself. 

For some time before the war broke out, he saw the trouble in 
the distance, and saw, too, what the probable ending must be, and 
accordingly began to enter into contract with many of the lead- 
ing manufacturers of the north and east, for such goods as must 



684 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

necessarily be in great demand for the army. When at last the 
storm did break, the government found that Stewart had monopo- 
lized and controlled nearly all the blankets, flannels, woolen goods, 
&c, which had been or could be manufactured for some time to 
come, and that it was with him they must treat. It is said that he 
never took advantage of this, but that his dealings with the gov- 
ernment were uniformly fair and just, — even more, that they were 
exceedingly liberal. 

Upon General Grant's election to the Presidency, it was his 
wish that Mr. Stewart, who was a warm personal friend of his, 
should become one of his cabinet, and he was nominated to the 
position of Secretary of the Treasury ; but when he was about to 
enter upon the duties of his office, some person, who doubtless 
wished the office either for himself or a friend, brought forward 
an old, but not obsolete law, forbidding a merchant from becom- 
ing the head of the treasury department. There is no question 
but that Mr. Stewart, although no politician, earnestly desired the 
position, and was willing to make any sacrifice to obtain it, for he 
immediately proposed to give up his immense interest in the busi- 
ness, and to devote the entire profits for the period of his official 
term to the poor of New York. We do not believe so magnificent 
an offer was ever made before or since, or that history will ever 
record another such, unless indeed it be the princely Stewart who 
repeats it. We have always felt that the country was an immense 
loser by the administration's tame acceptance of this state of 
affairs, and, had Grant shown at the time the spirit which he Was 
then supposed to have, millions might have been saved to the 
nation, for there is little doubt but A. T. Stewart is one of the 
wisest financiers in America. 

Other great men we have, — other self-made millionaires — 
other men, hosts of them too, — who laid with their own hands 
the stepping stones on which they crossed the slough of poverty 
— more frightful than Bunyon's "slough of despond," — and made 
their way, unaided even by kind or cheering words from friend or 
brother man, up the hill to the summit of prosperity ; but while 
we give credit to whom credit is due, and reverence with something 
that is akin to adoration, this strong reliance in self — this unbend- 
ing will, this fixed purpose and determination to succeed, which 
will bring a man off more than conqueror, even though fate itself 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 685, 

seems in league against him — which we recognize and pay 
homage to whenever met ; yet for this high qualitity, Stewart 
leads off most gloriously. There may be dozens of Astors and 
Rothschilds, but there is only one Stewart. His palaces are the 
admiration of the world, and to visit New York without going; 
through his establishment would be to miss one of the grandest 
sights. We cannot afford to go into detail, it would be tiresome 
to you and require too much space, but a few items will give you 
some idea of the extent of his business. 

There are twenty-two hundred persons regularly employed in 
the different departments of his store on the corner of Tenth 
Street and Broadway, and the cash receipts range from sixty 
to eighty-five thousand dollars per day. His duties on imported 
goods are thirty thousand dollars per day, in gold, and he is un- 
questionably the heaviest importer in the world ; for his busi- 
ness is as steadily increasing now as it was ten years ago, leaving 
the bewildered looker-on to wonder what it will be, or where it 
will end? In the personal appearance of Mr. Stewart, there is 
nothing remarkable. He is of medium hight, rather slender, 
with brown hair and beard, regular features, a rather stern, 
thoughtful face ; his manners are cold, reserved, but not. 
harsh or repellant. We look upon his life, so far as we are ac- 
quainted with it, both public and private, as one of the finest 
models that can be held up to the young men of our land. No 
under-handed trickery has soiled its pages ; no selfish or unprin- 
cipled speculations have blotted a line ; no mean treachery or 
chicanery has left upon its margin finger-marks which can not be 
erased. 

Mr. Stewart pays about $120,000 in taxes on his real estate in 
New York city. His wholesale store is assessed at $1,150,000 and 
taxed $32,200; his retail store assessed at $850,000 pays $23,800,, 
and he pays $16,800 on his house on Fifth avenue, which is as- 
sessed at $600,000. 

He died April 10th, 1876, in the 74th year of his age. 




DANIEL DREW. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. i 687 



DANIEL DREW. 



J/jS^HE name of this king of enterprise is as familiar to the 




v(p public as that of any man who has figured before us for 
many years. His success in life, and the immense for- 
tune which he has amassed, are owing entirely to the energy with 
which he has applied himself to anything he undertakes and his 
good common sense and excellent judgment. 

In early life he was a farmer boy ; later he kept the famous 
Bull's Head Tavern, which was a favorite resort of the butchers 
and drovers doing business in the city. He formed a partnership 
with two of these drovers, and bought up cattle, which were 
driven to the city for sale. The ventures were small, the 
profits were large, and business was extended and increased as 
fast as the means of the company would permit. He con- 
tinued in this business fourteen years and managed, by close at- 
tention to his own interests, and by the practice of great economy, 
to lay up quite a snug little property. In 1834 the steamer " Gene- 
ral Jackson," owned by Jacob Vanderbilt, was blown up at Grassy 
Point, and a friend of Mr. Drew's at once put another on the 
river in its place. Mr. Drew loaned the means necessary to put 
this enterprise through, and finally became owner of the boat. 
Commodore Vanderbilt was already King of the river, and resented 
this encroachment on what he was pleased to style " his premises "; 
and, putting a new boat in the place of the old one, prepared him- 
self for the "tug of war." Both were men of mettle; both stood 
their ground ; both resolved that they would carry it to the bitter 
end, let it cost what it would. The consequences were, that both 
lost heavily, but two lines were established instead of one. 
In 1836 Mr. Drew, now of the firm of Drew, Kelly & Richards, 
replaced the " Water Witch," their first boat, by a fine steamer 
called the " Westchester," and they also bought the " Bright 
Emerald " and the " Rochester," paying the sum of seventy-five 
thousand dollars for the two ; then, reducing the fare to ridi- 



688 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

culously low figures, ran a strong opposition to the Hudson River 
Line. This company has bought and built some of the most 
magnificent and costly steamers which have ever floated on any 
waters in the world. The " Dean Richmond " and the " Drew " 
cost over seven hundred thousand dollars apiece, and though 
everybody looked wise and shook their heads and prophesied 
ruin for them, they went on in the even tenor of their way ; and 
by good management and fair dealing, not only kept their 
heads above water, but made money, and actually bought out the 
Hudson River line, which had opposed them so strongly at first. 
In 1847 Mr. Drew formed a partnership with George Law and 
established a line between Stonington and New York. In 1852 
the Hudson River railroad was completed and the greatest con- 
sternation was felt among steamboat men, as all declared it must 
inevitably ruin the water trade, that it was folly to attempt to 
compete with land travel. Mr. Drew believed to the contrary. 
Of course it would be necessary to reduce the fare and freight and 
thus offer extra inducements ; but his business was immense, and if 
necessary, he knew he could afford to divide it with the R. R. Co. 
The necessity now came. The River line had all it could possi- 
bly do, while the railroad could scarcely push on its freight fast 
enough, and was obliged constantly to increase its facilities for 
carrying passengers, to accommodate the extensive travel. In 
1836 Mr. Drew commenced operations on Wall street, by opening 
the well-known banking house of Drew, Robinson & Co., and his 
success here, as elsewhere, was marked. In 1854 he bought up a 
large amount of Erie railroad stock, and in 1855 indorsed the ac- 
ceptance of the same road for five hundred thousand dollars. 
The world was atonished, and men almost refused to credit the 
assurance, given officially, 'that he could double it without any 
inconvenience to himself. In two years more, he backed the 
assurance by taking acceptances to the amount of a million and 
a half of dollars. Mr. Drew was then elected director of the 
road, and a little later, treasurer. The Erie road became one of 
the heaviest corporations in the world — indeed it seemed at one 
time too strong to be a safe power, and threatened to monopolize 
all railroad interests. The injunctions issued by the New York 
courts to prevent them from issuing more stock must be still in 
every mind ; also the fact that the Legislature overruled it, and 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 689 

that compromises were effected between Mr. Vanderbilt, who re- 
presented the New York Central, and Mr. Drew, who represented 
the Erie road. 

From Mr. Drew's first speculation on the river to his last on 
the railroad, he has met Mr. Vanderbilt everywhere. For nearly 
twenty years their business relations have brought them face to 
face, again and again, in opposing interests. Often their inte- 
rests have united, as in the Harlem road, and though at times 
the feeling of competition may have been carried high and far, no 
personal bitterness has resulted from it, which is saying much for 
both. Mr. Drew has been a member of the Methodist Church 
since 1811 ; and has ever been ready to help, not only his own, 
but every religious denomination, with his money or his influence. 
The elegant church on the corner of Twenty-second Street and 
Fourth Avenue, New York, was built almost, if not entirely by 
him. He endowed the Wesleyan University largely, and the 
Drew Theological Seminary with several hundred thousand dol- 
lars. He is one of those rare men, especially rare amongst our 
great capitalists, who hold their money as a stewardship, for which 
they must give account. His private charities amount to more 
than a hundred thousand dollars annually,and his public donations 
and charities are very large. His property is estimated at over 
twenty millions of dollars. His success has been very marked, 
his course has been fair and honest, and his reputation stands high 
in the community. 

Disaster overtook him in the winter of 1875, and he became a 
bankrupt. 



ROTHSCHILD. 




>ATHAN MAYER ROTHSCHILD, the richest man in 
Europe, was the third of five sons of Mayer Anselna 
Rothschild, who founded, the first of the present century, 
the house which bears their name, and which, for a hundred years, 
44 



690 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



has controlled the financial operations of Europe, thus of the 
world, in a great measure. Nathan went to England in 1800, and 
in addition to the immense fortune left him by his father, had 
large sums placed under his control by the Geneva princes, for 
whom he was at once banker and financier. Honest and upright 
in all his dealings, faithful to the interests of those who trusted 
him, just, to the utmost farthing, and always successful in his 
enterprises, his wealth rapidly accumulated. Having the co- 
operation of his brothers, who were established in different cities of 
Europe, and the funds of almost every heavy capitalist, nothing 
was too great for him to undertake, and amongst his debtors 
were almost every government on the continent. Notwithstand- 
ing this, he had the excellent faculty of steering clear of bad in- 
vestments, and there was literally a rivalry as to which of the 
States should be most in his favor. His transactions in gold and 
in foreign securities seemed boundless, and if the coffers of 
Rothschild were locked, the world begged for bullion in vain, until 
he chose to give it ; and again and again in the treasure vaults of 
Rothschild was the philosopher's stone of Europe. It has long 
been the custom and pride of the family that none of their for- 
tune shall go out of it by marriage, and from one branch to 
another, then back, flows the golden stream of marriage settle- 
ments. M. Rothschild had gone to Frankfort for the purpose of 
attending the wedding of his eldest niece, the daughter of his 
brother Anselm, when he was taken ill and died suddenly, on the 
3th of August, 1836. 
The Rothschilds are said to be worth $3,400,000,000. 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 69 1 



BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 




w?HE life of Benjamin Franklin is so familiar to every school- 
boy in the land, and " Poor Richard's " sayings have so 
long dropped like golden grains of wisdom from the lips 
of prophet and sage, as to have indeed passed into proverbs. 

From childhood he was quiet and studious, evincing and ex- 
pressing a perfect contempt for the business of chandler and soap 
ooiler, which his father carried on quite extensively. The boy 
loved but one thing on earth thoroughly, and that was a book. 
His father had the good sense to see the great advantage which 
an education would be to his son, and not having the means to 
gratify him, sent him to his brother, to learn the printing business, 
and he was apprenticed in due time and form. He showed con- 
siderable literary and poetical talent, and wrote a number of arti- 
cles which received high compliments from the " literati " of the 
time. His brother James was a man of the most overbearing and 
tyrannical nature, and also exceedingly harsh and jealous, suspi- 
cious alike of stranger and kinsman, and their relations were by 
no means of the most agreeable sort. Long before his time of 
service had expired he broke his bonds in a most unceremonious 
manner and ran away. He made some effort to get work in Bos- 
ton, but failing in this, went to New York. Now began, for the first 
time, the actual battles of life — those battles which he had so 
longed to go out and engage in, but like many another impetuous 
young soldier, he found that " distance lends enchantment to the 
view," and lends a great deal to it, too. In New York, as in Boston, 
he could get no work, and was referred to Philadelphia as the 
place where he was most likely to find it. His first visit to the 
city of Brotherly Love — his scant financial resources — even the 
story of the baker's rolls, and the picture of the pretty girl who 
stood in a door and laughed at the odd figure he made, as he 
lunched from the end of a roll ; and how in after years, when he 




Benjamin Franklin. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 693 

had won for himself fortune and fame, she became his wife, — is as 
well known as is the story of his whistle. 

The first public office which he ever held was that of clerk to 
the General Assembly of Pennsylvania. Upon the expiration of 
his term he was re-elected, and served with great acceptance to 
the people. 

Franklin pays the highest tribute to the eloquence of Whitfield, 
the celebrated English preacher, that we remember. The church 
in which he labored was very poor, and very sadly in want of a 
better edifice in which to worship, and from the ease with which 
he raised the desired fund, together with the enthusiasm that was 
mingled with the admiration that was felt for him, Franklin, in a 
spirit of envy or jealousy very much at variance with his usually 
generous nature, conceived a strong dislike for him. On leaving 
Philadelphia Mr. Whitfield went to Georgia, doing missionary 
work for the colonies, whom he found in a dreadfully destitute 
and suffering condition. Returning to Philadelphia, he told, in 
the most eloquent and touching manner, of the sad sights he had 
seen, and appealed to the North for aid. Franklin declares that 
he did not approve of this, though he does not tell why. On one 
occasion he says he listened to him, and perceiving that the ser- 
vice would end with a collection, resolved that he would get 
nothing from him. With this idea he put his hand into his pockets 
to see what they contained, and found there a quantity of cop- 
pers, some silver dollars, and five gold pieces. As the minister 
proceeded, he thought he would give some of the coppers. More 
earnestly the man of God preached of that religion which without 
charity is but " as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal "; and 
Franklin concluded to give the silver. Another clever stroke — 
another grand burst of his inimitable oratory — and Franklin's heart 
warmed and softened toward one whose eloquence was almost di- 
vine, and who spoke as man rarely spoke before ; and when the 
contribution was asked, he gave every farthing he had with him, 
and regretted that he had no more to give. 

When the difficulties arose between the mother country and the 
colonies, Franklin proved himself a most wise and judicious, as 
well as favorite mediator between them, and he endeavored faith- 
fully to act as peace-maker ; but when the oppression became too 
sore to be borne by our freeborn men, and they threw off the 



694 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

yoke of British thraldom that they so hated, he was a firm and 
consistent friend of the feeble government. 

Franklin was always remarkable for love of Natural philosophy* 
and to his experiments we trace back the electric current, from 
our own magically acting and perfect system of telegraphy. 

He filled various political offices, always to the entire satisfac- 
tion of the country, and it was in a very large measure owing to 
his delicate skill that the French government recognized and sym- 
pathized with the struggling colonies. His long and useful life 
was closed on the 17th of April, 1790, and the country mourned 
as if it had but one heart, for every living being had in him a per- 
sonal friend, and fully acknowledged the debt they owed him. 



ISAAC NEWTON. 




SSSj^HIS celebrated philosopher was born at Woolsthrope, near 
Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, England, December, 161 2. 
The small estate had been in the family for more than a 
hundred years. His father died before the birth of his child, and 
his mother married again when he was two years old ; his step- 
father living only a few years, Isaac was recalled from school 
and assisted in the management of the farm, but having a deal 
more taste for water-wheels, models and dials, the farm went into 
neglect, and the boy was sent back to school in disgrace. In due 
time he went to Trinity College, and here he took his degree of 
A. B., and afterwards of A. M. 

In 1665 he committed to paper his first idea on fluxions. In 
1666 he discovered the unequal refrangibility ©f light, and the true 
doctrine of color, but was now driven from Cambridge by the 
plague, and while resting weary brain and body at Woolsthrope* 
lying under the shade of the spreading branches of orchard trees 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 695 

that were older than himself, he formed his first ideas of gravita- 
tion from seeing an apple fall from its stem to the ground. In 
1669 Newton was appointed Professor of Mathematics in place of 
Dr. Barrows, at Cambridge, and from this time his most important 
discoveries date. In this year he gave much attention to the tele- 
scope, and in 1672 he announced to the Royal Society a discovery 
made in the operations of nature, one of the most important ever 
made. This was the discovery of the composition of light. A 
paper prepared by him on this subject was read before that Soci- 
ety, and at once attracted the attention of scholars, but unfortu- 
nately at the same time drew him into endless and bitter 
controversies with Hook, Hoygens and several foreign savants. 
With so much spirit and sharpness, not unmixed with malice, was 
this carried on, that Newton withdrew from it in disgust, and 
resolved to turn the cold shoulder to Philosophy, and steel his 
heart against her fascination. But the man was born to study 
mysteries — study was as much a part of his life as was breathing, 
and unconsciously he delved deeper and deeper, giving to the 
world treasures of truth and knowledge, and in return, such time 
as he was an hungered and asked for bread, she gave him a stone. 
He met the reward of genius, but like many another who spurned 
the pittance which his labor earned, whether it was gold, or the 
still more precious appreciation that the heart craves, the earnest 
" well done," which repays for every effort, he toiled on from love 
of his work. 

He had long ago drawn the conclusion, partly from the writings 
of Kepler, partly from observation, that gravity decreases with 
the square of the distance, but no demonstration had been given, 
and no proof obtained that the power of attraction which drew 
the ripened apple to the earth, was the same power which held the 
moon and stars in their orbit Newton worked and puzzled over 
this in the dark. Every test and measurement left the proof just 
short of certainty, which to him was worse than actual failure. In 
1682 he heard of Picard's measurement of the earth, and taking 
this plan and using it in connection with his own, found that the 
force of gravity four thousand miles from the earth's center, when 
diminished by the square of 240,000 miles, the moon's distance, 
was exactly equal to that which kept the moon in her orbit. New- 
ton has been accused of plagiarism in presenting his first ideas on 



6g6 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

fluxion as his own. It is claimed for Leibnitz, that he had already 
invented them before Newton published his method. His first 
article on the subject was written May 20, 1665, and the subject 
appears never to have left his mind until he made his first small 
telescope, which he completed and explained to a friend in 1668. 
If Leibnitz had discovered all this before, neither Newton nor the 
world were wiser for it at that date, as he had never imparted the 
knowledge. 

When Newtoc was fifty years of age, it is said that he was the 
pride of England, and was then appointed warden of the mint, 
and soon after to the mastership. The honor of knighthood was 
conferred on him by Queen Anne, and when George I. ascended 
the throne he was a great favorite at court, where his piety and 
character had given him an enviable reputation, and the patron- 
age of the Princess of Wales, and by her, unwittingly, Sir Isaac 
was brought into disgrace through the publication of MSS. given 
her by himself, and claimed by Leibnitz as embodying only dis- 
coveries made by himself prior to Newton's, but the scientific were 
satisfied that this was incorrect. 

He died March 20, 1729, in the eighty-fifth year of his age- 
His most important works are his " Principia," " Arithmetic Uni- 
Tersalis," " Geometrica Analytica," " Treatise on Optics," and 
" Sections Opticae," though he published a large number of valua- 
ble works upon scientific subjects. 



SOCRATES. 




^OCRATES was born at Athens, in the year 469 B. C. His 
jfjf^j) parents were of no rank or authority in the Athenian 
world ; Socrates was not gifted with any of those personal 
distinctions which then were allowed to take the place of heredi- 
tary title or position. A face the very reverse of beautiful, untidy 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 697 

dress, often unsandaled feet, were the characteristics of the man 
from whose lips fell gems of rarest wisdom, and whose lips never 
•jspoke but in favor of virtue, truth and honor. As a son, he was 
dutiful and obedient to the parental law ; as a citizen, he was 
rigidly observant of the law of his country ; as a moralist, 
though a heathen, he was faultless in the performance of every 
duty ; looking through the sacrifice, the fasting, the observance of 
ceremony which constituted the worship of the gods of his people, 
to the " Unknown God," whose existence, though untaught at that 
day, yet was felt. There was a consciousness in his life which was 
neither known nor, understood by his countrymen. It is said of 
him that he was the most just, the most exalted, the completest 
type of humanity to which classic antiquity with its wonderful 
creations, ever gave birth — the nearest of all who preceded to a 
Being we name not here — who, without ambition, or pretence, or 
external advantage, but through the simple force of moral and in- 
tellectual greatness, took unrelaxing hold at once of the heart 
and mind of the ancient world. No tyranny of custom ever 
subjected Socrates; no passing years set the seal of age on his 
heart and mind ; no richness and fullness of wisdom clogged the 
intellect ; no experience of sorrow and adversity chilled his affec- 
tions. In every passing moment of his life was a solemn meaning 
few ever comprehend. He could not conceal from himself, or 
from the world, that he had gone deeper than sense, that he looked 
beyond the range of ordinary vision; that the voices whose 
whisperings made melody in his soul came from a realm beyond 
our own. As a teacher of the young his constant care was to im- 
press upon their minds that they were not to acquire knowledge 
for the sake of use, but possession ; not for the sake of display, 
but enjoyment ; not for the sake of the world's appreciation, but 
for their own gratification, — to acquire strength, and symmetry, 
and grace, and richness and beauty of intellect, and all the " use " 
-would follow ; to prepare to act well a part, and the " part " would 
be found. Said he, " Does the oak of a century's growth send out 
its broad branches that it may cast a shadow ? On the contrary, 
it grows and spreads through the strength of its inner life, and 
the tribes and nations are sheltered beneath its grateful covert." 
Yet this man was condemned to die by his own countrymen — con- 
demned by the Athenians, whom he had sought only to benefit. 



698 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

No wonder the world asks, in painful surprise, " What had he done 
that he must die ?" Even Athens did not know, but looking back 
we answer : he taught virtue when vice reigned ; he taught purity 
when corruption was practiced ; he taught morality when degra- 
dation existed ; he taught honor when treachery abounded ; he 
taught morality where idolatry prevailed ; he turned from the 
gods who, having eyes see not, having ears hear not, and piercing 
the veil of ignorance and darkness in which the world was en- 
veloped as in a garment, worshiped the true and living Au- 
thor of the created universe, recognizing Him, untaught, yet fail- 
ing to convey the Divine impression to duller minds and con- 
sciences that were deadened by sin. Glorious was his noble life ; 
glorious was his noble death; and when in his last hours his 
afflicted friends gathered around him, he taught them again the 
lesson so oft repeated, of duty, of resignation, of superiority to 
the incidents of existence, of immortality, of a life that no human 
tribunal can end at will or pleasure. Plato, weeping in heart- 
broken sorrow for his friend and teacher, cried, " The last of 
our friend, the best of all men of this time — the wisest and the 
most just of all men !" The eloquent Henry Millman said of him, 
•* Jesus Christ died like a God, but Socrates died like a philoso- 
pher." 



PLATO. 




'EARLY five centuries Before Christ, lived Plato, styled by 
the ancients, whose love and reverence for him amounted to 
something akin to worship, " the Divine." His philosophy 
was wholly speculative, and in his school he is what Shakspeare is 
in Drama, or Milton in Poetry — not only unapproached, but unap- 
proachable, — and he stands out from the philosophers of that age— 
of every age, — with the clear cut distinctness with which a leafless 




THE ASTRONOMICAL CLOCK LN" THE CATHEDRAL 

OF STRASBURG. 



7O0 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

tree lies against the horizon, or a black cloud is outlined against the 
sunset sky. We said his philosophy was speculative, but it com- 
bined reality with ideality in a manner that confounds the philoso- 
phy of modern teachers. He taught much of truth unconsciously, 
and like one who prophesies in a trance, he grasped by a process 
of reasoning unknown to the mass of thinkers the underlying facts 
of our being. His imagination was one of the strongest, if not 
the strongest faculty of his mind, but it did not run to vagueries, 
or to wild, fantastic freaks, but rather pictured with the purest 
tints that which should be, instead of that which is possible to finite 
powers. Standing as that age did, in spiritual darkness, given 
over to the most brutal self-indulgence, and to a very riot of sen- 
sualism, Plato yet taught a mastery of self that was sublime, and 
a clearer sense of an Omnipotent Being than even he fully com- 
prehended; and he was far ahead of Socrates, who was his 
teacher, but not his leader, since the pupil was superior even 
to his grand old master. Panaetius called him the Homer of phil- 
losophers, and declared that he would rather err with Plato than 
be right with any other. 

He thrice visited Sicily, and in that court where vice and folly 
reigned supreme, the grave wisdom, the untarnished honor, the 
childlike simplicity and rigid virtue of the old philosopher must 
have seemed to Dionysius as refreshing as the shade of palm trees 
to the desert traveler. At the invitation of the younger Diony- 
sius, he was his guest upon the occasion of his third visit to Sicily, 
and unfortunately offending the elder, was by his order arrested 
and imprisoned. Released by the kind intercession of Aniceris, 
of Cyrene, he returned to Athens, retired to private life, re- 
established his Academy, and could never be induced again to 
leave it. He died in his 79th year, 348 B. C. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



701 



NICOLAS COPERNICUS. 




COPERNICUS, who restored the system of astronomy 
ft taught by Pythagoras, was born at Thorn, in Prussia. He 
took the degree of M. D. with a view to practicing medi- 
cine, as his father had done before him, but in consequence of 
attending a course of mathematical lectures, became much inter- 
ested in astronomy, and gave a large share of his time to the study 
of the science. Believing in the annual motion of the world, and 
desirous of proving it, he constructed a large quadrant. His 
observations and views were written by himself, and explained to 
a few friends, but so far were they at variance with the accepted 
science that he felt the hopelessness of trying to introduce them, 
and dreaded the ridicule that would be lavished upon a system 
that would be pronounced absurd. He preferred to introduce it 
gradually, and trusted time to prepare the world to receive one 
truth after another. 

George Rheticus, professor of mathematics, resigned his chair 
at Wittemberg, to study astronomy with him, and they planned 
together how best they might present the matter to the world in 
such a manner as not to shock beyond endurance its religious 
feelings, for it was very sensitive indeed ; and the same theory 
taught by Galileo one hundred years later, was pronounced rank 
heresy. 

In 1540 Rheticus, whose affection, veneration and admiration 
of his teacher and friend seem to have been almost boundless, 
desirous not only to publish the truth, but, so soon as safe to 
do so, see Copernicus reaping the honors which were due him, 
published, without the author's name, an account of his discoveries, 
and these being received favorably, or at least without alarmingly 
unfavorable symptoms, he published another and fuller account, 
with his name. 



702 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

But as in other — as in most cases, — he was not to wear the lau- 
rels he had earned ; and it was more than a century before the 
seed he sowed bore fruit that ripened in a more genial age than 
his. When the ftrst printed volume of his book was brought to 
him the philosopher lay dying. The day and his life were eb- 
bing together. The sun, whose rising and setting he had so often 
studied, was sinking in the west; and he was not to see 
its light on the morrow's dawn. His friend came from the 
publisher with the first printed book, and placed it in his hand ; 
he raised it before him again and again, till the eyes grew dim 
as the twilight gathered, the twilight of the night and the twilight 
of death, but a smile lighted his face as evening's first star lit up 
the west, and he murmured : 

Ye golden lamps of heaven, farewell, with all your feeble light ! 
Farewell, thou ever changing moon, pale empress of the night. 
Ye stars are but the shining dust of my divine abode, 
The pavement of those heavenly courts where I shall reign with God. 

His death occurred May 22, 1543. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 703 



RAPHAEL. 




(JpffiANTI RAPHAEL was born at Urbino, Italy, April 6th, 
1483. His father gave him his first instructions in art, and 
he afterwards studied with Pietro Perugino. His first en- 
gagement was the fresco on Sala del Cambo. In 1505 Raphael 
removed to Florence, and remained there, with the exception of 
brief absences. Florence was at that time far superior to Rome 
in the facilities which it afforded the student to study, not only 
from the finest masters, but to study the masterpieces of all ages^ 
The cartoons of Michael Angelo and Leonardo da Vinci, then 
in preparation for the Council Hall, were in themselves superior 
to any other works in Rome. Raphael was invited to Rome by 
Julius II., and was already established temporarily there when 
Michael Angelo paid the city his third visit. The rivalry between 
the two artists was very beneficial to both. It was under the 
stimulus of this rivalry that he painted the fresco of the dwelling- 
rooms of the Vatican, representing the " Dispute on the Sacra- 
ment." In the same rooms are the frescoes of "Poetry," " Phi- 
losophy," " The School of Athens," and "Jurisprudence.' His 
finest fresco, both for grandeur of conception and superior execu- 
tion, is the " Mass of Bolsena," finished, as also was the " Attila," 
and " St. Peter delivered from Prison," in 15 14. Between the 
years 1512-20 Raphael painted " St. Cecilia," " Madonna de San 
Sisto," " The Spasimo," and the cartoons at Hampton Court. His 
last work, the " Transfiguration," is called the best of all his 
paintings. If his genius had been prophetic, and foreseen that 
in this last and purest gem his mighty talents must make for them- 
selves a memorial of their greatness, he could not have better 
accomplished the work, though his " Madonna di San Sisto " is, 
perhaps, equally celebrated. Raphael had never an equal for the 
purity, beauty and grandeur of his conceptions. In this he stood 
alone during his life — in this his works still stand alone, marking 



7°4 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

him far above the mass of those who blended colors more har- 
moniously, or spread them with lighter tones. Raphael died 
young — just thirty-seven years old — died in the glory of his fame ; 
even before his powers had reached their prime, or the weaken- 
ing of his strength had given him regret or pain. His death 
occurred on the anniversary of his birth, April 6, 1520. 



MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI. 




! HIS world-renowned sculptor and painter, better known by 
the name of Michel Angelo, was born at Castel Caprese, 
in Tuscany, March 6, 1475. His early studies were passed 
in the Academy of Lorenzo de Medici. He was much admired 
by that prince, who was a patron of art. His first great work was 
executed in 1494, a statue of the " Sleeping Cupid." At Rome 
he executed his " Pieta," now the pride of St. Peter's Church. 
At the beginning of the sixteenth century his chisel wrought with 
dainty and patient labor, the colossal " David." In 1508 he began 
his career as painter, or rather, the world began to recognize him 
as such, for it was previous to this, 1500, that he produced his 
"Cartoon of Pisa." He was commissioned by Julius II. to paint 
the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, at the same time that Raphael 
decorated the dwelling-rooms of the Vatican palace. The fres- 
coes were completed in twenty months, and represented the crea- 
tion of the world — of man — his fall — also the early history of the 
world, so far as that mightiest of all tragedies — that Divine 
masterpiece which both heaven and earth conspired to perfect, the 
Crucifixion and the Resurrection of our Saviour. It is said to be 
the grandest production, of art — far superior to anything produced 
even by himself at any other date. His " Last Judgment," though 
among his latest works, will not compare with it, either in con- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 705 

ception or execution. For twenty years he worked on the history 
of man in tne Sistine Chapel. His last work was the Capella Pao- 
lina, fmishecUin 1549, for Paul III. In the seventieth year of his 
age he was appointed architect of St. Peter's. This great man 
was also a poet, but never attained any great distinction in this 
way. He was never married, and died at the age of eighty-nine. 
It is impossible to do him justice in so limited a sketch — impos- 
sible to do more then place his name in the list of those of whose 
mighty genius the world loves to hand down a record from age to 
age. His name was the last word spoken by Sir Joshua Rey- 
nolds, and Raphael thanked God he lived in the day of Michel- 
Angelo. 



HIRAM POWERS. 




'■-?- 



^IRAM POWERS was born in Woodstock, Vermont, on 
the 28th of July, 1805, and was the eighth of a family of 
nine children. His father was a farmer, in poor circum- 
stances, with unlimited calls upon an exceedingly limited income. 
The children were taught to work as soon as they could walk, and 
the united efforts of all were required to extort from their few bar- 
ren and stony acres the wherewithal to keep actual want from 
their door. In an ill-fated day Mr. Powers was persuaded to be- 
come security for a friend, and lost his home, and everything he 
possessed in the world, except the helpless ones who were but a 
precious burden. A total failure of crops throughout the State 
added to their misery. They had by some means become pos- 
sessed of a cow or two, and these, with difficulty kept them alive 
and supplied them with one of the staples of their daily bill of 
fare. In after years, Hiram Powers, a man of the world, an artist 
with a fame second to none„with a position secured beyond ques- 
tion, thus refers to those dark days ; " We lived upon milk and 

45 



7°6 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

potatoes, both in so small quantities as scarcely to satisfy the 
keenest cravings of our hunger, until we loathed the sight or taste 
of them, and almost the name." The oldest son, *a man when 
Hiram was born, had managed to secure an education, removed 
to the West, and was now editing a paper in Cincinnati, 
whither the family now removed. Through the assistance of his 
son, Mr. Powers obtained a small farm near Cincinnati, then a 
small town, but the country was new, the land low and boggy, and 
the air poison with malaria. The family were all sick. Mr. Pow- 
ers died, and they were left in extreme destitution. Hiram, and 
indeed each one who was old enough, was dependent upon his 
own exertions to procure him the necessaries of life, and they 
were scant indeed. At one time the boy was drummer for a vil- 
lage merchant ; at another, collector for a clock-maker and organ- 
builder ; in the latter capacity he gave great satisfaction, and was 
at length taken into the factory to work, at which piece of good 
luck he was delighted, since it promised clothes and food; "for," 
said he, " I often went hungry through the streets, creeping close 
to the walls to hide the holes in my clothes." The only thing 
which had ever distinguished our hero was an ingenuity at every 
mechanical contrivance, and this was now brought into play. His 
employer believed he could make the boy earn his bread at rough 
work, and he was one day set to file down some brass plates used 
about the stops of an organ, after which they were to be given to 
one of the foremen to be finished and polished for use. Suppos- 
ing, as it was hard work, and he unaccustomed to it, and having, 
moreover, no very high opinion of his abilities that he would be some 
time about it, left him to himself. Looking in, after a while, what 
was his astonishment to find it not only filed, but finished and 
polished better than any one in the establishment, even the head 
finisher, had ever done it. He at once gave the works into his 
charge ; he became superintendent, and had a home in his em- 
ployer's family. One day, in an idle ramble around town, he 
visited the museum and saw a bust of Washington, the first one 
he had ever seen ; and he says he could never describe his sensa- 
tions as he looked at it. The quick blood leaped from his heart 
and even in his finger tips it tingled and throbbed and burned, 
and a bewildering familiarity with art haunted him as if at soim 
time, sleeping or waking, dreaming or acting, he had done such 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 707 

work as this, and a consciousness that he could do it came back 
again and again. From a German who lived in the city, he ob- 
tained some hints, and set about the undertaking silently and 
secretly. His first attempt was with wax — a model of the head 
of a babe of John P. Foot, Esq., and his success was gratifying 
indeed. He did not devote any but spare time to "his art," as 
he now began to call it himself, for Hiram Powers is as modest as 
he is talented, but he made rapid progress. 

While he was still very young, a traveling showman brought to 
Cincinnati a collection of odds and ends of wax figures, which was 
dignified by the name of an " Exhibition of Natural History." 
They had become very much injured by transportation ; indeed, 
they were almost ruined by knocking around the world, for they 
had been great travelers, and seen better days, no doubt. Hear- 
ing that Hiram was a genius and an artist, their owner came to 
liim and asked if he could not patch up the dilapidated collection 
and again make it presentable to decent society. Hiram looked 
at the helpless mass in despair ; and while he looked an original 
idea, born of the ludicrous forlornness of the group, entered his 
brain, and he proposed that a new combination be arranged — an 
odd, ungainly object, that would attract attention by its very re- 
pulsive grotesqueness. The thing was done ; and when he sug- 
gested 'that it be christened " King of the Cannibal Isles," was 
astonished to be shown an advertisement already out, in which it 
was declared to be the embalmed body of a native of some far-off, 
unexplored, and heretofore unheard of region, obtained with- 
the greatest difficulty and without regard to cost. Hiram smiled 
grimly, but the thing was a success, and crowds flocked to see it 
wherever it was exhibited. 

At the age of thirty Mr. Powers had won quite a reputation, 
and Mr. Longworth, being much interested in him, offered to es- 
tablish him in business. Mr. Powers was deeply grateful, but too 
proud to accept the offer. Mr. Longworth then proposed to send 
him to Italy ; but this, too, being declined, he begged him to go to 
Washington and devote himself entirely to art. Mr. Powers 
thought favorably of this, and his friend provided him with let- 
ters of recommendation as well as the necessary means, and he 
removed to the capital andiemained two years. His letters were 
a passport to the best society, and his talents were a sufficient 



708 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

introduction when once they were known. He modeled busts of 
all the leading statesmen of that period ; among whom were An- 
drew Jackson, John Q. Adams, Calhoun, Van Buren, Marshall, 
Webster and Woodbury. While in Washington he formed the 
acquaintance of Senator Preston, of South Carolina, who con- 
ceived for him so strong a friendship and admiration that he 
wrote to his brother, General Preston, an immensely wealthy man, 
and asked as a personal favor to himself that he send the young 
artist to Italy to complete his studies and perfect himself in his 
art. General Preston responded by sending Powers (who had 
until then been ignorant of what his friend had done) a check 
for a thousand dollars, and an order for the same amount yearly 
as long as he should remain abroad, and urged him to go to Italy 
at once. The offer 'was so frank, so noble and generous, that Mr. 
Powers accepted it at once and sailed for Europe. Orders came 
in rapidly upon him, and the sculptor soon had as much work as 
he could possibly execute. One piece alone established him a 
reputation higher than that of any other artist of the day, and 
that was the Greek Slave, an ideal work executed in moments of 
leisure. His Eve, finished two years prior to this, considered in- 
imitable, and was indeed exquisite, both in conception and execu- 
tion, but was never so popular as this. Among his best pieces are 
" America," " California," " Washington," " Calhoun," " Franklin," 
"Proserpine," "The Fisher Boy," and "II Penseroso." The 
freshness and originality of design is only equaled by the finish 
of his works, and neither by American nor foreign artists has this 
been surpassed. He died in 1873. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 709 



THOMAS NAST. 




j^HE story of Thomas Nast's artistic career is a little pecu- 
liar. His father was a professional musician, and when we 
first knew Tommy, the old gentleman was playing that 
extension brass, shove-out-and-pull-back, force-pump sort of old- 
fashioned horn they used to have in bands (a friend says it is 
called a trombone), in the orchestra of Wallace's old theater cor- 
ner of Broome and Broadway, at ten dollars a week. Nast senior 
wanted Tommy to become a musician, and, to that end, used 
to thrash him with a leather strap most enthusiastically and faith- 
fully, in order to make him learn the scales on the violin. Thom- 
as, however, had a genius for drawing, and knew it. He used to 
beg his father to permit him to become an artist, to all of which 
the truly conscientious old gentleman (now many years dead) 
would reply with additional doses of strap. 

At last young Thomas became acquainted with Mr. Berghaus, 
now, and for more than a dozen years, one of Frank Leslie's chief 
artists ; and to Berghaus, who was also a German, he confided all 
his woes. He showed his drawings to Berghaus and to Sol Eyt- 
tinge, who is one of our most delicate .and fanciful American 
draughtsmen, and who was at that time with Leslie ; and they, 
seeing there was really something in the boy, then eleven years 
old, advised him to continue his efforts to convince his father that 
he could earn more money as an artist than as musician. 

Tommy went home that night, and to the German parent, hav- 
ing come at 12 m. (midnight), he thus remarked : 

" Father, I must be an artist. If you let me go and learn to 
draw, in a year or two I can earn twenty dollars a week ; and, in 
a few years after that, I can bring in from fifty to seventy-five 
dollars every week ; if you make me learn music I may slave all 
my life, and I shall very likely find myself at fifty years old just 
where you are now, playing for ten dollars a week in somebody's 



7IO FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

band, liable to a discharge any minute, and out of an engagement 
a quarter of the year, even when things are at their best." 

Whether it was the argument, or the determination of young 
Nast to learn to draw in spite of the paternal forbidding, that car- 
ried the point, we know not ; certain it is, however, that the next 
day Tommy Nast entered Frank Leslie's employ and was assigned 
a desk between Berghaus and Eytinge, which two thorough artists 
and amiable gentlemen gave Nast all the regular instructions he 

has ever had. 

The young artist more than kept his word ; in less than a year 
he could earn, not $20, but twice that, on Leslie's paper alone, 
beside making as much more on outside work. His father lived 
to see that his son was right, and to see that son bringing home 
his hundred dollars in gold ever> Saturday night, while he was 
humbly toiling away for the same old hardly earned ten dollars. 

Nast's industry and imaginative genius rapidly carried him 
forward in the profession, and we presume that for the past ten 
years, there has not been a week when his work, taking his car- 
toons for illustrated papers, his illustrations for books, and other 
business, has not been equal to at least $50 a day, and up to three 
times that sum. 

Nast's mother is a thorough German, a most estimable woman,, 
we are told, and excellent mother — but she cannot speak, or could 
not when we saw her first and last, a dozen words of English. 

Several years ago Nast was introduced to an English family,, 
consisting of the father, mother, son, and three daughters. The 
mother is a fine specimen of the thorough bred English lady, and 
her daughters are like unto her. The mother is an aunt of James 
Parton, the biographer — he who has written the lives of Andrew 
Jackson, Aaron Burr, Horace Greeley, etc., and who is known all 
over the country as one of the most versatile and accomplished 
magazinists and men of letters in the land. The eldest daughter, 
Sallie, of this lady (Mrs. Edwards), Mr. Thomas Nast married 
some nine years ago. They have had three children, all, I think, 
now living. So, you see, if the caricaturist dies he leaves abund- 
ant material for a new generation. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 711 



MASANIELLO. 




Sjjv NE of the most singular freaks of fortune or of fate was 
)$ the public career of Tomaso Aniello, who was born in 
Italy in the year 1622, and was a poor fisherman of 
Naples — one of the most ignorant of even his ignorant class. Yet 
he must have possessed some strong traits of character, or he 
could never have accomplished what he did. Beautiful Italy, by 
turns the possession of almost every despot in southern Europe, 
was just then under the mild and beneficent rule of Spain, and 
the bland and gentle Duke D'Arcos governed it as Viceroy. The 
wealth of the land was drained to fill Spanish coffers, and the 
bravest of her stalwart sons did forced duty in the army of the 
government they detested. Every specie of tyranny and oppres- 
sion had been imposed upon a people whom to oppress or wrong 
seemed outrageous, since they were poor and helpless. The " last 
straw which broke the camel's back" was the levying of a tax 
upon fruit which forms so large an item in the food of all classes 
as to make it impossible for them to subsist without it. Mas- 
aniello denounced the measure in the market and other public 
places, and the gathering discontent manifested itself in the mut- 
terings of the populace. 

One day as Masaniello was drilling a troop of young men for the 
approaching festival of our Lady of the Carmel, which consisted 
of mock combats, and skirmishes, he overheard a quarrel between 
a countryman and a customer who had bought some fruit of him, 
as to which of them should pay the tax. Very little fruit was 
offered now, and scarcely vegetables enough for consumption. 
The magistrate who was appealed to decided in favor of the pur- 
chaser. The people gathered around and the fire so long sup- 
pressed burst out, past control. Masaniello sprang to the center 
of the infuriated mob and shouted " No taxes ! No more taxes 
for Italy." A thousand voices caught the cry as mountain crags 




Jay Gould, the New York Speculator. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



713 



catch the echoes and send them from peak to peak. Suddenly 
his whole nature seemed to change ; the fisherman of Naples de- 
veloped and expanded in a few minutes of time into an orator 
whose words thrilled the hearts of his audience, and leaped like 
fire from pulse to brain, as he poured out a torrent of burning 
invectives upon the head of their oppressor, and called, in rude, 
unstudied eloquence, for them to break every fetter and throw off 
the yoke that ground them in the dust at the feet of the power 
whose tyranny they hated. Excited by the inflammable address 
and maddened by their wrongs, the Neapolitans at once proclaimed 
Masaniello their chief, and with him at their head, pressed on, 
increasing at every step, until they numbered thousands. Rudely 
and hastily armed, they assailed everything that opposed them, 
tore the viceroy from his palace, and demanded nothing less 
man the total abolition of all taxes and the withdrawal of Span- 
ish power. Frightened into compliance, and desirous of protect- 
ing himself from the mob, he readily promised anything and 
^everything, but barely escaped with his life. The palace was 
sacked, and the costly and beautiful furniture and works of art 
were burned on the market square by the order of Masaniello. 
In six hours from the time when he cried " No more taxes for 
Italy!" he was Captain General of the Neapolitans, and entered 
upon the performance of his duties ; while Naples, taken by sur- 
prise, was forced to yield to a man who was at best but the mean 
est of her sons, yet exacted such absolute obedience as never was 
given to the mightiest of her legitimate sovereigns. Habited in 
costly apparel, invested with the insignia of royalty and of his 
office, he set about his duties with a system and energy that was 
astonishing. The town was put in a state of defense ; sentinels 
were stationed to guard against surprise. The army and navy 
were alike subject to hfs will, and that will was law. Nobles and 
cavaliers were compelled to yield up the swords that had so long 
been the honored and honorable badge of their nobility ; and no 
article of dress was allowed to be worn that could in any way 
cover or conceal a weapon. An awe, a strange, subdued, hush: — 
a timid, paralyzed helplessness seemed to have taken possession 
of the people, and they moved, with stealthy cowardly looks 
:and steps. 



714 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

This brilliant, but arbitrary reign was brought to a sudden 
close ; a close that corresponded well with its meteoric birth and 
progress. The importance of his position, the weight and multi- 
plicity of care was too great for' a mind so undisciplined and 
so unused to bearing burdens, and it gave way beneath the pres- 
sure. He became cruel, jealous and suspicious, and in fits of 
frenzy perpetrated the most unjustifiable acts. Entering a con- 
vent one day, he talked in so wild and incoherent a manner that 
the priests persuaded him to lie down and calm himself. Sud- 
denly arose the cry of " Masaniello ! " and it was discovered that 
the convent was surrounded with armed men. Masaneillo came 
at the call, and was shot down as he appeared at the door of his 
cell. " Ungrateful people ! " were his last words. His reign cov- 
ered but nine days. 



ZERAH COLBURN. 



ZERAH COLBURN was born at Cabot, Vermont, Septem- 
ber i, 1809, and was considered a dull child until he was six. 
years of age, when one day, sitting upon the floor playing with 
chips, he was heard repeating and multiplying numbers. His 
father's attention was attracted, and he questioned him as far as- 
his own limited knowledge of mathematics went. The astonish- 
ment of the father was expressed to a neighbor who rode up just 
then, and soon word of the strange phenomenon spread through 
the town, and in less than a year to Europe. Some gentlemen of 
influence and means examined the boy, and finding that up to 
the moment of the discovery he had had no advantages, proposed 
to have the matter thoroughly tested. Accordingly Mr. Colburn 
took his soon to Danville, during the session of court, and he was 
visited by the judge and members of the bar, who satisfied them- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 715 

selves of his power of solving, in an instant, the most intricate 
problems of mathematics. Mr. Colburn then took his boy to Bos- 
ton, where it was proposed to educate the infant prodigy; but the 
terms, though very liberal, were not equal to what his father de- 
sired ; he refused them and traveled with him. A person who saw 
him at six years of age says of him : " He was like other boys of 
his age ; not at all remarkable in appearance ; small, light, quick 
in his motions, and playful ; answering, without a seeming thought, 
any question put to him." The following is a specimen of the 
questions and answers given as rapidly as he could speak them : 
" What is the number of seconds in 2000 years ? The answer, 
63,072,000,000, was readily and accurately given. Another ques- 
tion was this : Allowing that a clock strikes 156 times in a day, 
how many times will it strike in 2000 years? The child promptly 
replied, 113,800,000 times. 

"What is the product of 12,225, multiplied by 1,223 - ? Answer: 
14,951,175. What is the square of 1,449? Answer: 2,099,601. 
Suppose I have a corn-field, in which are seven acres, having 
seventeen rows to each acre, sixty-four hills to each row, eight 
ears on a hill, and one hundred and fifty kernels on an ear ; how 
many kernels in the corn-field ? Answer: 9,139,200." 

As his acquaintance with arithmetical terms increased, with i?o 
education but that of the questions which were asked him daily r 
his faculty for calculation increased, and these extraordinary per- 
formances were witnessed by thousands daily, and attracted so 
much attention in scientific circles that he was taken to London. 
There even royalty amused itself with the wonderful child ; and 
among others who visited him were the dukes of Gloucester and 
Cumberland, Lord Ashburton, Sir James Mackintosh, Sir Hum- 
prhey Davy, and the Princess Charlotte. The latter, attended by 
her tutor, the bishop of Salisbury, remained a full hour, and asked a 
number of questions. Among the rest was this : What is the 
square of 4001 ? The answer, 16,008,001, was immediately given. 
The duke of Cambridge asked the number of seconds in the time 
elapsed since the commencement of the Christian era, 1813 years, 
7 months, 27 days. The answer was correctly given, 57,234,- 
384,000. 

An extraordinary interest was excited in London in respect to 
this remarkable youth, and schemes for giving him an education 



716 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

suited to his turn of mind were suggested. At a meeting of several 
distinguished gentlemen, to mature some plan of this sort, various 
questions were proposed to the child. He multiplied the number 
eight by itself, and each product by itself, till he had raised it to 
the sixteenth power, giving, as the almost inconceivable result, 
281,474,976,710,656. He was asked the square root of 106,929, 
and before the number could be written down he answered, 327. 
He was then requested to name the cube root of 268,336,125, and 
with equal facility and promptness he replied, 645. 

It was now proposed to give him a thorough education at the 
Royal College, but before the king's sanction came, Napoleon re- 
turned from Elba, the Bourbons were swept away, and fled before 
the emperor like thistle down before the wind ; but Napoleon be- 
came the patron of the boy, and on the first of May he was placed 
in the Seminary, under the royal protection. After the battle of 
Waterloo, his father removed him to London, and he was placed 
by the Earl of Bristol at Westminster school when he was twelve 
years old. 

His father seems to have been unwise in his management of 
the boy — selfish and narrow in his views, expecting and desiring 
nothing but to make money from his gifts, and because enough 
could not be extorted from his noble patrons to support, not only 
the boy and himself, but a family of six beside, he withdrew him 
from the school, where he was making most satisfactory progress 
in all his studies, and decided that he should go on the stage. For 
this purpose he was put under the training of Char.les Kendall, and 
made his first appearance in the character of Norval ; though his 
reception was flattering to a beginner, he received no compensa- 
tion, and his father took him from Mr. Kendall, and traveled 
hither and thither, through England and Scotland, but met with 
no success ; and after an absence of a few months they returned 
to London, reduced to absolute beggary, which vocation was plied 
until their friends wearied of supplying the wants of one who 
had thrown away so many opportunities of doing well. 

His father died in 1824, and Zerah, in compliance with his 
death-bed request, returned to his mother, whom he had not seen 
for twelve years. During her husband's long absence, with a fam- 
ily of eight children, with but little property, she had, with the 
labor of her own hands, supported them and made a decent living. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 71 7 

Zerah was now converted ; having for some time been im- 
pressed with religious views, he united with the Methodist Church, 
and became a preacher, and afterward professor of the Greek, 
Latin, French and Spanish languages in the Vermont University 
at Norwich, at which place he died March 24, in the thirty-eighth 
year of his age, 



DANIEL BOONE. 




MIGHTY hunter, even as Nimrod," was Daniel Boone ; 
a skillful and cunning frontiersman, a pioneer of the 

old school From his very childhood he had a taste or 
fondness for a gun which amounted almost to a passion, and he 
early became, by practice, a proficient in the use of it. When Mr. 
Boone was eighteen or nineteen years old his father removed 
from Pennsylvania to North Carolina, then an entirely new coun- 
try, where game was very abundant, and Daniel confined him- 
self entirely to hunting as a profession or business. It was a habit 
or custom to hunt deer by torchlight. The animal, attracted 
by the light, would stop to look at it, and its eyes gleaming 
through the darkness made an excellent mark for the hunter. On 
one occasion he was out at night with a friend "fire hunting" as 
they termed it, when suddenly, like stars through a rift in some 
wild, dark cloud, there shone out of the darkness a pair of the 
brightest eyes. Boone raised his gun to his shoulder, and was 
about to fire, when the deer bounded away and was lost in the 
forest. Young Boone followed rapidly, and after an exciting 
chase he came out at the house of a farmer, and to his utter 
amazement found the game he had pursued so hotly was a beau- 
tiful girl of sixteen, "a daughter of the house." The pret- 
tiest romance in the world has been woven by his biographer, 
and were it not too long we would give it to you in his own Ian- 



718 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

guage, but as we must condense our narrative, we have not space. 
But the self-evident fact remains, that young Boone fell desperate- 
ly in love, then, and there with the flaxen haired girl who had so 
narrowly escaped being shot for a fawn, and that she became his 
wife. Boone removed with his wife to the head waters of the 
Yadkin, where he remained several years. But as the country be- 
came settled his wild, untamed spirit grew restless in his close 
quarters, and he again moved to the wilds of Kentucky, and with 
some friends, crossed the Alleghanies and stood at last on the 
summit of the Cumberland Ridge, their faces turned to the 
setting sun. The unbroken forest lay stretched out before him, 
mile after mile of country that was never pressed by the foot of 
a white man, and through whose still glens the tramp of coming 
millions had not yet even echoed. Trees of every germ and de- 
scription towered there, untouched by the woodman's axe, and 
not even blazed by the hatchet of hunter or pioneer. Rivers 
flashed here and there in the sunlight, and clear lakes lay in the 
valleys like dimples in the cheek of beauty. No richer or more 
fertile country lies on the face of the earth than the valley of the 
Mississippi, that then lay before them. Game of every kind was 
very abundant, and as they proceeded westward they met large 
herds of buffalo. They spent the summer in those lovely wilds, 
and in the winter divided for the purpose of making more ex- 
tended observations, and to explore more of this, then, wildner- 
ness. One day, when pu/suing their way quietly, a band of 
Indians suddenly sprang from an ambush, with a frightful whoop 
a^d yell, and took them prisoners. They made their escape, 
however, the next night and returned to their old quarters, where 
they failed then to meet with the other members of their party, but 
met by a chance that seemed almost a miracle, a brother 
of Boone, who with a single companion had found his way 
through the trackless forest. His friend was, soon after, shot by 
an Indian, while the companion of Daniel went out and returned 
no more ; though they sought him sorrowing, only the torn 
and bloody garments were found giving evidence, as did " the coat 
of many colors," that wild beasts had devoured him. The twc 
brothers were now the only white men west of the mountains, and 
they decided to spend the winter there. It passed pleasantly 
and safely by, hunting by day, telling tales and singing songs by 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY- 7IQ 

their blazing cabin-fires. In the spring their ammunition was near- 
ly exhausted, and it was decided that the elder brother should re- 
turn to civilized life and lay in such supplies as were needed. It 
was seven hundred miles to the nearest white settlement, and the 
trip would necessarily consume some time. He started the first 
of May, and returned the first of August, and all those long 
months Daniel was alone in the forest — the wild, dark forest, 
swarming with savage men. At last the long months passed 
away, and the brother returned with horses and the needful sup- 
plies, and with tidings of his family, from whom he was sepa- 
rated. It had now become a settled conclusion with the broth- 
ers, that no better place could be found for a home than the coun- 
try where they then were, and they set about selecting a site for 
the houses they would build before they brought to the west their 
wives and children. In September he went to North Carolina, 
and started with his own and brother's families, together with five 
others, and they were also joined by forty men, armed and equip- 
ped, to act as guards. Before they reached their old camping 
ground they were attacked by Indians, six of the party killed, 
and all their cattle killed or driven away. They held a council, 
and concluded under the circumstances, that it would be wise 
not to proceed on their journey, but on account of their helpless 
wives and children to remain near white settlements ; and they 
returned as far as Clinch river, where they made a temporary 
settlement. 

In 1773 Boone and several others built a fort, and as soon as 
it was completed he removed his family to it. Within two years 
he was twice attacked by the red men, and repulsed them, but 
was then taken by them while out hunting and carried to Detroit, 
from whence he escaped and returned to the fort. At another 
time they were surrounded by four or five hundred Frenchmen 
and Indians, but with fifty men he repulsed them, and they with- 
drew after great loss. 

In 1792 Kentucky was admitted to the Union as a State, and 
his right to the land he claimed being contested, he lost his home 
through the trickery of the law that should have defended him 
It is said that the indignation of the old hunter knew no bounds 
at this bit of legal injustice, and that he was so disgusted with 
civilized life that he withdrew to Louisiana, where he obtained a 



720 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES 

grant of two thousand acres of land from the Spanish Govern- 
ment, to whom it then belonged, and removed there with his fam- 
ily. He was already an old man, his hair was gray, but 
the sturdy spirit of the pioneer could not brook the infringement 
of civilization upon his rights. Here in the wilds of what is 
now Missouri, he spent the remainder of his days in the familiar 
and dearly beloved pursuit of hunting and trapping, and died at 
what is now Charette, in 1822. 



GROTIUS. 



ea 



X^^UGO GROTIUS was born in Delft, Holland, April iotl s 
X(pXE I 5^>3- I n youth he was provided with the best of mas. 
I ters, and was early distinguished for his talents and 
industry. At eight years of age he composed, with ease and ele- 
gance ; some of his Latin poems written at that time are quite re- 
markable. At fourteen he maintained public theses in mathemat- 
ics, law and philosophy with perfect success. His reputation was 
established, and mature and profound scholars declared him the 
prodigy of the age. In 1598 he accompanied Barnevelt, ambassa- 
dor extraordinary of the Dutch Republic, in a journey to France,, 
and there, at the gay court of Henry IV., received the most flat- 
tering attention, and took the degree of doctor of laws. He 
returned to Delft, and commenced to practice law, and when only 
seventeen years old, was chosen national histographer, in prefer- 
ence to all other candidates. 

Grotius now rose rapidly in rank as a philosopher, and pub- 
lished several works of so great merit as to secure him a fine rep- 
utation as an author. He also held several offices of trust, in 
which capacity he was sent to England to negotiate with the minis- 
ters, and there formed the acquaintance of James II. Tne 
religious difficulties which had darkened the sky of Hollf d with 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 721 

portentous clouds, now thickened and deepened, and threatened 
to deluge the land with b^nod. In 1618 a synod met at Dort to 
consider what was best to be done. They condemned the Armi- 
nian faith in the most unqualified manner and banished all who 
upheld it. Barnevelt, Grotius and Hoogurbetz, advocated the 
doctrine, and the first was sentenced to death, the two latter to 
imprisonment for life. In the dreary and desolate dungeon at 
Louvestien, Grotius was permitted to pursue his literary studies, 
and here, after the most urgent entreaties, his young and beauti- 
ful wife was admitted occasionally, and thus, the rigors of con- 
finement mitigated by books, papers and her presence, several 
years dragged by. His wife was allowed to come and go at will, 
to furnish him fresh linen, clothing, books, and many comforts 
not included in prison fare. She was accustomed to bring these 
things in a chest, and remove them in the same way, which was 
always carried in and out by two soldiers, and examined by the 
jailor, who at first was exceedingly careful ; but finding nothing 
suspicious therein, or in the gentle and pretty little woman who 
had always a smile and a pleasant word for him, his vigilance re- 
laxed, and she passed unquestioned and unnoticed. One day she 
sent a chest of drawers, about three feet in height and the same in. 
length, in which she laughingly assured the guardian of the insti- 
tution she intended to carry away all the books, old clothes, and 
trash from her husband's apartment, to make room for new. The 
jailor nodded kindly to her proposal, looked in and through the 
door left slightly ajar, with a pleasant word for the bright-eyed 
little woman who had half bewitched him, then went to another 
part of the building. In a short time the chest was brought out,, 
put in a cart and driven to Gorcum, taken to a small house, and 
when the door was closed, the lid was opened, and Grotius step- 
ped out. In a cunning disguise he fled to Antwerp, and wrote to 
the State's General of Holland, declaring his innocence of any 
wrong, and from there he went to Paris, and from the king receiv- 
ed a handsome pension. After the death of Prince Maurice, his 
estates were returned to him, together with all other of his confis- 
cated property, and he returned to Holland, but there was a spirit 
of bitterness against him, and he left his home forever, and took 
up his residence at Hamburg. Though he received the most 
flattering testimonials of regard from several nations, he chose 
46 



722 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Sweden for his final home, and was sent as the queen's ambassa- 
dor to France. Honors were showered upon him, wealth flowed 
into his coffers, and the nations seemed to vie with each other in 
the attentions paid him. Wearying at length of the bustle and 
fatigues of public life, he begged to be recalled, and to be allowed 
to retire to private life and rest. His petition was granted ; but 
on his way to Lubec, he was exposed to a severe storm, a fever 
was contracted which ended his life August 28th. He left many 
works, among them the " Law of Peace and War," and the 
" Truth of the Christian Religion," which is still considered 
one of the best works on the subject ever written. 

THE SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION OF INDE- 
PENDENCE. 

The following facts representing the personality of the illustri- 
ous men who imperiled their property, their liberty, and their 
lives by attaching their signatures to that instrument which 
established our national independence, will be read with interest : 

"The thirteen States then comprising the American Colonies 
were represented in the assemblage that passed the measure by 
fifty-one members. Thirty-seven enjoyed the benefits of collegi- 
ate training; twenty were lawyers; four were physicians; five 
were clergymen ; three were farmers, and the remainder were 
engaged in various mercantile pursuits, except Roger Sherman, 
the shoemaker, and Benjamin Franklin, who boasted of being a 
printer, yet was a statesman and a philosopher. Benjamin 
Franklin was the oldest among the members ; and Edward Rut- 
ledge the youngest. Robert Morris was the most opulent, and 
was financier of the administration, negotiating extensive loans 
for the use of the government upon his personal credit. He died 
in prison, having been incarcerated for debt — a beautiful com- 
mentary on those laws that made no discrimination between the 
honest but unfortunate debtor and the convicted felon. Daniel 
Adams was the most needy, his impoverished condition being 
well known. The management of his pecuniary ^affairs made it 
necessary for him to seek a burial at the public expense. Josiah 
Bartlett was the first to vote for the measure, and first 
after President Hancock to sign the document. Two of the 
number, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, were subsequently 
Presidents. It is a remarkable fact that these two men, having 
been Presidents, associated on the committee that framed the 
Declaration of Independence, and the first recognized leaders of 
two great political factions of our country, died on the same day, 
the 4th of July, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the day upon 
which they had contributed so much to the welfare of their 
countrymen. Charles Carroll lived to see all the memorable men 
with whom he acted on that eventful day pass away, and enjoyed 
the prosperity of his country, until 1832 when he died in his 95th 
year." 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 723 



BRANT. 



)OSEPH BRANT— or Thayendanegea, as he delighted to 
write himself — was born in the year 1742 — a full-blooded 
Mohawk of the Wolf tribe. Being the son of a chieftain, 
he commenced his career as a warrior at an early age, and when 
a lad of thirteen was present with his elder brothers at the me- 
morable battle of Lake George, when Baron Dieskau fell mortally 
wounded. 

Some years after this, when Sir William Johnson, having lost 
his first wife, took Brant's sister — Miss Molly — under his protec- 
tion, as is mentioned in the interesting memoir of Mrs. Grant, of 
Laggan, the baron, in patronizing the other members of the 
family, sent Joseph to the missionary school of Dr. Wheelock, in 
Connecticut ; upon returning from which, at the expiration of two 
or three years, Sir William assigned him a share of his duties in 
the extensive Indian agency which he conducted. We find Brant 
next in the field in the campaign of the English, with Pontiac, the 
celebrated Tawaw or Ottawa chief of Michigan, who at one time 
so nearly annihilated the British power in the northwest. In this 
war — according to the narrative of President Wheelock, published 
in 1767 — "he behaved so like the Christian and the soldier as to 
give him great esteem." In the former character, we find him 
soon after the close of this campaign aiding an Episcopal clergy- 
man in translating the Book of Common Prayer in the Mohawk 
language, and regularly received the communion in the church. 

Upon the death of Sir William Johnson, who was succeeded in 
his title and estate by his son John — the celebrated British parti- 
san of the revolution — and in his superintendency of the Indian 
department by his son-in-law, Col. Guy Johnson, Brant was ad- 
vanced to the important post of secretary of the superintendent — 
thus embodying in his own person the influence of an Indian 
chief, and the actual conduct of the affairs of the agency of the 
confederate Six Nations and their allies. 




JOSEPH BRANT 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 725 

The talents of Brant in this capacity seem to have been of great 
nse to his principal, in his difficult task of keeping the Indians 
loyal to the British Crown when the revolution broke out a few 
years afterward. Upon the first popular commotion, Guy Johnson, 
who at an early day embroiled himself with his neighbors, by in- 
truding with a band of armed retainers into an assemblage of the 
people, retired with his secretary from his seat of Guy Park, on 
the Mohawk, to Oswego, where he convened the grand council of 
the Six Nations, and commenced that tampering with their neu- 
trality which ultimately led all of the Cantons, except the Oneidas, 
to take up arms for the [Crown. From hence the superintendent 
crossed to Canada, with Brant and other leading chieftains, whose 
loyalty was. further confirmed by an interview with Sir Guy Carle- 
ton, afterward Lord Dorchester. 

Sir John Johnson had, in the meantime, fortified the oaronial 
hall at Johnstown with swivels, and raised a band among his ten- 
antry, consisting chiefly of Catholic Scotch Highlanders, which 
force, amounting to some five hundred armed retainers, enabled 
him to set the country people at defiance, and insult the magis 
trates of the county with impunity. To break up this nest of the 
disaffected, General Schuyler was detached by the Continental 
Congress with a force of three thousand militia. The Indians 
along the Mohawk seemed disposed to interfere with the summary 
ousting of their friends, but Col. Guy Johnson, with Brant and 
their other principal leaders, being absent in Canada, they did not 
venture upon doing more than remonstrate with General Schuyler, 
who, after persuading them that his objects were entirely "peace- 
able," advanced upon Johnstown, and called upon the baronet to 
break up his band of retainers, surrender his arms, and give eight 
hostages for the good behavior of the tenantry. Among the terms 
of surrender the following reads very quaintly at this day : — 

" Secondly. General Schuyler, out of personal respect for Sir 
John, and from a regard to his rank, consents that Sir John shall 
retain for his own use a complete set of armor, and as much pow- 
der as may be sufficient for domestic purposes." 

The parley lasted for several days, Johnson evidently wishing 
to gain time, but was at last brought to a summary conclusion by 
Schuyler's sending Colonel Duer and two other gentlemen with 
his ultimatum, and enclosing a passport for Lady Johnson, desir- 



) 2( FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ing her instantly to leave the hall. In the last copy of terms ; we 
find this reply to one of Johnson's stipulations : 

" General Schuyler never refused a gentleman his side arms." 

The parley commenced on the sixteenth of the month, and on 
the twentieth Gen. Schuyler paraded his troops, and the High- 
landers, having marched out and grounded their arms, " were dis- 
missed, with an exhortation to remain peaceable, and with an 
assurance of protection if they did so." 

Sir John, however, did not observe the compact of neutrality 
nor the obligations of his parole. He soon after fled to Canada 
under the escort of a party of Mohawks, was immediately com- 
missioned a colonel in the British service, and from the loyalists 
of Tyron county raised a command of two battalions, being that 
desperate band of tories afterward so well known in the revolu- 
tionary warfare of New York, as " Johnson's Greens," whose col- 
ors were adopted by Brant, and with whom he fought side by 
side upon the bloody field of Oriskany. 

Brant, in the meantime, had sailed for England in company 
with Captain Tice, a British officer, where we find him most oddly 
placed as the intimate friend of James Boswell and the Earl of 
Warwick. He sat for his portrait to Romney for the earl, and 
" Bozzy " appears to have subsequently corresponded with him. 
His loyalty being strengthened by an interview with George the 
Third, at which he presented himself in full Indian costume, 
Brant reembarked again for America, where he was privately 
landed somewhere in the neighborhood of New York, whence he 
performed a very hazardous journey to Canada, having, of course,, 
to steal his way through a hostile population until he could hide 
himself in the forests beyond Albany. " He had taken the pre- 
caution, however, in England, to provide evidence of the identity 
of his body in case of disaster, or of his fall in any of the battles 
he anticipated, by procuring a gold finger-ring with his name en- 
graved thereon at full length." 

Within a few weeks after retouching his native shores, Brant* 
now a regular commissioned captain in the British service, had an 
opportunity of taking up the hatchet in earnest. He led a force 
of six hundred Indians in the affair of the Cedars, and in this, his 
first field against the patriot forces, exhibited that humanity after 
victory which repeatedly distinguished him afterward. The late 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 7 2 7 

Colonel M'Kinstry, of Livingston's Manor, whose intimacy con- 
tinued with the chief until the decease of the latter, was rescued 
by him from torture and death, when wounded and a prisoner in 
the hands of the Indians. 




PHILIP. 



)ETACOM was the hereditary chief of the Narragansets, 
who owned the land around the bay which bears their 
name, and his home was Mount Hope, — now Bristol. 
On account of his unbounded ambition and his beauty and im- 
perious disposition, he was called King Philip by the English, 
and he was more generally known by this than by his own name. 
The tribe he ruled was peculiarly intelligent, increased in num- 
bers and in strength, and studied the arts of peace and war, and 
Philip made himself intimately acquainted with the strength, pol- 
icy and designs of the colonists. 

In 167 1 Philip was discovered to be making preparations for 
war. His tribe was already well provided with fire arms obtained 
from the British. The English charged him with wrong designs, 
which he denied, and it was only when proof of the discovery of 
his plot to murder the inhabitants and burn the town was given 
to him, that he admitted it, and new treaties were drawn up and 
signed by him. For a time all was peaceful again, but in 1674 
the old fire burst out in terrible fury. The first act was the mur- 
der of J ohn Sassamon, an Indian who had been converted to the 
Christian faith. Obtaining knowledge of Philip's plot, he warned 
the Governor of Plymouth, and though he enjoined secresy upon 
the English, knowing well that his life would pay the penalty of 
his friendly act, it was discovered and he vilely murdered. Philip 
was charged with his murder, and denied it, but the body was 
found, the murderer arrested, tried, and executed. Philip de- 



728 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

clared they had no right to interfere between him and an Indian, 
and the feeling of bitterness grew more rank. His rage knew no 
bounds when he was assured that the Governor had a right to ar- 
range matters of this kind, and in future would do so. The 
Mass. militia was called out, and Philip, with a large force, fled to 
the swamps, burning and murdering everything in his way, and 
issuing out to rob and pillage the country at will. The English 
surrounded the swamps, and again drove them to the country. Hav- 
ing ravaged the western part of Massachusetts, Philip made claim of 
an island in the center of an immense swamp, and here erected the 
strongest fortification ever built by a savage. Here he was at- 
tacked, but for some cause the Indians were struck with panic, and 
though the battle raged three hours, they could not he controlled 
or make a concerted action. The English passed from wigwam 
to wigwam, and the slaughter was terrible — more fiendish than 
human, and the bodies of the Indians, slain without resistance, lay 
in such piles as to impede progress. Philip escaped, fled 
to Albany, and with only a handful of men — often alone — was 
hunted from place to place. At Taunton river he narrowly es- 
caped, and only by shaving off his hair and disguising himself did 
he save his life. His wife and son were captured, and his cup of 
misfortune seemed to overflow. " I am ready to die," he ex- 
claimed in his anguish ; but being advised by one who had been 
his firm friend in all his misfortune, and who had saved his life 
more than once at the risk of his own, to surrender himself to the 
English, he struck him down dead. This rash and cruel act cost 
Philip his life. With him perished five of his most trusty followers, 
and with them, the great and noble tribe of the Narragansets was 
nearly extinct. The remnant of the tribe had neither power, influ- 
ence, or spirit. Philip's son was sent to the Bermudas and 
.sold for a slave, and his wife died of a broken heart. King 
Philip's war cost the colonists more than half a million of dollars 
and nearly a thousand men. The enmity of Philip was not per- 
sonal, but national. It was for his people, not himself, he 
fought ; for them he was ambitious ; for them he resented the 
encroachments of the white men. He was generally kind to 
those whom the fortunes of war threw into his power, especially 
women and children, and with all his rude faults, there was some- 
thing noble in his savage nature. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 729 



TECUMSEH. 




'ECUMSEH, one of the most renowned warriors of the 
Shawanese tribe, was born on the Scioto, at or near the site 
of Chillicothe, Ohio. He was one of three sons delivered 
at one birth, his second brother being Ellskwatawa, the Prophet. 
Of the third, nothing is known. His brother was the reverse of 
himself in everything — stupid, sensual and intemperate. The most 
extravagant tales were told of his supernatural powers, and as a 
bold, unprincipled and unscrupulous impostor, he was at least 
equal to any who have succeeded him. 

In 1809 a treaty was entered into and concluded between the 
Delawares, Miamis and Potawatomies, the United States, through 
Gen. Harrison, their commissioner, ceding a tract of land sixty 
miles wide along the Wabash river. This was done without the 
knowledge or consent of Tecumseh, or the Prophet. He had 
been absent at the time, but on his return, raved over the transac- 
tion and threatened to kill the chiefs concerned in the negotiation, 
who had singed the treaty ; and declared that Americans should 
never inhabit it. Gen. Harrison, on being informed of this, sent 
for him to come and prove if he had any claims on the property ; 
if so, he should receive his share of the pay. Tecumseh met him 
at Vincennes, and failing to establish any right to the land, he flew 
into a passion, and giving the signal, his warriors grasped their 
hatchets and sprang forward. Harrison drew his sword as he 
leaped from his seat, maintained a calm demeanor and ordered his 
men to come forward as coolly as it no danger threatened. Toma 
hawks were raised, swords unsheathed, but the stern, firm face 01 
the wily old General intimidated the savages far more than the 
glitter of their swords. He ordered Tecumseh and his men to leave 
the camp and return home, which they did, with " curses more 
deep than loud," and with threats of vengeance. 



73° FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

General Harrison having demanded of Tecumseh the resto- 
ration of some horses stolen by his men, was informed that the 
chief and his brother would pay the general a visit, and re- 
ceived permission on condition that he brought but thirty of 
his followers with him. This visit resulted in exhibitions of 
strategy and treachery, and with no advantage to the Indians. 

In September, 1811, Harrison, at the head of a thousand men,, 
marched up the Wabash, halted within the United States limits,, 
met the Indians in fierce battle and routed them. This was one 
of the most hotly contested of any of the Indian battles, and Tip- 
pecanoe will long be remembered as the scene of it. Tecumseh 
was unable after this to raise any considerable force. Little was 
seen or heard of him, however, until the disastrous campaign 
of General Hull laid the northern border open to the savage 
swarms, who were not slow to avail themselves of the oppor- 
tunity. Tecumseh received from the British the commission of 
brigadier general, and with a strong body of followers joined 
General Proctor, who had an immense force, and occupied 
Maiden, where he first proposed to await the attack of Harrison, 
who was marching forward ; but the victory of the victories was 
that of the Americans on Lake Erie, which changed his plans, and 
he burned the town and retreated to the interior. Tecumseh, who- 
was brave and fearless, despised the cowardice of his commander 
and harrangued and urged in vain to prevent the unnecessary and 
shameful retreat. Harrison crossed the river, and rapidly pursu- 
ing, brought them to a stand at the Moravian town on the Thames. 
The Indians fought with the coolness of veterans, and the desper- 
ation of devils, reserving their fire until they were so near the 
Americans that a volley would lay down the foremost rank as a 
scythe cuts down a swath of hay. Tecumseh led his men, and where 
the fight was fiercest and wildest, his voice animated them to greater 
efforts. Suddenly the cheer which was rising from his lips, was 
cut short ; his tall form reeled for a moment to and . fro as if he 
were drunken with the wine red carnage, and then he sank to rise 
no more. Tecumseh was dead ; with the fall of their leader 
the courage of his men gave way, and they turned and fled. He 
was the life and soul of the Indian tribes, and at his death most 
of them delivered up their prisoners, made treaties of peace and 
gave up forever the idea of an Indian confederacy. 




Capt. Jack, Chief of the Modoc Indians. 



732 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



BLACK HAWK. 




fflHE utter explosion of a bubble does not erase from our 



y(£~ mind the tints of more than rainbow brightness that col- 
ored it. Something of the romance which it has been 
customary to fling around the Red Men of the forest still 
lingers, though years of stern experience has robbed the halo 
of some of its brightness. There are a few of the old Indi- 
an warriors who were the true friends of the infant colonies in 
their long struggle for a foothold on the Western Continent, and 
who shared with them their scanty supply of corn, sheltered them in 
their wigwams, and warned them of coming danger when hostile 
tribes were upon the war-path thirsting for vengeance; and later 
still, when the British haunted them, more merciless than savage 
foemen, they were the trusty allies of the Federalists. We love 
to speak of them as friends of our country's early years. Yet, 
with a few exceptions, the Indian tribes were the scourge of the 
continent, and the terror of the early settlers. 

One of the principal leaders of the savage tribes was Black 
Hawk, chief of the united tribes of Sacs and Foxes, who claimed 
and occupied the territory between the Illinois and Mississippi 
rivers. The spot on which the Sac village was built, at the junc- 
tion of the Mississippi and Rock rivers, had been their head- 
quarters for more than a hundred and fifty years. Here their 
treasures had been gathered ; here their young men had grown 
into veteran braves ; here their little ones were born, and their 
dead buried. All this was included in the territory which Keo- 
kuk's treaty gave the whites, and the hearts of the red men were 
sore within them at the prospect of giving it into the hands of 
aliens. Black Hawk easily convinced Keokuk that he had been 
overreached, and that the cession was both illegal and impolitic, 
and he readily promised to get the village restored to its original 
and rightful owners. 

With this understanding the Indians remained in their old 
homes until fall, when, as usual they went for their winter 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 733 

hunt, and the whites, taking advantage of their absence, took im- 
mediate and full possession, and upon their return, not being will- 
ing to give up their position, offered to compromise matters, think- 
ing all could live happily together. The Indians kindly con- 
sented, but every imposition was heaped upon them, until their 
pride and anger were roused, and when they resented they were 
ordered to quit the village and go out and make new homes. They 
refused. The State militia, seven hundred strong, was ordered 
out by Gov. Reynolds, to remove the Indians, dead or alive. Part 
of them withdrew, sadly and sullenly, others still refused. A 
council was called, and Black Hawk came to meet the Governor. 
He was firm in his declaration not to give up one inch of 
his ground — that he was not afraid of the whites — and was 
ready to fight, but as soon as the militia arrived, the Indians with- 
drew. Under Black Hawk they fought, were defeated, taken pris- 
oners and were afterwards pardoned, and in his farewell address 
to Col. Eustace, Black Hawk said : 

" Brother, I have come, on my own part and in behalf of my 
companions, to bid you farewell. Our great father has at length 
been pleased to permit us to return to our hunting-grounds. We 
have buried the tomahawk, and the sound of the rifle will here- 
after only bring death to the deer and the buffalo. Brother, you 
have treated the red men very kindly. Your squaws have made 
them presents, and you have given them plenty to eat and drink. 
The memory of your friendship will remain till the Great Spirit 
says it is time for Black Hawk to sing his death song. Brother, 
your houses are as numerous as the leaves upon the trees ; and 
your young warriors are like the sands upon the shore of the big 
lake which rolls before us. The red man has but few houses and 
few warriors, but the red man has a heart which throbs as warmly 
as the heart of his white brother. The Great Spirit has given us 
our hunting-grounds, and the skin of the deer, which we kill there, 
is his favorite, for its color is white, and this is the emblem of 
peace. This hunting-dress and these feathers of the eagle are 
white. Accept these my brother. I have given one like this to 
the White Otter. Accept it as a memorial of Black Hawk. 
When he is far away, this will serve to remind you of him. May 
the Great Spirit bless you and your children. Farewell." 




734 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

STEPHEN GIRARD. 



^TEPHEN GIRARD was a native of Bordeaux, and was born 
J^HJJ in the year 1750. His parents were poor, and he received 
no other education than is implied in the fact that when 
he was a child he was taught to read and write. Although 
nearly his entire manhood was spent in his adopted city he never 
acquired a sufficient knowledge of the English language to speak 
it correctly ; but the native vigor of his mind supplied in large 
measure such deficiencies as in most other men would have been 
insuperable barriers to success. He often referred to the ridi- 
cule from which he suffered in his early youth, because of the 
distorted features of his face, produced by a defective eye. 

At the age of ten or twelve years he shipped as a cabin boy on 
a small vessel bound to the West Indies, and afterwards sailed 
from New York in the same humble capacity. At this time he 
won the good-will of the master of the vessel by his fidelity and 
industry, who not long after gave him the command of a small 
craft, in which Girard made several voyages to New Orleans 
and other ports. His great frugality and success in specula- 
tion enabled him soon to become part owner of the vessel, in which 
he continued to sail as master. 

In 1769 Girard, then but nineteen years of age, established him- 
self in Philadelphia, and in the course of the next year he married 
Polly Lum, the pretty daughter of a caulker, then in her seven- 
teenth year, and a servant girl in his neighborhood. His mar- 
riage did not prove a happy ®ne, because of the asperity of his 
temper ; and the final result was a divorce from his wife, who 
afterwards became insane, and for the last twenty-five years of her 
life she was an inmate (1790 to 1815) of a lunatic asylum. She 
bore him but one child, who died in infancy. 

Girard's commercial operations were interrupted by the war of 
the Revolution, so that for several years he was occupied as a 
grocer and dealer in liquors ; he, however, again entered the West 
India trade, and was soon recognized as a rich man. 

The first impressions upon the spectator made by Stephen Gi- 
rard were decidedly unfavorable ; his person was altogether quite 
forbidding. His vulgar exterior, his cold, abstracted, and taciturn 






OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 735 

habits did not fail to excite in the mind of the casual observer a 
feeling approaching to contempt. He was short and square built, 
and resembled an old sailor. His wall-eye, mean garb, and 
general presence contrasted so strikingly with his large fortune, 
that one could scarcely fail to feel disgusted at his appearance 
and bearing. He was partially deaf in one ear, and his conversa- 
tion was sadly disfigured by his broken French dialect. He talked 
but little, except on business, and then said no more than was 
necessary to make himself understood. His volubility, however? 
when excited by anger, was without a parellel, especially when 
among his workmen and dependants, and his language was not 
either refined or courteous. But to compensate for these ebulli- 
tions of temper towards his inferiors, he had the art of concilia- 
ting them by the most fascinating displays of occasional good na- 
ture, which impressed them favorably, and led to great readiness 
on their part to serve him devotedly. 

In his habits of attention to business, Mr. Girard was precise 
and regular ; perhaps more so at his counting-room than at his 
bank. On discount days at the hitter, he observed regular hours. 
During the spring and summer months he was accustomed to 
spend an hour or two each morning in a garden attached to his 
bank, where he employed himself in nursing his fig-trees, dressing 
his shrubs, and pruning his vines. 

At the venerable age of eighty-one he died, and was buried 
without religious ceremonies in a Roman Catholic cemetery. His 
will devised an immense estate, — perhaps greater than was ever 
before given, — for purposes wholly beneficent and charitable, 
which led to prolonged litigation. In these legal contests Daniel 
Webster and other eminent counsel were conspicuous. 

Mr. Girard's estate was valued at about twelve millions of 
dollars, and was all devoted to educating destitute children, and 
the relief of the poor and distressed. In his will Mr. Girard gave 
particular directions for constructing Girard College, as to form, 
size, and materials. The foundations of the main edifice were 
laid in the summer of 1833, but the structure was not completed 
and opened until the beginning of 1848. The principal building 
is said to be the finest modern specimen of Grecian architecture. 
The form is that of a Corinthian temple, surrounded by a portico, 
having thirty-four columns, each six feet in diameter and fifty-five 



73 6 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

high, resting on a basis of eleven white marble steps. The build- 
ing is ninety-seven feet high, one hundred and eleven feet wide, 
and one hundred and sixty-nine feet long. The walls are of 
white marble, and the stairways and roof, also. The entrances 
are on the north and south fronts, each having doorways thirty- 
two feet high and sixteen feet wide. There are twenty-four 
windows on each of the east and west sides. Mr. Girard's re- 
mains were buried beneath the centre of the lower vestibule and 
are covered by a marble statue. Besides this main edifice there 
are five other buildings within the inclosure — a labratory, a 
wash-house, bakery, etc. The cost of erecting the whole was but 
little less than $2,000,000. Provision was made by the will for 
supporting as many poor orphans as the premises could be made 
to accommodate ; first, those of Philadelphia ; secondly, those of 
Pennsylvania; thirdly, those of the city of New York; and, 
fourthly, of New Orleans. These poor orphans to be taught "the 
various branches of a sound education," etc., etc., and "the French 
and Spanish languages," the Latin not being forbidden, but not 
recommended. Also such other learning and science to be taught 
as the capacities of the several scholars should merit or warrant. 
Principles of morality are to be inculcated, but, in the terms of the 
founder's will (showing his singular and eccentric character), "no 
ecclesiastic missionary or minister, of any sect whatever, shall ever 
hold or exercise any station or duty whatever in said college ; nor 
shall any such person ever be admitted within the premises ap- 
propriated to the purposes of said college." Orphans are admit- 
ted between the ages of six and ten years, and are fed, clothed,, 
and educated, and when between fourteen and eighteen years are 
bound out to learn some useful occupation, often to agriculturists, 
mechanics, etc. As many are admitted to the institution as the 
endowment will support. 

It is to be remarked that the trustees of Girard College early 
decided to introduce the Bible for the use of the scholars, as not 
being inconsistent with the will of the founder ; and as a com- 
mentary upon the course of human events, it may be stated that 
the present President of that noble institution is likewise Presi- 
dent of the American Bible Society, and an LL. D. of eminent 
attainments and the highest religious character, who fills his posi- 
tion. Mr. Girard died in 1831. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 7,37 



MAZZINI. 



OSEPH MAZZINI was born in Genoa, in 1809. His pat- 
jrjf riotism was marked in boyhood. He died at Pisa in the 
early part of 1872, quietly in his bed, and on Italian 
soil ; and it was given to him to hear before he died that the 
King of Italy had proclaimed the work of Italian independence 
and unity completed, from the steps of the Capitol at Rome. The 
most eager, restless spirit in Europe is quiet ; the most intense and 
lofty idealist of our times has passed into the world where 
14 things not seen " may yield to him a satisfaction which he 
failed to find in any of the enterprises and achievements of life. 
His health had long been broken ; the ardent, enthusiastic spirit 
has worn out at last the frame which he had never spared in the 
service of his country or of mankind, and which nothing but an 
indomitable will has kept alive so long. As student, as conspira- 
tor, as political chief of a great party, as Republican ruler of 
Rome, his life had been one of intense, restless activity. No liv- 
ing man, probably, was so ubiquitous, had so many threads of 
policy in his head, or so many schemes of which he alone held the 
key. He was trusted with blind confidence by the daring and 
enthusiastic youth of the party of progress in Italy, in France, 
and in a measure in England ; and he wielded something like the 
power of a dictator in the revolutionary propagandas of which he 
was the acknowledged head. No man in Europe was so hated 
and haunted by established authorities; no man had so many 
police agents on his tracK. And yet no man moved about more 
freely wherever it pleased him, or escaped so constantly the most 
carefully arranged toil?. He bore not a charmed life, but a 
charmed person. Years ago it was one of the wonders of the time 
how Mazzini, proscribed by every government in Europe except 
England, with a price set upon his head, and a host of police 
agent? familiar with his person oc his track, could travel through 



-17 



738 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Europe on a revolutionary campaign, stir up rebellion in half-a- 
dozen southern kingdoms or dukedoms, and find himself safe back 
in England when his enterprises, as always befell, had failed. The 
truth is, he had something of the power of old Caius Marius, of 
mastering and constraining men. A singular personal fascination 
was characteristic of him ; and he had devoted adherents by 
troops in the armies and in the courts of his most bitter foes. 

Mazzini, in the first instance, won fame and influence by his 
fine literary genius. His style was a model of purity and grace, 
and his criticism was always masterly. He was an accomplished 
scholar, not in the literature of his own country only, but in the 
literature of his almost adopted country, for England was his 
second home. Some of the best criticism which has appeared of 
late years in our leading periodicals was from his pen. He was a 
thorough English scholar, and, like Kossuth, handled our lan- 
guage with an ease and mastery which only the very ablest of our 
native writers attain. But literature, after all, was but the by- 
play of his life. His great work absorbed him wholly. A fine 
scholar and critic was spoiled, some may say, to make a bad con- 
spirator. But it was just the qualities which made his criticism 
so masterly — which made him primarily an Italian patriot, and 
sustained the faith which quickened faith in others, and made so 
many joyful martyrs to a noble cause. He was a true lover of 
mankind — perhaps in the highest sense of the word the pure phi- 
lanthropist. He shared the modest proceeds of his literary 
labors with Italian organ boys, while his heart was always open to 
appeals of human need. He had a profound faith in the possi- 
bility, and the near possibility, of a much higher and happier con- 
dition for the toiling and suffering mass of mankind than econo- 
mists dream of. He believed in " God and the people." It was 
his chosen watchword. He had no sympathy with the aspirations 
of an atheistic communism. He believed firmly in God, and he 
never ceased to bear witness that the relations of men were 
rooted in their relation to God ; and that duty, the duty which 
has Divine sanction, alone could supply the inspiration to the 
noble and lofty public and private virtue, which to him found a 
miserable substitute in the frippery, the profligacy, and the extrav- 
agance of courts. In these days, in which the revolutionist affects 




H. M. STANLEY. 



740 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

the atheist, let it not be forgotten that Mazzini held fast his faith 
in God, as well as in the people, to the last. 

His brief rule in Rome was the one gleam of sunlight on a sad 
broken life. In Rome he showed what large statesmanly power 
was latent in him, if it could but have found a fair theater for its 
exercise. We have heard those who were in Rome at the time 
say that life in Rome was never so sweet and wholesome as during 
the months of his rule. Struck down by the arms of the French 
Republic he returned to his sad exile. But his instinctive dread 
of French vanity and ambition was sharpened by the experience ; 
and it is a sign of his clear discernment, that in 1859, when France 
was all-popular in Italy, he warned his countrymen that France 
was seeking her own, and would leave Italy when her own ends 
were gained to shift for herself. He was a pure Republican of 
the old classical type. He never could fairly reconcile himself 
to the regeneration of Italy under the scepter of a king. But 
still his heart must have swelled within him almost to bursting 
when he heard the echo of the shouts which acclaimed Victor 
Emmanuel on the Roman Capitol. From that moment we can well 
believe he set himself to die. Mazzini's work was done. 



GEORGE PEABODY. 




)AGNIFICENT charities are not always a proof of true 
benevolence, and princely fortunes may be bestowed 
without in any great degree benefiting the world, but 
when a man starts from the lowest ranks in life without assistance, 
amasses a fortune by his industry and attention to business, and, 
never hoarding, bestows liberally upon all who need — not only upon 
the beggar at the door, but famished nations are fed by his bounty, 
— when his quick sympathies and generous heart respond to every 
call of woe and every cry of destitution, he may well be called a 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 741 

benefactor of the human race. From the age of eleven, when 
George Peabody was taken from school, until he was nineteen, he 
was a clerk in various dry goods houses, but at that time he became 
a partner with Mr. Elisha Riggs, of Georgetown, D. C. The new 
business consisted of the importation and sale of European goods, 
and the entire charge and management of the business devolved 
upon Mr. Peabody, a "boy of nineteen," as some of Mr. Riggs' 
friends sneeringly styled him. In 1815 the business had increased 
to that extent which made it impracticable to carry it on in George- 
town, and they removed to Baltimore, where banking was added 
to their regular business. In 1820 Mr. Riggs withdrew from act- 
ive participation in the cares attendant upon such an enterprise, 
and the style of the firm was changed to Peabody, Riggs & Co. 
They had for some time been the financial agents for the State of 
Maryland, and their banking business had become very extended. 
In 1836 a branch house was established in London, as their trade 
in British manufactures was so great as to seem to demand it, and 
in 1837 he removed there to take charge of it. Since that time 
London has been his place of residence, though he always con- 
sidered America his home. This year was one of the most remarka- 
ble in our history. A very large number of banks suspended 
payment ; manufactories were closed ; mercantile houses were 
ruined, or stood trembling upon the brink of ruin until saved by 
almost superhuman efforts. The credit of the United States 
seemed for the time to be disgraced, and American securities were 
a by-word with the nations of Europe. It was then that the 
strength of Mr. Peabody 's character and the firmness of his'stand- 
ing was proven. It is said there was not half a dozen men in 
Europe who would have been listened to in this matter, but his 
judgment commanded the respect to which it was entitled, and his 
opinion carried weight with it. He stood firm in this time of trial, 
and the reproach was gradually removed. From this time forward 
he stood amongst the foremost merchants in the world. His 
business was increased, his vessels ploughed the main freighted 
with the products of Europe and America. His bank grew in 
popularity and was a source of great profit. 

Mr. Peabody was very proud of America. He loved his birth- 
place even more for his exile, and a cherished purpose was to re- 
turn there some day and make his home with his people. For a 



742 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

great many years after his arrival in London he celebrated the 
anniversary of American Independence with religious exactness, 
and only relinquished the practice when the whole body of Amer- 
ican residents observed the day with public services. In speaking 
of the manner in which he organized his business establishment he 
once said : " I have endeavored, in the constitution of its mem- 
bers and the character of its business, to make it an American 
house and to give it an American atmosphere ; to furnish it with 
American journals ; to make it a center of American news, and 
an agreeable place for my American friends visiting London." 

It was mainly owing to his exertions that American enterprise 
was properly represented in the Great Exhibition. In speaking 
of this, the Hon. Edward Everett said : " In most, perhaps in all 
other countries, this exhibition had been a government affair. 
Commissioners were appointed by authority to protect the inter- 
ests of the exhibitors ; and, what was more important, appropria- 
tions of money had been made to defray their expenses. No 
appropriations were made by Congress. Our exhibitors arrived, 
friendless, some of them penniless, in the great commercial 
Babel of the world. They found the portion of the Crystal Pal- 
ace assigned to our country unprepared for the specimens of art 
and industry which they had brought with them ; naked and una- 
dorned, by the side of the neighboring arcades and galleries fitted 
up with elegance and splendor by the richest governments in 
Europe. The English press began to launch its too ready sar- 
casm at the sorry appearance which Brother Jonathan seemed 
likely to make ; and all of the exhibitors from this country, as well 
as those who felt an interest in their success, were disheartened. 
At this critical moment, our friend stepped forward. He did what 
Congress should have done. By liberal advances on his part, 
the American department was fitted up, and day after day, as 
some new product of American ingenuity and taste was added to 
the list, — McCormick's reaper, Colt's revolver, Powers's Greek 
Slave, Hobbs' unpickable lock, Hoe's wonderful printing presses,, 
and Bond's more wonderful spring governor, — it began to be sus- 
pected that Brother Jonathan was not quite so much of a simple- 
ton as had been thought. He had contributed his full share, if 
not to the splendor, at least to the utilities of the exhibition. In 
fact, the leading journal at London, with a magnanimity which did 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 743 

it honor, admitted that England had derived more real benefit 
from the contributions of the United States than from those of any- 
other country." 

Mr. Peabody was, so long as he lived, as simple and unaffected 
as in the days of his poverty, followed his methodical, exact busi- 
ness practices with the same rigid system which was never changed. 
He gave away millions of dollars without a second thought, but 
insisted upon receiving a penny if it was his due. He several 
times visited America, going back to England always more pleased 
with his native land, more proud of his birthplace. He marked 
each visit with a magnificent gift. Education and Religion, pub- 
lic and private charities were the recipients of his bounty, and 
tich and poor alike blessed him. His own relatives, some of 
whom he never saw, received from one to three hundred thousand 
dollars apiece ; friends of his boyhood who were in poor or 
straightened circumstances, were handsomely provided for. Lon- 
don, more than any American city, seems to be the gathering 
place of Christ's legacy to his disciples, as if he had been there 
when he said, " The poor ye have always with you." And to the 
squalor — stricken multitudes George Peabody has been a 
friend steadfast and true. He has made them his care from year 
to year, never wearying of well-doing, satisfied if he might smooth 
an otherwise rugged path, or sweeten a bitter draught from whence 
pallid lips might not turn away, or bring hope and comfort, love 
and peace into the home where poverty and suffering had set their 
seal. So marked was his benevolence and thoughtful care for 
this class, that Victoria presented him with her portrait painted 
expressly for him, costing nearly $50,000, in token of her grateful 
appreciation of it. 

When Mr. Peabody last visited America he was in ill health 
and suffering severely, and believing that he might improve more 
rapidly in London, returned thither, but received no benefit from 
the change, and died there November 4, 1869. The news of his 
death was received with the strongest demonstrations of sorrow, 
and grief was in every household. The world will never know 
how much it owes this good man, since such was his unostenta- 
tious kindness — often his right hand knew not what his left hand 
gave. 



744 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

The following list includes all his public donations, of which a 
record has been preserved : 

To the State of Maryland, for negotiating the loan of 

$8,000,000 — _ — — $ 60,000 

To the Peabody Institute, Baltimore, Md., including ac- 
crued interest 1,500,000 

To the Southern Educational Fund 3,000,000 

To Yale College 150,000 

To Harvard College 150,000 

To Phillips' Academy, Massachusetts 25,000 

To Peabody Academy, Massachusetts 25,000 

To Peabody Institute, etc., at Peabody, Mass 250,000 

To Kenyon College, Ohio 140,000 

To Memorial Church, in Georgetown, Mass 100,000 

To Homes for the Poor in London 3,000,000 

To Libraries in Georgetown, Massachusetts, and Thet- 

ford, Vermont 10,000 

To Kane's Arctic Expedition 10,000 

To different Sanitary Fairs 10,000 

To unpaid moneys advanced to uphold the credit of 

States _- 40,000 

Total _ _ $8,470,000 



JOHN HOWARD. 



)OHN HOWARD, the philanthropist, was born at Hackney, 
London, in 1726. His father was immensely rich, but 
from an impression which he entertained that his son, then 
about eighteen years of age, had not quite done sowing his wild 
oats, made a will by which the young heir of the Howard estate 
was prohibited from controlling his property until he was twenty- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 745 

five. His guardian apprenticed him to a grocer, but the disgusted 
representative of a long line of independent gentlemen scorned 
the idea of serving his time, and accordingly purchased his in- 
denture and set out on a continental tour ; but was not absent 
long, and on his return to London, married his landlady, who was 
nearly double his own age, out of pure gratitude to her for care 
received during sickness. The gratitude was beautiful, no doubt, 
and perhaps commendable, but the lady did not long survive her 
new honors, but died ere their honeymoon began to wane. The 
spirit of adventure drove our hero out into the world again, 
and he started for Portugal with a view to explore the ruins of 
Lisbon, after the earthquake. The vessel in which he sailed was 
attacked by a French Privateer, the crew and passengers were 
made prisoners, and for some months he not only suffered the loss 
of his personal liberty, but all the horrors of prison life, and so 
vivid were his recollections of that dreary and horrible confine- 
ment, that upon regaining his liberty by exchange of prisoners, his 
first and earnest efforts were to bring the subject before the public 
and the parliament of Great Britain. He now married a second time, 
out this marriage also unhappily terminated soon, his wife dying, and 
leaving him an infant son. He resided on one of his estates near 
Coddington, and gave his time to the management of his property 
and the education of his child. But a terrible misfortune, the 
;saddest, perhaps, that could have come to him, came in the hope- 
less insanity of his boy, upon whom he had set his heart, and in 
whom centered all his pride, his ambition and his hopes. He was 
obliged to place him in an asylum, and then, every tie broken 
which bound him to a domestic life, gave up his entire time to 
benevolence, and using liberally his immense fortune in the ame- 
lioration of the sufferings of prisoners, convicts, the insane, the 
olind, and idiots. 

He inspected every public prison in the United Kindom, also 
in France, Switzerland, Germany and Holland. His attention 
was attracted to infectious diseases, and he entered into an inquiry 
as to the cause and cure of the plague, on account of the terrible 
ravages of that disease in the south of Europe, and in the coun- 
tries of the Levant. He visited those countries, passing through 
the plague-stricken districts,, and giving it his own personal atten- 
tion, and on his return to England he published an account of his 



746 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

travels, with a description of the Lazarettos of Europe, to which the 
attention of scientific men was attracted, and the public mind was 
very much excited over the, until then, unknown wrongs of so 
large a class of people, and the terrible sufferings of many more. 
Again he quitted England's shores ; again for the sake of 
humanity he exiled himself from people and kindred, hurrying 
through Holland and Germany, to Petersburg and Moscow, on, 
to the shores of the Black sea, — on, still on, through pestilence, 
famine, cholera and, more dreaded than all else, the plague, until 
at last he was himself stricken down almost before his life had 
reached its noontide, and died as he had lived, strong in the 
Christian's faith and the rude people of those half-barbarous lands r 
recognizing the holy purpose, the noble zeal, the lofty impulses. 
which gave his years and his wealth to a cause that was so little in 
favor, yet so much in need of friends, raised over his lonely- 
grave, in a quiet spot eight miles from Kherson, an obelisk on 
which was the inscription, " He lived for the good of others." He 
died Jan. 20, 1790. 



WILLIAM WILBERFORCE. 




f^HIS distinguished philanthropist was born in 1759, at HulL 
From the grammar school in his native town he was sent 
to Cambridge, and as soon as he reached his majority was; 
chosen to represent Hull in Parliament. His extreme youth pre- 
vented him from taking an active part in the proceedings of the 
legislative body. But though silent, he was a most observant and 
deeply thoughtful member, and not an act escaped his eye, or a. 
speech his mind. His first strong effort was in favor of abolish- 
ing the traffic in human beings as slaves, and a speech which he 
made on this subject, when in his second term, was considered sl 
most powerful argument, and from that time forward he labored 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 747 

steadily and faithfully until his object was effected. Even in that 
first appearance, he won the name of being one of the most 
brilliant, effective and eloquent of English orators. A violent 
opposition to his measures at once sprung into existence, and the 
whole array of British talent was against him ; but at the next 
session he again introduced the subject, despite its unpopularity. 
The public mind was not yet sufficiently enlightened to demand 
the passage of his bill, and it was overruled and put down by a 
large vote, and it was not until 1806 that it passed both Houses 
and his bill abolishing slavery became a law. Mr. Wilberforce 
was looked upon as the champion of the cause of humanity ; and 
testimonials and expressions of gratitude poured in upon him 
from all parts of the country. At that time it was much more 
difficult for a man in Mr. Wilberforce's circumstances to be a 
Christian than now, and peculiarly difficult for a young and pop- 
ular man to declare to the world that it was only in accordance 
with the high principles of Christian morality that he had acted, 
not from desire for, or love of public approbation. The publica- 
tion of his " Practical View of Christianity," a work in which he 
rigidly and carefully compared the defective religion of that day 
with the standard of the New Testament, formed an era in the 
religious history of the country. His life and character was a 
beautiful commentary on the principles laid down and developed 
in his book. Through all his life he bore the reputation of a con- 
sistent Christian, in whom was no blame, and though such char- 
acters may not be rare now, in that day they were, amongst those 
who mingled in high life, and were subject to the temptations of 
court life. He was esteemed and respected by all parties ; and 
while the poor looked to him as a benefactor and protector, tlu 
rich and great felt honored by his friendship. He died July 28 



748 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



GEN. LA FAYETTE. 




)ARIE Paul Jean Roche Yves Gilbert Motier, Marquis de 
La Fayette, is one of those characters that, belonging to 
a past generation, is brighter to-day than yesterday, 
and will be brighter to-morrow than to-day, because we learn 
with passing time the richness of the heritage of glory and free- 
dom which they forsook home and friends, wealth and ease, to 
purchase for us. At the age of twenty he left his girl-bride, who 
it is said buckled his sword with her own fair fingers, and smiled' 
through her tears as she bade him "God-speed," and fitting out 
two vessels with arms and provisions, sailed for Boston, where he 
was received by Washington with delight, joined the ranks as a 
volunteer, was wounded in the first engagement, and commanded 
the vanguard of the army at the capture of New York. When 
peace was concluded, he returned to the mother country, and 
found himself a hero, lionized to his heart's content. At home, 
as in America, he embraced the side of the people, and demanded 
for them popular rights. 

In 1789 he proposed the " Declaration of Rights," which he 
had brought from the New World, and proposed it as the basis of 
a constitution. The insurrection of 1790 was the result of his 
endeavor to establish a Republic. The French people of that 
day are what they are now, volatile, excitable, brave, rash, easily 
discouraged, and easily dissuaded, it seems as if for them it had 
been written — "unstable as water, thou shalt not excel." 

La Fayette's attempt to found a republic was a failure. The 
powers of Europe, looking on, began to close in with their armies 
around France, and armies were raised to meet them ; and La 
Fayette led them out to defend their own soil, as he had led in the 
defense of ours. At his headquarters at Sedan, he heard of the 
bloody tragedy of the 10th of August and of the imprisonment of 
the Royal family. Agents were sent to the different departments 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 749 

and the reign of terror was fairly instituted ; orders were given 
for the arrest of all the generals, and but one course was left 
open — to sacrifice the lives of his army, or to fly. He chose the 
latter, but was surrounded by the Austrians, captured, and con- 
fined in the gloomy dungeons of Olmutz, in Moravia. The rigors 
of his imprisonment were sonsevere that his health failed under 
them, and it was not until repeated efforts were made that they 
were relaxed, and a mitigation of his severe sufferings permitted. 
At length he succeeded in effecting his escape, but was retaken, 
closely confined, fed upon scant portions of bread and 
water, threatened daily with execution, and suffering untold 
agonies of uncertainty as to the fate of wife and child, whom, 
when he last heard from, were in prison in France. The Grand- 
mother, mother and sister of his wife had perished on the scaffold ; 
she herself was destined for the same fate,but was saved by the down- 
fall of Robespiere. Freed from a dungeon in France, she has- 
tened to Austria and kneeling at the feet of Francis II., pleaded as 
only a wife could plead, for the remnant of the life of her hus- 
band, — prayed for the broken, shattered wreck, a gift, not to his 
country, but to herself, and failing to receive the boon, determined 
to share his captivity. 

General Washington wrote to the Emperor and demanded his 
release, with as little effect, and it was not until Napoleon was 
master of the destiny of Europe that La Fayette breathed once 
more the free, sweet air of France. Nothing could ever draw him 
from private life again. Offices in America, the best our govern- 
ment could offer in her gratitude, and the entreaties of Napoleon 
alike left him unmoved, and nothing but the peril of his country 
called him from retirement. 

The Bourbon dynasty was re-established, and La Fayette, having 
seen tranquility restored, visited America for the last time. Again 
revolution sweeps over France. Charles X. and his family are 
fugitives. Louis Philippe is on the throne, — La Fayette at the 
head of the national guards, and a hollow peace was restored, which 
fortunately lasted as long as the life of the patriot. He died May 
20, 1834. 



750 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 




HRISTOPHER COLUMBUS was a Genoese, and born in 
the year 1435. His father was a wool-comber, and his an- 
cestors were humble people. With the exception of one 
year spent at Paris, his education was conducted in his native 
city, and confined to such studies as fitted him for the sailor's life 
for which he was destined by his father. He went to sea at four- 
teen ; at twenty-one we find him at Lisbon, and in 1470 on the 
African coast, seeking alike for gold and employment by the 
Portuguese government. He was now thirty-five years of age ; 
tall, straight, handsome, dignified and commanding in appear- 
ance , his hair already whitened by 'exposure and the care and 
anxiety attendant upon his position. He married at this time 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 751 

Felepe Modis de Palestrello, daughter of an Italian gentle- 
man, deceased, who had been a navigator under the patronage 01 
Prince Henry, and who had colonized and been governor of trie 
Isle of Porto Santo. 

Columbus gave much of his time to drawing maps and charts, 
made several voyages to the coast of Africa, also to the Canary 
and Azore islands, and in 1477 made a voyage to Iceland. Long 
before this date he had conceived the idea of reaching India by 
a westward course, and supported this theory by the views of Ar- 
istotle and other ancient writers. The great problem of the time 
was how to reach India by sea, and he offered his services to John 
II. of Portugal to solve it, if he would give him an expedition 
for this purpose, and well-nigh succeeded, when some unknown 
agent prevented the king from acceding to his wishes. Columbus, 
disgusted with a monarch who had everything to win, at so tri- 
fling a risk, yet feared to venture aught, left him and went to 
Spain. He entered Spain alone, without friends, and in great 
poverty, but his pleasing manners won him both respect and atten- 
tion, and friends came at his bidding. He soon made his way to 
the king and queen, to whom he told his plans, his hopes and his 
disappointments. His enthusiasm was contagious, and the will 
to aid him was good, but the uncertainty appalled men ; and for 
seven long years he waited in suspense that made it seem a life- 
time to the ardent and impatient navigator. At last, weary with 
the painful waiting and tired of the suspense, he left the court and 
started for France ; but two of his friends waited upon the queen 
and she was persuaded to give her support, and promised even 
to pledge her jewels to obtain the means for his outfit. Colum- 
bus was then sent for ; the king furnished men and ships, and the 
fleet, consisting of three vessels and twenty men, sailed from Pa- 
los, August 3, 1492. At ten o'clock at night, October 11, Colum- 
bus first saw lights moving in the far distance, and gazing intently, 
was satisfied that land was ahead. At two o'clock, a sailor in one 
of the other boats, a little in advance, saw the land — a lovely lit- 
tle island — San Salvador, one of the Bahamas. Soon after Cuba 
and Hayti were discovered, all of which he supposed* to be por- 
tions of Asia. It is believed that he never knew to the contrary. 
The discovery produced the most intense excitement in Europe, 
and upon his return he was received with transports of joy by the 



752 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES 

king and queen of Spain, and every honor and attention lavished 
on him. 

In September, 1493, he sailed from Cadiz with seventeen ships 
and 1500 men, and discovered the islands of Jamaica, Porto Rico> 
and the Windward isles. In his third voyage he discovered the- 
islands of Trinidad, Orinoco and Para. At this time Columbus- 
found the new colonies which he had planted in a sad state of dis- 
organization, and remained some time to set things to rights and. 
restore order ; but complaints reached Spain, and a commissioner 
was sent out to make an examination, who so far exceeded his 
orders and authority that he arrested Columbus, his son and 
brother, and sent them home in irons. Spain was in a fever of 
indignation ; the king declared his innocence of any such orders ; 
the queen was kindness itself, but the admiralty was not restored. 
to Columbus. 

In 1502 Columbus was sent on another voyage to discover the- 
passage from the Caribbean Sea into what was then supposed to 
be the great Indian Sea, and came near discovering Mexico, but 
died never knowing how narrow was the step between himself and 
more of glory than he had ever dreamed of. He returned at the 
end of the year and appealed to the king to remove from his name 
the partial disgrace resting upon it, and restore his title, but in 
vain. Like many another, since his time, the king had used his 
tool as long as it was profitable to him, and now wearied of the 
one who had served him faithfully. Columbus was not the last who 
learned the bitter lessons of man's ingratitude; but his heart was 
broken by the lesson that he was too proud to learn in humility, 
and he died at the age of sixty-seven. Tardy and partial justice 
was done his son after the father's death, but only wh«n he had 
appealed to the law against the king. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 753 



CAPTAIN COOK. 




^f APTAIN JAMES COOK was born at Marton, near Stock. 
ton-upon-Tees, October 27, 1728, and was apprenticed to a 
haberdasher at the age of thirteen, but having a strong 
inclination for the sea, was transferred into a coal company, and 
soon became so skillful a sailor as to be promoted to mate. In 
1759 he offered himself as a volunteer for the navy and through 
the influence of friends obtained command of a sloop, and went 
into service against the French. In 1764 he was appointed marine 
surveyor of New Foundland and Labrador, and ten years later 
was sent out in command of a ship which went to the Pacific to 
make astronomical observations. All the phenomena were suc- 
cessfully observed and he then sailed in search of the southern 
continent, which was supposed to exist. He sailed far enough to 
prove that New Zealand and New Holland were not parts of the 
continent, if it existed, and he set out to circumnavigate the globe, 
to settle the question beyond doubt. He was gone three years, 
and was the first man who traversed the Pacific at that high lati- 
tude of 70 deg. 10 min. 

The result of this voyage was the greatest excitement, and he 
was raised to the rank of post captain, and appointed to Green- 
wich Hospital. The question of a southern continent being set at 
rest he turned his attention to a north-western passage between 
the Atlantic and Pacific. An offer of a prize of twenty thou- 
sand pounds and the king's ships to the discover, induced Captain 
Cook to lead another expedition. He set out in the ship 
" Resolution," and made many important discoveries, among 
which were the Sandwich Islands, where he returned to winter. 
The first night after his arrival one of his boats was stolen by the 
natives, and the next day measures were taken to recover it and pre- 
vent a repetition of the act. For this purpose Cook attempted to 
carry the aged king on board his ship, bur on reaching it the King 
48 



754 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

refused to embark, and his wives, who had followed him, set up a 
most dismal lamentation The howl was caught by those next of 
kin, and repeated from lip to lip until the island echoed with it, 
and the natives came in swarms to defend their chief. The sav- 
age crowd, seeing him a captive, were maddened to perfect fury, 
and rushed upon Captain Cook and his men, four of whom, with 
their commander were killed. His mangled remains were torn 
and hewn in pieces, and only the bones recovered by his surviving 
crew. In the extent and value of his discoveries, Captain Cook's 
surpass those of any other explorer. He was killed October 
14, 1779 



DAVID LIVINGSTONE, 




HIS greatest of modern travellers was born at Blantyre, 
Scotland, on the banks of the river Clyde, near Glasgow, 
March 19th, 1813. His great-grandfather was a soldier 
and fell on the gory field of Cullodin, and his grand- 
father was a farmer of Ulva, one of the most beauti- 
ful of the Hebrides. Campbell's story of the eloping lovers, 
which was no doubt intended to be, and probably is, a timely 
and beneficial warning to all hard-hearted fathers, who do 
not desire to be " left lamenting," locates its scene somewhere^ 
here, since the hero explains to the boatmen who thought the 
water too rough to be entirely safe : — 

" O ! I'm the chief of Ulva's isle, 
And this Lord Ullin's daughter." 

At the age of ten he was put into the factory of Blantyre, and 
says that with his first earnings he purchased the Rudiments of 
Latin, and gave every spare hour to its study — indeed it was ever 
his favorite study, and he pursued it for years with undiminished 
ardor. He was carefully taught the principles of Christianity, and 




DAYID LIVINGSTONE. 



75<> FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

" free salvation" was a doctrine that he imbibed as readily as he 
breathed the air of heaven. He began the study of medicine in 
the same way that he did of Latin, with but little help ; and yet 
so closely did he devote himself to it that at twenty years of age 
he finished his studies and was admitted to a Licentiate of Faculty 
of Physicians and Surgeons. Partly from a strong desire to see 
the world, and partly from a christian desire to carry the glad 
tidings of redemption to the nations that sit in darkness, he had 
decided to go to China with a party of missionaries, but the 
opium war, raging at that time, made it dangerous, or at least in- 
expedient, and he turned his eyes in the opposite direction, and 
transferred the field of his studies and labors from China to Africa. 
In 1830 he sailed for Africa, under the auspices of the London 
Missionary Society, which sent out no creed nor sect, but the 
Gospel of Christ, — the plan which met his views most satisfac- 
torily. Reaching Lattakoo, which is the farthest mission station 
from the Cape, he at once struck out for the North, into the 
Backwain country. For twenty years he has wandered to and 
fro over that vast continent, of which so little is known, sending^ 
from time to time, accounts of his valuable researches and dis- 
coveries. His " Life and Explorations," written by his own pen, 
have made the world so familiar with him and with his movements 
that it is unnecessary to give them here. Far over the deserts,, 
deep into the jungles, o'er the bosom of beautiful lakes, to the 
source of mighty rivers, and to the crest of lofty mountains 
where never a white man's foot had rested before, in the tents 
of the savage tribes, in their villages, in their cities, where never 
a white man's face was seen, under the feathery palms, and 
where date-trees hung their slender, fruit-laden branches over 
the f green oasis, went this man who, for the love which he 
bore his race had become an exile from home, country a&d 
friends. Suddenly, while the eyes of the world were fixed on 
the solitary traveler he disappeared from their sight, and his fate 
was enveloped in mystery and shrouded in darkness and dread, 
until Henry M. Stanley, the daring American, found him in Central 
Africa and supplied him with stores necessary to continue his jour- 
ney to discover the source of the Nile. But death overtook him and 
he passed away, May 4th, 1873, at Ilala, Central Africa. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 757 



SAMUEL F. B. MORSE. 



fAMUEL F. B. MORSE was born in Charleston, Mass., 
1 791, graduated from Yale in 18 10, adopted the profession 
of an artist, and studied abroad under West, Copley and 
Alliston. His first work, a model of a dying Hercules, received 
from the Adelphi Society of Arts a gold medal, which was presented 
by the Duke of Norfolk in the presence of the foreign Ambassadors. 
After spending three years in Europe he was forced to give up 
his studies, for want of means to pursue them. In 1829 Mr. 
Morse again went abroad for the purpose of completing his 
studies. In Europe, for three more years, he visited and tarried 
in every large city on the continent, especially where art flour- 
ished. In 1832 he sailed from Havre for New York, to accept the 
position of Professor of the Literature of the Fine Arts, which 
had been tendered him. He had always felt a strong interest in 
chemistry and natural philosophy, and had given much time to 
the study of both. During the interval between the first and sec- 
ond trips, he delivered a course of lectures upon the Fine Arts, 
alternating nights with Professor J. F. Dana, who lectured upon 
electro-magnetism, illustrating his remarks with the first electro- 
magnet ever exhibited in America. The two professors became 
warm friends, and passed many hours together in discussion of 
the principles of electricity. Soon after, the electro-magnetic in- 
strument was presented to Morse. His pursuit of the science was 
very thorough, aided by the magnet, with which many experiments 
were tried, and it is said that his investigations of the subject were 
deeper than those of any other man in America. The theory, so 
full of mystery then, and so incomprehensible to most of the pas- 
sengers, was discussed on board the boat in which he returned 
from France, several of the passengers being professional men, and 
some of them fine scholars, who were given to deep research. 
The subject of such deep interest to Professor Morse came up 






75$ FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

among others, and one gentleman narrated the experiments he 
hr\d lately witnessed, " the object of which was to prove how read- 
ily the electric spark emanated from the magnet, and how quickly it 
could be disseminated." The party were sitting upon the deck 
when this was told, and one by one, as evening drew on, they with- 
drew to the cabin, or to their staterooms. At last the shadows 
had deepened into night, but one still form had not moved, or 
changed its position. The moments multiplied themselves into 
hours, and still he sat there, studying and working on this one 
great problem, that he had never seen before. When the moon 
rose up in the midnight sky and silvered his locks as if with age, 
he looked out over the broad waters with a new light in his eye — 
the light of a new life and a new purpose. In his lonely and 
silent vigil he had traced out the path that should lead him to 
fame and renown ; he had planted seeds in the past which, know- 
ing now how to water and tend them, would yet bring him an 
abundant harvest ; yea, he had builded better than he knew. He 
had found the solution of a mystery that had haunted him. No 
more art for him ; no more days of dreaming ; no more coquetting 
with the coy godess who held her laurels too high for him to reach 
with brush and canvas. Now she would come and offer them to> 
him, and plead his acceptance of the gift she so long withheld. 
She would shower her treasures over him whether he would or 
no. Every one knows Mr, Morse was very practical, and he lost 
no time in thinking, but set at once to work ; and before the end 
of the voyage he had wrought out the idea, and completed the 
drawings for the electric telegraph, also the " electro-magnetic 
and recording telegraph, substantially and essentially as it now 
exists." This was in 1832, but he did not complete the first in- 
strument until three or four years later. This, like every embod- 
iment of the ideal, was far from being equal to the invention, as 
he still held it fixed upon the retina of his mind. He made re- 
peated experiments and improvements, and succeeded in sending 
messages over the wire half a mile or more. 

In 1840 he obtained his patent, after long and vexatious delays. 
Little confidence was felt, even amongst scientific men, that the 
invention would ever be brought into common use, or be of any 
practical use in long distances ; but his own feith in it was bound- 
less, and he petitioned the Government for a» appropriation to 




tfUEL F. B. MORSE. 



760 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

enable him to put up an experimental line from Baltimore to 
Washington; for Morse, like many another genius, had more 
brains than money, and more talents than influence. Considera- 
ble interest was felt in the subject, both by Congress, and 
throughout the country ; and scientific men, moved by his own 
enthusiasm and earnestness, began to ask if really there might 
not be something in it after all. 

In 1838 Morse went to Europe to try to interest the nations 
over the sea to seek abroad that aid and encouragement he had 
failed to meet at home. Here, again, he was disappointed, and 
returned to America weary, worn, disgusted, saddened and grieved 
by his disappointment. 

In 1842 he again laid the subject of his telegraph before Con- 
gress, and again asked the same aid he had before. His pecuniary 
circumstances had not improved, and he was unable to do any- 
thing himself — unable to afford even the expense of remaining in 
Washington during the session ; and he waited almost hopelessly 
as day after day passed and nothing was done ; and his patience 
waned as did his small store of money, and grew rapidly but 
/^/"beautifully less." Up to the last day, and the last night of 
the session nothing had been done for it, and at a late hour of the 
night he returned to his hotel, packed his valise and made all 
preparation to go to New York the next day. A sleepless night 
brought him no rest, and a gloomy, morbid, bitter sense of 
wrong, neglect and injustice still rankled in his mind ; his 
heart throbbed wearily with its weight of pain, as he sat over his 
coffee and morning papers at the breakfast which he could not 
swallow. His eye parsed listlessly over the items, while his 
thoughts wandered aimlessly away. So he had looked twice at a 
paragraph, and dreamily looked at it the third time, before he 
realized that it was really himself and his own bill ; and that it 
announced that at the very last moment it had passed, and that 
thirty thousand dollars had been appropriated to his project. He 
could not believe his own senses ; he sought his hat, and forget- 
ting his breakfast, forgetting his weariness, he rushed with toilet 
half made to the capitol, to learn if it was true. It is said that 
when he was convinced that the hour of victory was at hand 
— that the struggle and pain were past, and that the morning of 
the denfse dark night was dawning, the overstrained nerves gave 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 761 

way, and the strength that had supported him in his despair failed 
him in his triumph, and he sat down and wept like a child, and 
like one of old, "he recked not that men saw." Work on the 
experimental line was at once begun, and on the 25th of July, 
1844, it was completed. The trial was made before all the gov- 
ernment officials and a large number of invited guests. Prof. 
Morse seated himself at the instrument, and with a sense of tri- 
umph that was pardonable, since Caesar never won a victory like 
this, and with his heart throbbing wildly to the songs fame sung 
in the distance, for he knew that wealth and honor would crown 
him at last — ah! at last! — sent his first message to Baltimore, 
and received an immediate answer. For two hours messages were 
sent and answers received with a rapidity which astonished every 
one but Morse; and while the spectators were wild with delight, 
this man, whose whole future hung upon the experiment ; this 
man, who had suffered tortures of fear and suspense ; who had 
staked everything upon the success of his invention, and who had 
scarcely a dollar in his pocket, sat, apparently calm and unmoved. 
Let the future bring him what it would, there could never be in 
Tier treasure house another hour of such unmixed joy, and no 
glory like the glory of that day. 

Offers for the use of his invention flowed in upon him, and 
telegraph companies were organized all over the country. In 
fifteen years after that first trial morning, it is estimated that 
there were 150,000 miles in operation; and his system is adopted 
all over the globe. His patent brought him a speedy and im- 
mense fortune, and those countries that were most tardy to do 
him justice were ready enough to force their acknowledgments 
<of his genius upon him; it is said that he has received more 
marks of honorable consideration from the crowned heads of Eu- 
rope than has fallen to the lot of any othe-r inventor. From Na- 
poleon III. he received the Cross of Chevalier of the Legion of 
Honor; from the King of Denmark, the Cross of Knight of 
Danebrog ; from the King of Prussia, a gold medal ; from the 
■Sultan of Turkey, the decoration of Nishaun Iftichar in diamonds, 
and from the Queen Isabella of Spain, the Cross of Knight Com- 
mander of the order of Isabella. In 1859, at the suggestion of Na- 
poleon III., representatives from the various European powers met 
to decide upon an appropriate token from all the nations. France, 



7^2 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Turkey, Russia, Sweden, Holland, Austria, Belgium, and Sardinia,, 
Tuscany, and the Holy Land were represented, and presented, 
in the name of the united governments, the sum of 400,000 francs, 
as a token of their appreciation of his labors. 

Mr. Morse was also the first experimenter with, and inventor of,, 
the submarine telegraph, and was with Cyrus W. Field from the 
first to the last of that mighty enterprise that enabled two worlds, 
wide sundered by a waste of waters as drear and wild as that over 
which Noah's dove looked in vain for a resting place, to bid de- 
fiance to the wrath of Neptune, and, sitting each upon the soil of 
home, speak as friend to friend. 

Prof. Morse died in April, 1872, and from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific, from Russia to India, the cities and nations have mourned 
for the world's benefactor. 



ELIAS HOWE, JR. 




^HERE is not, in all the length and breadth of our land, a 
tired and over-worked mother, groaning under the ac- 
cumulation of household sewing which the fingers, ready 
and skillful though they be, can not find or make time to do, and 
whose over-burdened heart and brain have been relieved and made 
to sing with joy by the possession of the " Household Fairy," who 
will not be pleased to know something of its inventor. For, though 
the clarion voice of fame may boast of our- telegraphs over land 
and through ocean, of our magnificent steam printing presses, of 
engines which are more wonderful than stories of Arabian Nights' 
Entertainments ; may talk of fire arms, whose deadly work 
upon the battle-field is more sure and fatal than that of the 
pestilence which wasteth at noon-day ; may sing of the sculptor's. 
or the poet's art and tell of those who have made their names im- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 763 

mortal as financiers, or diplomatists ; yet a woman's heart beats 
high with gratitude as she remembers him whose cunning and 
patience and skill broke the chain of her bondage to toil that 
consumed her midnight hours, to poverty that robbed life of every 
blessing, and too often drove her to sin at which she shuddered, 
even while she embraced it, or into a suicide's grave. 

The " Song of the Shirt," with its vivid picture of degradation 
and suffering, is a song and a picture of an era that is passed, 
thank God, forever ; and now, when care and anxiety and ouffering 
had set their seal on women's faces until they had grown prema- 
turely old and gray, peace and prosperity have come through the 
sewing machine. 

The inventor, Elias Howe, was born in the town of Spencer, 
Massachusetts, in 181 9. Besides himself there were eight child- 
ren, and his father was in straightened circumstances, so that there 
was need that each child, as it became old enough to work, should 
contribute to its own support. His education was very meager, 
and his delicate health prevented his working hard ; besides, he 
was slightly lame, and so was unfitted for farm or other active 
labor. When he was sixteen years of age he went to Lowell, 
hoping to make his fortune in the mills of the place, but he did 
not remain long there. He went to Cambridge, and obtained 
employment in a shop where, with his cousin, Nathaniel P. Banks, 
he worked upon a hemp carder. In a few months he went to 
Boston, and there, at the age of twenty-one, he married a loving 
girl, and if, as commentators sometimes remark, it was a rash, ill- 
advised step, it was, in one sense at least, a good thing for the 
world, for his health was so poor as to render it almost impossible 
for him to work, and the necessity for bread, which drives some to 
crime, in like circumstances, sharpened his inventive faculties, if, 
indeed, it did not actually give birth to his genius. Three child- 
ren, wee, tiny, birdies, were born to him, and the young father's 
heart yearned over them with a love that was pain in itself, as his 
strength failed day by day, and his scanty earnings would not and 
could not be made to cover more than the barest necessities of 
life. He labored patiently and conscientiously for them, but he 
did it with a heart-broken hopelessness, which only those who 
have tasted the bitterness of abject poverty can understand. The 
world, like a child testing its undeveloped powers, was beginning 



764 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

to think everything could be done by machinery,' and, like the lit- 
tle one who, wearied of every toy, sat down amid them and cried 
for the moon, knowing full well it must cry in vain, this overgrown 
baby world declared it must have a sewing machine, that the want 
was imperative and must be met, while in the same breath in 
which it clamored for it, it declared it could never be made — that 
the want could never be met — it was no use for any one to attempt 
it. Howe, in the midst of his poverty and suffering, listened, 
as one listens to voices in a dream. No man could need money 
more than he ; at the same time he knew he had talents of the high- 
est order, though they had never been tested. There was a silent 
but imperative power within him which struggled for a being and 
an acknowledged existence, and here was something which others 
dare not attempt. If he succeeded, fortune and fame were his ; 
without it, life was a burden too utterly dreadful to be long borne. 
He was now in that state when a man attempts desperate things ; 
and he turned over the matter again and again in his mind, and 
determined if human being could accomplish it, he would. He 
watched his wife hour after hour, as the cunning fingers drew the 
shining steel through the fabric, and tried from this to get the 
clue to his plan. He invented one machine which sewed in imi- 
tation of hand work, but he perceived at once that it was not what 
he wanted and not what the world wanted, either ; but it was a 
whole year before he learned that the machine need not at all imi- 
tate the human hand in its work. From this he stepped inde^ 
pendently aside, and labored to invent something on an entirely 
different principle, and he conceived the idea of using two threads 
and forming a stitch with a curved needle and a shuttle. Now he 
had the secret, at least the secret of the stitch ; and with wire and 
wood he constructed a rough model of his own machine in Octo- 
ber, 1844, and operated it to his entire satisfaction. He now gave 
up his position as machinist, and removed to his father's house, 
for his poverty was extreme, and he could scarcely provide bread 
for his family. He had the model for his machine clearly worked 
out in his brain, but had not a dollar nor a farthing to do any- 
thing toward making a machine or getting a patent. In this 
strait he applied to a gentleman, a Mr. Fisher, who was a man 
of some property, and whom he knew could help him if he would, 
and succeeded in interesting him to that extent that he formed a 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 765 

partnership with him upon the terms that Mr. F. would furnish the. 
money to build the model and advance also enough to support 
his family and defray his expenses, and in return would receive 
half the profits on the machines. The terms were gladly accepted, 
and Mr. Howe went to work, toiling all day, and often all night ;. 
and in April his machine was finished. In May, 1845, he made 
two suits of woolen clothes, one for himself and one for his part- 
ner, upon it. He procured his patent, and tried to dispose of his 
machines to tailors, but found, to his astonishment, that he could 
not dispose of a single machine. Its ingenuity was praised, and 
of course every one wished him well, but good wishes alone would 
not support his family ; and when his partner gave it up in disgust, 
and withdrew from his business, poor Howe was disheartened to 
that extent that he set it away and obtained a place as engineer 
upon a railroad, where he remained until his health utterly failed 
and he was obliged to return home. 

Not long after this he went to England with his machine, but 
found no encouragement there, as elsewhere, but at length received, 
the offer of twelve hundred, and fifty dollars for the machine he 
had with him, and fifteen dollars per week to operate the machine 
in making umbrellas. This was not what he had hoped for, but it. 
seemed the only thing he could do, and he accepted in a sort of 
hopeless despair, and sent for his family to join him. He remained 
in this position but a few months, for his master's temper was- 
unendurable, and they were better apart. Dark as had been the 
gloomy life he had led for years, the darkest of all his sad days, 
came to him now. A stranger — without a friend in England — 
poor health, a sick wife, and three children on his hands — his case 
was sad indeed, and their sufferings were great, but at length in 
some way. he obtained the means to send his family home again, 
remaining himself in London. At last he became utterly dis- 
couraged and gave up all hopes of bringing his machine into use 
here, and pawned his model and patent papers for money to return 
to America. When he arrived at New York he was almost penni- 
less, and before he had time to look around, think of wages and 
means, or mark out any course for himself, he received intelli- 
gence that his wife was in the last stages of consumption — proba- 
bly dying. We cannot picture his anguish as he listened to this sad 
intelligence. We cannot, and no pen can convey to you any just. 



766 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

idea of the bitterness that filled the heart that bled with its agony. 
From first to last his life then seemed to have been made up ol 
a succession of failures, each succeeding one more humiliating and 
more complete than the last, and she had shared them all, had 
shared his sorrow and his poverty, her life had been dark- 
ened by the shadow from his own ; and now, in spite of the efforts 
he had made to win wealth and honor, efforts made more for her 
sake than his own, she was dying — dying in dependence and want 
— dying, and he had not the money to go to her, and was too 
feeble to walk a mile. Of all his dark days this was the darkest, 
and he felt, as he never felt it before, that Fate had singled him 
out as the object of her scorn and abuse. When at last he reached 
his wife, she was breathing her last, and he wept such tears over 
the still white face of the dead as rarely fell from the eyes of man. 

Soon after his return he learned that during his stay in London his 
machine had been largely copied by parties who had the means 
to manufacture and introduce them, and having a patent which 
was full and ample to cover all his rights, he set to work to defend 
them ; and now, by one of those strange revolutions of fortune 
which go farther than anything else to disgust one with human na- 
ture, everybody was ready to help him. The most bungling prophet 
could see noiv that success must crown him, and there were plenty 
desirous to aid and prove their regard for him. The decision of 
Judge Spurgeon, in 1854, settled the suits in his favor. From 
that time forward prosperity flowed in upon him, and he accumu- 
lated a large fortune. 

The strangest thing, perhaps, in his life, was the fact of his en- 
listing as a private soldier in the Seventeenth Regiment Connecti- 
cut Volunteers, with whom he went to the field and performed all 
his duties until his failing health compelled him to return home. 
He was a patriot in the strongest sense : he fought for his country 
because he believed it had claims on him, and because he dis- 
dained that his gold should buy him a substitute, who, falling on 
the battle field would leave a responsibility on him that he could 
not meet, here or hereafter. 

Howe died in Brooklyn, in 1867, and from the East to the West, 
from the north to the south, in all lands of the old world and the 
new, wherever woman's skill ministers to fashion or comfort, to 
luxury or necessity, by every hearthstone, and in every home, the 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



767 



"busy hum of the sewing machine will keep his memory green 
grateful hearts through all generations to come. 




ROBFRT FULTON. 




A, 

<^_ nature 



FACETIOUS author calls our men of genius " freaks of 
but looking at the array of men whose talents 
have made them comparisons in history, I can but think 
Nature is in a mood for indulging herself in " freaks " very often. 
America has in a very great degree been blessed in the number of 
which she has been the alma mater. Her democratic principles 
foster in every son, yea, and daughter too, of her soil the desire 
to be all that God gave them power to be, and do something by 
which the world will remember them when they have been gath- 
ered to their rest. The pen and brain love to dwell on the mighty 
works which these children of genius have achieved, and one of 
the mightiest monuments which living man ever built with his 
own hands to his name, is to be found in the floating palaces that 



]68 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

* walk the waters " of every land beneath the sun, the work of 
Robert Fulton. 

He was born at Little Britton, in Pennsylvania, in 1765. He 
was an artist and a genius from his birth, and while a mere child, 
used his pencil with great skill, and loved it so well as to chose 
painting for a profession, and at the age of seventeen, established 
himself in Philadelphia as a portrait and landscape painter. At 
the time when the bold conceptions and dainty skill of West had 
made him the idol of Europe, Fulton determined to go abroad 
and study under some of the great masters. It was while he was 
the guest as well as pupil of Benjamin West, that Fulton, then 
rising rapidly in his profession, met many scientific men, and was 
advised by the Duke of Bridgewater to turn his attention to engin- 
eering. He discovered what others had overlooked in the young 
American, a peculiar aptitude for mechanism and certain qualities 
of intellect which would make him master of the law of motion 
in any or every form. He also formed the acquaintance of the 
Earl of Stanhope, a man of fine talents, yet exceedingly visionary 
and ideal. Fulton's first experiments were with a missile which 
he invented to be used in time of war — a torpedo for destroying 
gunboats. He failed to accomplish anything with this, but his 
attention had by this means been directed to water craft, the 
clumsy and uncertain means by which they were propelled, and 
the great need of a better means of locomotion. Watt was 
already experimenting with steam, and it is quite probable, if not 
certain, that Fulton's genius lay more in adaptation of ideas than 
in fertility of origination. When the engine had been invented by 
another, Fulton saw at a glance, as even its own inventor did not, 
and never would, to what use to put it. His first experi- 
ments were made in France, but they were completed and put into 
practice in America. Mr. Fulton and Mr. Livingston made ap- 
plication to the Legislature of New York to grant them the 
exclusive right to navigate its waters by steam, and its unhesitat- 
ing and unqualified consent was the strongest expression they 
could give of their contempt for a project which they thought, and 
the world thought, would never be carried beyond the mad brain 
of its author. 

The engines for Fulton's first boats were ordered from England, 
and the boats were built in America in 1806. A trial trip was. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 769 

announced, to which all the political, literary and scientific men 
of New York were invited. In all that assembly there was scarce 
a man who believed in the success of the experiment, or looked 
upon it as anything but an object of ridicule. There were a vari- 
ety of opinions as to the object of Fulton, all more or less 
expressive of their contempt for him and his purpose , while all 
were unanimous in their verdict that it was money thrown away,, 
and that inventor and invention alike would come to no good. 
The vessel was unshapely — there is no denying that — a coarse,, 
clumsy, heavy, ungainly thing ; and as, at the word of command 
from Fulton, she began to move away from the shore and plow 
her way through the foaming waters, faces that were wreathed with 
smiles of scorn, or with skeptical sneers, began to straighten with 
interest, the interest to give place to wonder, the wonder to awe ; 
and at last, as the fact of locomotion became established beyond 
a doubt, and Fulton's triumph was assured, shouts and cheers 
rose, again and again, and from a visionary impostor they ele- 
vated him, at one revolution of opinion, into something almost 
superhuman. The " Clermont " then started on her first long trial 
trip, and ever after the tongue of doubter and skeptic were silent. 
The navigation of the Hudson by steam now became a fact ; the 
Clermont became a regular passenger boat, while Fulton watched 
closely and steadily for every opportunity to detect flaw or fault 
in her machinery, and many important improvements were made. 
However, if the " course of true love never did run smooth, ,r 
neither did the course of any inventor whose invention was of in- 
terest enough to provoke opposition, and Fulton soon found com- 
petition, even though he bad been granted the " exclusive right 
of navigating all the waters of New York by steam." Other boats 
were started upon the river, propelled by steam in the same way 
as their own. This was so clearly an infringement on Living- 
ston and Fulton's rights, that they applied for an injunction, which 
was refused by the court of chancery, after which it was carried 
to the court of errors, which granted it. They now added a num- 
ber of new boats to their line, and largely increased their business. 
About this time were heard murmurs of discontent from those 
who wished to enter into this branch of business, and not unfre- 
quently the mass of the people joined against Fulton and 
declared that the legislature had no right to allow him to monop- 
49 



770 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

olize what should, and must be in time open to all. Great interests 
were at stake — none knew yet the magnitude of the interests — 
perhaps none even guessed them, or had any idea how vast the 
transportation of freight and passengers would yet be. 

Fulton did not live to see his great invention carried to com- 
pletion, or to perfection. The State of New Jersey had declared 
Fulton's monopoly unconstitutional, and in the spring of 1815 
his partner endeavored to have the decision revoked, but 
failed. Mr. Fulton had been attending court, and returning to 
his home, was exposed to very severe weather, caught a bad cold 
and was seized with a very violent illness, partially recovered, but 
had a relapse, from which in his weak state he could not rally. 
He died on the 24th of February, 18 15. His loss was felt by 
the community at large, and every token of respect was paid him by 
the citizens of all the Eastern States and cities, and by the public 
journals. 



RICHARD M. HOE. 




j^OTHING marks more sharply and distinctly the mighty 
Wv strides which the world has taken in the arts and sci- 
rT ences, and in the more substantial and truly useful inven- 
tions which have elevated the human race, than the perfection to 
which printing has been carried ; and to realize this fully, one need 
but observe the working of one of our modern presses, as the 
beautiful sheets are printed and thrown from it with lightning 
rapidity, and compare its work with the rude, clumsy and almost 
unintelligible hieroglyphics of the ancients. 

Foremost among those who have laid the world under 
lasting obligations, standing high above the masses as a bene- 
factor of his race, and one whose name will be remembered 




RICHARD M. HOE. 



772 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

so long as food must be gleaned for the hungry laborer in 
the fields of literature, or from those same fields must be gathered 
amusement for. those who " toil not, neither do they spin," is; 
Richard M. Hoe, the inventor of the steam cylinder press, who was 
born in New York city, in 1812. His father was a man of more 
than ordinary talents and ingenuity, and engaged in the manufac- 
ture of printing materials. 

It is said that young Richard disliked the business exceedingly,, 
and refused to walk in the "way his father trod," preferring to be 
a carpenter. He seems to have inherited all his father's ingenuity,, 
and possessed some that was original. His first invention 
was a method of grinding saws, or rather, perhaps, an improve- 
ment on an old method, for which he obtained patents both in 
America and England. 

Previous to this, however, his father's health failed, and Richard 
took his place in the firm of which he has been a member. 
They were now manufacturing a press of their own invention, at 
least so-called, but really an imitation of, and improvement on, the 
Napier Press, of England. When Mr. Richard M. Hoe returned to 
New York from London, he at once confined himself to this 
branch of their business, and produced the machine so well known 
as Hoe's Double-Cylinder Press, thought at that time to be the very 
perfection of human skill in mechanism, and still extensively used. 

In a few years the progress which the newspaper interests had 
made far outgrew this, and something better was so imperatively 
demandea that Mr. Hoe taxed his brains to the utmost to invent 
something that would work with accelerated speed, but in vain ; 
for four years he experimented to no purpose. The difficulties 
were too great, and the solution of the problem was still far from 
him. At times the idea seemed to be almost defined, then, when 
he strove to grasp it, eluded him like a " will o' the wisp " 

Through the day he worked steadily at his business, but when 
night came, and he sat down to think, the shadow haunted him 
like a troubled spirit, and he again resumed the study ; but the 
more he thought and experimented, the more impossible it seemed 
to reach the desired result. With patience exhausted he was 
about to abandon it in despair, when suddenly, like lightning swift 
leaping from the summer sky, or like some trick of magic, the 
plan by which the types might be secured on a horizontal cylin- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 773 

der came to his mind. He had mastered the difficulty, and in 
the hours of that night, when sleep was upon the children of men, 
ihe wrought out the plan of the mightiest conception that man 
ever knew. In the morning he had upon paper the magnificent 
Lightning Press ; matured his model, carried it to Washington, 
obtained his patent, and to-day the machine is incomparable and 
unrivaled. 

Mr. Hoe is also the proprietor of the Adams press, and has very 
extensive machine works both in England and America, indeed 
the largest of the kind in the world. The ten cylinder press costs 
fifty thousand dollars, and is considered cheap at that; it 
strikes off twenty-five thousand sheets per hour, and is capable of 
exceeding this. The inventor is still studying to improve it. 

No one who has not seen the gigantic machine at work can 
-ever form an idea of its vast power, or imagine the magnitude of 
the task of bringing it to perfection ; for the simple hand-press, 
easily worked by a child, was the tiny germ from which the mighty 
genius of Hoe developed this magnificent master-piece of ma- 
chinery. 

Mr. Hoe is still a young man, not far advanced in his fifties, and 
bids fair to live to bless the world in the future, as he has in the 
past, for many years to come. He is a just man, one who walks 
u uprightly before God," and whose observance of the golden rule 
has passed into proverb with those who know him most intimately. 
No better thing can be said of one than this — no other criticism 
of human character or conduct could be so high a compliment. 



GEORGE STEPHENSON. 




REAT results are born of great efforts; while patient en- 
deavor stands faithfully by, watching jealously, that never, 
mid pain and suffering, under discouragement or even in 
disgrace, shall the brain cease its labors of maternity until her idea 



774 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

is matured and given to the world as perfect as human ingenuity 
can develop it. 

To no one thing are the nations of the earth so much indebted 
as to steam. In a most especial manner is the New World, in its 
mighty strides from a feeble germ whose very life seemed to de- 
pend upon the tolerance of her natural foes, to the strongest 
republic, if not the strongest of all civilized nations, dependent 
upon steam for the strength which lent her power to go with 
gigantic strides toward the goal, and reach it in the glow of 
her sturdy national youth, while those who were far advanced in 
years when she was born came in long after her in the race. Not 
only do we possess the longest railroads in the world, but the 
cheapest, and we no longer wait for civilization to ask for them 
to be run to their doors, but with the sturdy tramp of genii, they 
make their way through mighty forests where never the woodman's 
axe rang, and never a sound broke their silence until the engine's 
shrill whistle echoed througn the depths of the tangled jungles 
and slumbering valleys ; and while yet the Red man looked on 
with dusky eyes dilated with wonder, the teeming emigrant fol- 
lowed fast in its wake, and villages and cities sprang up beside 
it, and the desert blossomed as the rose. 

The inventor of the present system of locomotion was George 
Stephenson, a very humble person for the first half of his life,: 
afterward looked to from far and near as the peer of any or all 
of those who were the acknowledged benefactors of their race. 

He was born June 9, 1781, in a collier's tenement house, in the 
little village of Wylam, England. His father was a thrifty man, 
foreman at a shaft engine, on a salary of twelve shillings a week. 
The Stephensons removed to Dewly Burn before George reached 
his eighth year, and in this cold and cheerless place the child 
found his first employment in weeding turnips and tending cows, 
at the magnificent remuneration of two pence per day. From 
his earliest childhood he looked to the time when he should be an 
overseer, or have charge of an engine ; and the ambition, modest 
as it seems now, was a bold one for the boy whose surroundings 
Were all of so depressing a nature. He kept alive his child-like 
hopes by building mud engines, with hemlock stems for pipes, and 
he built mimic wheels, that to his imagination seemed capable of 
bearing them to the uttermost parts of the earth. Faint foreshad- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 775 

owings were they of the magnificent locomotives of which they 
were the forerunners. While he was a mere boy his father ap- 
pointed him assistant foreman at the Durley pit. He neglected 
no opportunity of making himself acquainted with the duties of 
the engine-room. He studied the machine by night and day, 
and he loved the dumb thing like a brother, or something dearer 
still ; while a personal friendship that was almost worship, sprung 
up in his heart for the engine he controlled. At the age of fifteen 
he was appointed engineer in a colliery, and he shouted triumph- 
antly, as if to the Fates who controlled his destiny, or would 
thwart his plans, " I am made for life." At eighteen years of age 
he was quite a celebrated engineer, but otherwise wholly unedu- 
cated. He had never attended school, and could neither read nor 
write. He was laboriously engaged through the day, yet after that 
he still stood beside his pet, cleaning and caring for it like a 
mother for her child. 

He now began to feel that the want of education was a serious 
drawback to his future progress — a bar which he must sur- 
mount and with that firmness which was characteristic, deter- 
mined to remove it. Old as he was, he went to the village 
school, and began with his ABC, like a little child, and so earn- 
estly did he apply himself, that before he was nineteen years of 
age, he could write his name in a bold, legible hand, and read 
passably well. Subsequently he studied arithmetic, mathematics, 
practical and experimental philosophy, mechanics, and similar 
subjects with marked success. He had a fine memory and an 
understanding easily impressed ; while he was modest, and never 
afraid to admit his ignorance. 

In 1802 he removed to Wellington Quay and was married. 
After remaining here three years he removed to Killingworth, 
where he was overtaken by a severe calamity in the death of his 
wife, and then went to Scotland. After nearly ? vear's absence he 
returned to Killingworth, where his only child, a little son, Robert, 
was being nursed. 

A man like Stephenson, who understands well the machines 
under his control, and who takes pride in them, will always be in 
a way remarkable, and have opportunities for displaying his inge- 
nuity, but the first really important test to which his skill was put, 
was remedying the defects of an engine which had defied the skill 



776 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

of all the engineers in the neighborhood, and even of the maker 
himself. Stephenson remedied the difficulty at once, and received 
for it ten pounds and the position of chief engineer of the col- 
liery. In 1812 he was made engine-wright ; when, being re- 
lieved from manual labor he could give his entire attention to 
machinery. He had given a great deal of thought and study to 
the subject of railroads, and was perfectly familiar with every 
experiment that had been made to introduce the locomotive. 
Their heavy and cumbrous wheels, cogs, screws, pistons and levers 
had been tried in the conveyance of wagons, but the speed" was 
so slow, the wear and tear of machinery was so great, that every 
experiment was abandoned. That it must come into use, Ste- 
phenson felt sure, and his mighty mind grasped the advantages 
that would result from the application of a power so enormous as 
that of the locomotive, if once it were brought into perfect sub- 
jection. Setting himself to study it out, he worked until he was 
satisfied he had found the secret of so many disappointments, and 
unhesitatingly declared he could make a better engine himself, in 
which he was encouraged by all the colliery proprietors by whom 
his ingenuity had so often been tested ; and Lord Ravensworth at 
once advanced money for the necessary expenditures, in remem- 
brance of which Stephenson called his first engine "My Lord." 
This locomotive, after ten months of anxious labor and constant 
personal supervision, was completed. It fully justified his boast ; 
•still the experiments with it, although satisfactory to every one 
else were not so to him. He found it defective in many points, 
and so far — so far from his ideal — yet, though many improvements 
were afterwards added by the author, this mechanical contrivance 
contained the germ of all that has ever been effected since. 

The use of steam for the transportation of passengers had never 
been dreamed of. The Stockton and Darlington railroad was the 
first completed road in the world, and was opened for traffic on 
the 27th of September, 1825, and one of Stephenson's engines 
tried. It was attached to a train consisting of six wagons loaded 
with coal, then the passenger coach, filled with the directors and 
their friends, then twenty- one wagons fitted up with seats for 
passengers, and lastly, six more wagons filled with coal ; making, 
in all, a train of thirty-six vehicles. " The signal was given," says 
a local chronicler of the time, " and this immense train, drawn bv 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 777 

=a single engine, started off at a speed of twelve miles an hour. A 
large passenger traffic immediately sprung up, and was, of course, 
a source of unexpected profit to the road. With the successful 
issue of the Stockton and Darlington project, the practicability of 
railroads became an established fact, and other schemes were 
at once set on foot. The Liverpool and Manchester was the most 
important road, and was bitterly opposed by the canal proprietors, 
whose monopoly it destroyed ; but at length the bill was granted, 
and Stephenson was appointed engineer of the line. He gives a 
humorous account of his cross-examination before the House of 
Commons, of the conditions upon which an engine could be used 
upon the road, and finally of the trial of the four different en- 
gines which competed for acceptance before the directors. The 
judges had declared ten miles per hour to be the greatest speed 
possible for an engine to make, but the average speed of Stephen- 
son's " Rocket," during her trial trips, was twenty-nine miles per 
hour, or three times that given. The other engines were tried, but 
proved so inferior that the " Rocket " was accepted, and a prize 
of five hundred pounds awarded. 

Other engines made by Mr. Stephenson far eclipsed the 
" Rocket," and when the " Northumbrian " conveyed the body of 
a gentleman who had met with an accident a distance of fifteen 
miles in twenty-five minutes, the incredible speed burst upon the 
world with all the force of a new and unlooked-for phenomenon, 
and Stephenson's fame was made, and his career fairly inaugurated. 
Orders came in from all parts of the world for his engines ; his 
workshops were crowded with artisans, and he was recognized as 
the first engineer in his country. His personal services were much 
in demand, and every one who was desirous of constructing a 
road endeavored to obtain his influence. He paid a visit to 
Trance, Belgium and Spain, and was received with the high- 
est honors, and every mark of distinguished attention. In Spain 
he had a long illness, from which he never wholly recovered. 
His constitution, so strong and vigorous was broken, and he died 
on the 1 2th of August, 1848, in the sixty-seventh year of his age. 

In the latter years of his life he was greatly assisted by his son 
Robert, who rose to be the first engineer in the world. Mr. 
George Stephenson was one of the most remarkable instances of 
.a truly self-made man. He would never admit that he had more 



778 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

genius than others, but was proud of his perseverance and strength 
of purpose, to which he attributed his success in life. In his case 
we see a man struggling with the direst poverty, — born in it, cra- 
dled in it, reared in it, — meeting and fighting it at every step, yet 
never losing sight for one instant of his determination to master 
the problem that had so long baffled others, and to unfold the 
mysteries that slept in the womb of possibilities, and to break the- 
fetters of the giant who, once free, would be a mightier power 
than was known on earth. " I have fought," he said, " for the loco- 
motive nearly twenty years, having no engineers to help me until 
I had raised engineers under my own care. The school of engi- 
neers were college-bred men ; they wrapped themselves in their 
professional dignity, and would not meet me in former years, be- 
cause by the most patient drudgery of hand and brain I worked 
out for myself my ideal. I have persevered, and I have conquered" 
He was modest in his deportment, and when a poor man carefully 
preserved his self-respect, and never was guilty of an act which 
could impair it. His thirst for knowledge made his poverty re- 
spectable, and when he rose to a higher position and associated 
with men of the highest standing and influence in Britain, he took 
his position with as much quiet self-composure as if he had been 
born to the purpose. They wondered at the ease and dignity of 
his deportment, and men in the highest ranks of life pronounced 
him one of "nature's gentlemen." 



ELI WHITNEY. 



WkfffiiO no one man does the North and South alike feel under so 




$(p " great obligations as to Eli Whitney. But for his genius 
the great staple of the South could not have been pre- 
pared for the manufacturers of the North in quantities sufficient 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 779 

to make it a popular article of commerce. True, in time the need 
for the article must have forced a way for its preparation, but the 
time was then, when the means must come, or the work must lan- 
guish and the people suffer for want of one. 

Eli Whitney was born in Westborough, Worcester county, Mas- 
sachusetts, December 8th, 1765. Inclinations of his mechanical 
genius were developed at a very early age. In a hundred little 
ways the ingenuity of the boy showed itself, and like many another 
ingenious boy, his father and friends shook their heads in sorrow- 
ful regret, and indulged in sad misapprehensions of the worst that 
could befall him — at least, in the opinion of the strict, frugal, in- 
dustrious New Englanders, a shiftless manhood. 

From the age of nineteen, young Whitney conceived the idea 
of obtaining a liberal education, and partly from the avails of his 
mechanical labors, partly by teaching school in the winter he 
was so far able to overcome the obstacles that lay in his way, as 
to prepare himself to enter the freshman class at Yale college, in 
1789. After taking his degree in the autumn of 1792, he engaged 
in the capacity of private tutor to Mr. B., of Georgia, but on ar- 
riving in that city found another had taken his place, leaving him 
without resources or friends, save in the family of Gen. Greene, 
of Mulberry Grove, with whom he had formed an accidental 
acquaintance. These people, with true southern hospitality, invi- 
ted him to make their house his home, where he commenced the 
study of the law. While there, Mrs. Greene was engaged in a 
sort of embroidery called tambour work. She complained of the 
frame she used, saying it tore the delicate threads, whereupon 
Whitney, eager to do anything for a lady to whom he was so 
deeply indebted, set his wits to work, and constructed one 
so superior in every way that she was delighted with it and con- 
sidered it a great piece of ingenuity. 

A short time after the family were visited by a party of gentle- 
men, mostly officers who had served under the General in the 
Revolutionary War ; and they were discussing the impossibility 
of being able to make the cotton crop, otherwise a staple in the 
south, a source of profit while the labor of removing the seeds 
by hand was so great and so tedious; and that until inge- 
nuity could invent some machine to do the work of which they 
were hopeless, it could never become a marketable article or 



780 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

a source of wealth to them. Separating one pound of the clean 
staple from the seed was a day's work for a woman ; — it must be 
given up. An idea occurred to Mrs. Greene. Her woman's intu- 
ition had read the character of Mr. Whitney, and she believed it 
only required an opportunity to develop his ingenuity for him 
to make a mark in the world. Said she, " Gentlemen, apply to my 
friend Whitney, here; he can make anything; " at the same time 
showing the tambour frame and several other articles which he 
had made. 

She introduced them to him, extolled his genius and com- 
mended him to their friendship. He modestly disclaimed any 
claim to mechanical genius, and on their mentioning the subject, 
declared he never saw a cotton seed in his life. Mrs. G., how- 
ever, had accomplished her object, which was to introduce him to 
some influential men, who should assist him in making a start in 
life in some way. No one foresaw the change it would make in 
his life. 

This interview, so accidental on his part, was the turning point 
with him, and he resolved, if it were possible, to invent something 
which would bring him fame ; and the motive which stimulated 
him, was above his own personal interests, was a wish, or deter- 
mination that the lady whose kindness had stood him in hand in 
this utmost need, and who had so high a confidence, in his ability, 
should not be disappointed. He communicated his design to Mr. 
Miller, who so far entered into his plan as to give him a room in 
his house wherein to carry on his work. He set to work under 
every disadvantage, having to make his own tools, and even to 
manufacture his own wire, an article not to be procured in Savan- 
nah. Near the close of the winter the machine was so near com- 
pletion as to leave no doubt of his success. As yet, no one 
knew of his plans except Mrs. Greene, and Mr. Phineas Miller^ 
who was a native of Connecticut, and a graduate of Yale college. 
He was a lawyer of fine local reputation, and after the death of 
Gen. Greene, became the husband of his widow. 

He had considerable means at his command and proposed to 
be at the whole expense until the machine was completed, whei 
he would be joint proprietor, and share in the profits of the sales 
and legal documents were drawn up, declaring that if the machine 
was successful, " all the advantages and profits arising therefrom 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 781 

should be mutually and equally shared between them." An 
invention of so great value to the agricultural interests of the 
country, could not long remain a secret, and the knowledge which 
soon spread through the State was the cause of so intense an 
excitement that multitudes came from all parts to see a machine 
which was to revolutionize everything in the South, and under 
whose influence their waste acres would "blossom as the rose." 

So determined were some of the populace to obtain possession 
of the treasure, and neither law nor justice could restrain them, 
they actually broke into the room at midnight and carried off the 
machine. By this means the public became possessed of the 
secret, and before he could complete his model and secure the 
patent, quite a large number of machines were in successful ope- 
ration, constructed with some slight deviation from the original, 
with the hope of eluding the penalty for violating the patent 
right. 

As soon as the partnership between Miller and Whitney was 
formed, Mr. Whitney repaired to Connecticut, where he was to 
perfect the machine, obtain a patent, and manufacture and ship 
to Georgia such number as would supply the demand. The 
greatest . difficulty experienced by men in that day was the 
scarcity of money, and the difficulty of obtaining means sufficient 
to carry on any enterprise. 

In April, 1793, he returned to Georgia, when the demand for 
the machines was immensely large. Enormous crops of cotton 
had been planted, with the expectation that the new gin would 
enable them to market it at little expense. In March, 1795, Mr. 
Whitney went to New York, and, in the midst of perplexity and 
discouragement, he was confined to his bed three weeks with 
fever. As soon as he was able, he went to New Haven, by packet, 
where he learned that his shop and all the machinery were de- 
stroyed by fire. Thus he was suddenly reduced to bankruptcy, 
without the means of making payment. His mind, however, was 
not one to sink or yield under such trials, but seemed to gather 
strength from all the opposition it met. Of a similar spirit was 
Mr. Miller, and the following extract from a letter of his to Mr. 
Whitney shows how brave was the moral strength of the man — ■ 
how undaunted the courage which met what, to another, would 
have been defeat. " I think we ought to meet such events with 



782 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

equanimity. We are pursuing a valuable object by honorable 
means, and I believe that our measures are such as are justified 
by virtue and morality It has pleased Providence to postpone 
the attainment of this object. In the midst of the reflections 
called up by our misfortune, and with feelings keenly sensitive to 
the loss, and injury, and wrong, we have sustained, I feel an 
exultant joy that you possess a mind similar to my own — that you 
are not disheartened — that you will persevere and endeavor, at 
all hazards, to attain the main object. I will devote all my time, 
all my thoughts, all my exertions, all the fortune I possess, and all 
the money I can earn or borrow, to compass and complete the 
business we have undertaken ; and if fortune should by any fu- 
ture disaster deprive us of our reward, we will at least deserve it. 
It shall never be said that we lost an object which perseverance 
could attain. I think it strange, indeed, if two young men in the 
prime of life, with some share of ingenuity, with a little knowledge of 
the world, a great deal of industry, and a considerable command of 
property, should not be able to sustain this blow, heavy as it is." 
After this the company began to be very much straightened for 
money ; but Mr. Miller expressed a confidence that they should 
be able to raise funds in some way or other; though he knew not 
how. While they were thus overwhelmed with misfortune, intel- 
ligence came from England that the cotton cleaned by their gin 
was ruined by the machinery. The news threatened the death 
blow to their hopes. At this time, 1796, they had thirty gins in 
different parts of Georgia. Some of these, owing to this report, 
were even then standing still. The company had $10,000 in real 
estate suitable only for ginning cotton. The strain upon the 
mind of Mr. Whitney was so great that it almost gave way under it. 
It seemed impossible to extricate himself from the accumulation of 
misfortunes ; and he wrote to Mr. Miller as follows : " Our ex- 
treme embarrassments are now so great that it seems impossible 
to struggle longer against them. It has required my utmost exer- 
tions to exist, without making any progress in our business. I 
have labored hard to stem the strong current of disappointment 
which threatens to carry me down the cataract, but have labored 
with a shattered oar, and in vain, unless some speedy help comes. 
Life is but short at best, and six or seven of its best years are an 
immense sacrifice to him who makes it. My most unremitting 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 783 

attention has been given to my business ; I have sacrificed to it 
other objects by which I might have gained thirty or forty thou- 
sand dollars. My whole prospects have been bounded by it with 
the expectation that I should, ere this, have realized something by 
it." Honest merchants, who were neither bribed nor prejudiced 
gave their testimony in favor of Whitney's gin, and had it not 
been for the extensive and shameful encroachments upon their 
rights, they would have been successful. It seemed impossible to 
obtain justice in any court in Georgia. The companies and cor- 
porations who opposed them were as twenty against one ; and the 
juries were influenced, and bribed, and bought, where, indeed, 
they were not personally interested. They would now gladly have 
relinquished the plan of using their gins, and satisfied themselves 
with disposing of their rights, but none would buy what they 
could use with impunity. 

In December, 1802, Mr. Whitney negotiated a sale of his 
patent right with the State of South Carolina. The Legislature 
laid a tax of 25 cents upon every saw employed in ginning cot- 
ton ; to be continued for five years ; and as some of the gins, in- 
deed most of them, had forty saws, it promised to pay better than 
any other disposition they could make of it. About this time 
Mr. Goodrich, an agent of the company, entered into a similar 
negotiation with the State of Tennessee. This State had by this 
time begun to realize the importance of the invention, and the 
citizens testified to their strong desire to come into possession of 
its benefits. The Legislature therefore passed a law laying a tax 
°f 37^ cents per annum for every saw, for the space of four 
years, to be faithfully paid over to the patentee as fast as col- 
lected. Thus far prospects were favorable to the patentees, when, 
through the influence of enemies, the Legislature of South Caro- 
lina suddenly annulled her contract, refused to pay any more, and 
sued for the refunding of what had already been paid. Mr. 
Whitney felt this most keenly, as is shown by the remonstrance 
which he presented to the Legislature. The State of Tennessee 
followed the example of South Carolina in annulling her con- 
tracts, and a similar step was undertaken in North Carolina ; but 
a committee to whom it was referred declared, " the State ought to 
fulfil its engagement with punctuality and good faith," which 
resolution was adopted by both Houses. There were high- 



7^4 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

minded men, in South Carolina, too, who felt keenly the disgrace 
their State had brought upon itself, and the bitter injustice done 
Mr. Whitney, and were indignant at the measure adopted by the 
Legislature of 1806. Their sentiments produced so marked an 
impression on the minds of the public that they fairly compelled 
the Legislature to rescind their last decision, paid up all arrears, 
and signified their respect for Mr. Whitney by marked commenda- 
tion. In Georgia the tide seemed at last to turn in their favor,, 
and where the strangest injustice had been met and the deepest 
wrongs borne, were found those who viewed with scorn and con- 
tempt the base frauds imposed upon him. At this time a new and 
unexpected responsibility devolved upon him. Mr. Miller, who 
had at first been enthusiastically confident of realizing a large 
fortune, had yielded to the perpetual disappointments that met 
him at every turn, and had sunk under them, and died, broken- 
hearted by the neglect and wrong which had been heaped upon 
them. 

Again, the United States Court, held in Georgia, in December, 
1807, gave a most important and triumphant decision in his favor, 
but the time of the patent had nearly expired. More than sixty 
suits had been instituted in Georgia before a single decision on 
its merits was obtained. A gentleman of much legal experience, 
who was well acquainted with Mr. Whitney's affairs in the South, 
and sometimes acted as his legal adviser, says, in all his experi- 
ence in the thorny profession of the law, he has never seen such a 
case of perseverance under such difficulties, " nor do I believe I ever 
knew a man who would have met them with equal coolness and 
firmness, or would finally have obtained even the partial success 
which he had." Becoming deeply impressed with the uncertainty 
of all his hopes founded upon the cotton gin, notwithstanding all 
their high promise, he began seriously to look around for some busi- 
ness in which superior ingenuity, persevering industry, and rare 
business qualifications, which he must have been conscious of pos- 
sessing, might bring him at least a competency. The business 
which he chose, in accordance with his mind upon this subject, 
was the manufacture of arms for the United States. He addressed 
a letter to the Hon. Oliver Wolcott, Secretary of the Treasury, by 
whose influence he obtained a contract for the manufacture of ten 
thousand stand of arms, four thousand of which were to be 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 7^5 

delivered by the first of September of the ensuing year ; the balance 
within one year from that time. Finding it impossible to com- 
plete them in time to fulfil his contract, the Government, in the 
most liberal and generous manner, extended the time to eight, in- 
stead of two years. The great improvement which has been 
made in arms under his supervision, and the direction of his 
genius, has been acknowledged by the government, and laid the 
country under permanent obligation to him. He now obtained a 
contract to manufacture for the United States fifteen thousand 
stand of arms, and a similar contract from the State of New York, 
and in the year 1822, Mr. Calhoun, then Secretary of War, ad- 
mitted, in a conversation upon the subject, that at the two public 
armories alone, the government was saving twenty-five thousand 
dollars per annum through Mr. Whitney. 

In 181 2 he again attempted to secure a renewal of his patent 
upon his cotton gin, and, although he proved clearly his right to 
the invention, and that it was giving to the Southern States an 
annual income of at least three million of dollars, still, he failed ; 
but his manufacture of arms was gradually bringing him affluence 
and fortune. In January, 181 7, he married Miss Henrietta Ed- 
wards, — daughter of Hon. Pierpont Edwards, of the District 
Court of Connecticut, — and fortune seemed to smile upon him, 
as he saw his family circle increased by a son and two daughters ; 
then death, which comes to all, took from the community this pa- 
tient and good man, whose genius had benefited all mankind ; and 
the demonstrations of respect and regard which were manifested 
by the citizens of New Haven proved how deep and sincere were 
their regrets for his loss. 




CHARLES GOODYEAR. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 787 



CHARLES GOODYEAR. 



jJ^Kj^HE method by which to utilize the catechu, that was so 
$(£ abundant in the East Indies and in South America, had 
long been sought. Ships had brought it over as ballast 
from time immemorial, and one and another had attempted to 
Tender it useful in the manufacture of those articles for which it 
seemed so perfectly adapted, and which the world stood in need 
of. France was the first to put it to any real use, not far from the 
year 1820, by weaving strands of rubber with the threads of the 
goods for garters and suspenders ; and also, to some extent, for 
blacking and polish. The first pair of India Rubber shoes were 
exhibited in Boston, 1820, and it is said that they were so intensely 
homely as to be little less than monstrosities, and were looked 
upon more as curiosities than otherwise ; but a few years later 
the annual importation reached five hundred thousand pair. In- 
deed no lady thought herself well dressed in stormy weather un- 
less she had on a pair of the horrid things ; but they were so un- 
deniably ugly that only the fact that they were fashionable, and 
cost five dollars per pair, made them even tolerable. In the win- 
ter they froze solid ; in the summer they melted, and must have 
been every way a nuisance. Yet it seemed absolutely certain 
that it would some day come into general use, and that the process 
of preparation was a simple affair when once it was discovered ; 
and Yankee ingenuity and Yankee inquisitiveness was sure to find 
it out. A process was discovered by a foreman of a patent 
leather factory, a Mr. Chaffee, which was believed by himself and 
others to be the best thing yet hit upon. Capitalists united and 
formed an " India Rubber Company," and disposed of their 
stock readily. The excitement ran to fever height, and " all went 
merry as a marriage bell." But a sword was suspended by a hair 
above them, and disaster stared them blankly in the face. The 
goods, of every conceivable variety, were made in the winter ; and 



788 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

when the heat of summer came, they not only melted, but were so 
offensive in odor, that they were absolutely obliged to bury them. 
India rubber stock fell — or rather was thrown up by the ruined 
and disgusted stockholders — and they were appalled by their 
total and irretrievable losses. While they were still operating, 
however, before the final crash fell, with its overwhelming disgrace, 
a gentleman from Philadelphia stepped into the warerooms of the 
company, only from curiosity, to inspect the rubber goods, and 
purchased a life preserver, which he examined carefully; and 
finding the valve clumsy and defective, invented a better and safer 
one, with which he hurried back to New York, hoping to be able 
to sell it to the Company. This man was Charles Goodyear, 
whose name has since become inseparably connected with the 
India Rubber works. He had been engaged in the hardware busi- 
ness from boyhood, and through a long series of misfortunes and 
business difficulties, was now on the eve of bankruptcy, and 
hoped that he would be able to make something out of it with 
which to relieve himself from his present embarrassment. The 
agent recognized the skill and ingenuity of the invention, but 
knew how useless it was at the present stage of affairs to apply it 
to the goods they were manufacturing ; and taking Mr. Goodyear 
into his confidence, explained the real condition of the business, 
and the utter hopelessness of accomplishing anything, or, of 
saving themselves, unless some better method were devised for 
preparing the gum than had yet been discovered. He told him 
everything with a desperate truthfulness, and admitted that the 
thousands of dollars' worth of goods then in the market were 
worse than worthless, begging him to try if he could not dis- 
cover the long-sought process. He explained the process they 
then used, and while he admitted that it was an utter failure, 
prophesied that it would yet be brought to perfection, and that he 
should live to see the day. 

Mr. Goodyear listened in silence — listened like one who dreams 
— listened half unconscious that any one was speaking — listened 
with a dim, yet clear, a vague, yet firm conviction that he had 
found his life work ; and this proved sadly true, indeed. He went 
home to devote the best of his years to patient work ; to days and 
nights of study and experiment ; and while his friends considered 
him a monomaniac upon the subject, there was something heroic 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 789 

in his devotion to this apparently lost cause. Again and again his 
efforts were failures ; again and again entreaty, reproach and ridi- 
cule were brought to bear to dissuade him from his purpose. But 
without money, credit or influence ; with a young family depend- 
ent upon him for support ; and health already rapidly failing un- 
der steady and severe application, he kept his eye upon the suc- 
cess which he was determined to wrest from the future at any cost, 
and steadily answered again and again : " There is a way — there 
must be one — and / will find it /" Every preparation on the known 
earth was tried ; every mineral, vegetable and chemical substance 
or compound which ingenuity could invent or desperation sug- 
gest, was used in vain. His friends turned from him coldly, and 
even the most indulgent regarded him as an idle dreamer, or as a 
reckless enthusiast ; while others considered him a fit candidate 
for a residence in an insane asylum. 

In 1835 ne succeeded in producing sheets of gum cloth so 
smooth and firm as to win him a medal at the Fair of the American 
Institute ; and for a time he seemed to have reached what he had 
striven for so hard, when, to his intense horror and mortification, 
he discovered, by the merest accident, that a drop of acid would 
ruin it. The next operation, and one which, unconsciously to 
himself, carried him to the very verge of success, was also the re- 
sult of accident. He was one day bronzing a piece of rubber 
cloth, when, wishing to remove the bronze from part of it, he used 
aqua fortis for the purpose. Of course it removed the bronze, 
but it also removed all color from the cloth, and he threw it aside 
as spoiled. A few days later the incident occurred to his mind, 
and he thought he would find the cloth and see how it looked. 
He was overjoyed to find that it had grown as hard as slate under 
the effects of the sulphuric acid ; and again he believed, this time 
truly, that he stood on the threshold of victory. But he had not 
yet found the key to open the door. He readily obtained a patent 
on this process of preparing the rubber, and also a partner, with 
a large capital, and removed his family to New York ; and for a 
time fortune smiled upon him, when he was again reduced to 
beggary by the failure of his partner. He was so terribly re- 
duced in circumstances as to be often faint and weak from hunger, 
and every useful, or valuable article in his possession, was pawned 
to keep his family from starvation. He endeavored in every way 



79° FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

to interest capitalists in his plans, and to induce them to examine 
specimens of his work, but they would have nothing to do with it ' r 
and declared, with some truth, that money enough had been 
wasted in such folly. His own faith in his ultimate success was 
regarded by his acquaintances (friends he had none now), as the 
maddest of lunacies. 

In 1836 he succeeded in borrowing a small sum of money, and 
with it proceeded to Roxbury, where he met Mr. Chaffee, who 
had never lost his hope of the ultimate perfection of his invention, 
and cheerfully and cordially tendered him the use of their old 
works in which to carry on his experiments. He soon pro- 
duced goods of so much better quality than any that had yet 
been made, that for a time fortune promised to reward him, 
and his path was bright with the delusive smile of hope, 
for it was but delusive ; then the darkness grew dense — denser 
than ever before. He had obtained an order from the Govern- 
ment for a few hundred mail bags, and produced them in such 
beautiful shape, with so fine a finish, and so entirely insensible to 
moisture as to excite general admiration; and for a time the 
world was compelled to listen to the inventor's assurance that he 
was at last victorious ; and as the proof was before them they 
listened willingly. But again the goods proved worthless, and 
for the first time in his life he was driven to despair. His pos- 
sessions had been seized for debt, and his friends and family up- 
braided him with his folly and their sufferings. The alternative 
was terrible. His wife and children were very dear ; it was as 
much — more, indeed — for their sakes than his own that he craved 
the fortune which success would bring him; and he knew he- 
would accomplish his object in time. He knew the discovery 
which had eluded him so long was almost within his grasp. 

It was plain to him that sulphur was the controlling agency, and 
that it must be through it, in some form, that the object would be 
accomplished, but how — how to subject every part of the gum to 
the influence of the chemical, without destroying its own original, 
properties. He could not turn back — he could not abandon it — 
he could not look on and see the hopes that were so dear to- 
him go down in ruin, or be tossed on the beech at his feet, 
mocking wrecks. He experimented and labored for months 
with a frigid, desperate determination that would have wrung 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY 791 

pity from the heart of even his evil genius. Had he worked 
for wealth alone, he might have turned to other channels, and grati- 
fied his ambition in other ways. But he aspired to be a benefac- 
tor of his race ; and he believed that the generations that would 
live when the tuif had grown green above him for many a year, 
would rise up and "call him blessed." He thought the work was 
for him to do — that he could leave it for no other. Thus far, 
experiments had revealed nothing that was of any use to him, 
but an accident so trivial in itself as to seem insignificant, 
revealed the long hoped for, long prayed for result. I have told 
you before that he was looked on as a monomaniac upon this 
subject, and few cared to have him broach it, but standing in a 
store in Woburn, he was telling some gentlemen something of the 
properties of a bit of cloth he held in his hand, when he acci- 
dentally dropped it upon the red-hot stove. The ordinary cloth 
would have melted at once, but this was sulphur-dressed and only 
seemed to harden. To those who looked on it signified noth- 
ing, but to him it was a revelation, the revelation which his 
prophetic soul had whispered again and again would come. 
He renewed his experiments and soon proved, to his own satisfac- 
tion, at least, that India Rubber, mixed with sulphur and exposed 
to a certain degree of heat would neither melt nor freeze after- 
wards.; and now, nothing remained but to ascertain the exact 
degree of heat needed. 

No more terrible existence than his at this period can well be 
imagined. The clouds which had long hung over him thickened 
and darkened until life seemed almost intolerable.. He was 
deeply in debt, and in the sorest poverty, while the torturing fear 
which haunted him, and undermined still more his frail strength, 
was that he should die and not be able to complete his discovery ; 
but the most wretched drawback was his poverty, which made it 
impossible not only for him to work to advantage but to have 
even the food he needed to sustain him. He was obliged to carry 
his compound to the shops in the neighborhood and use the 
waste heat in the ovens and boilers, since he could not procure 
fuel to do the work at home. At this time he was universally re- 
garded as a harmless lunatic, while his family were regarded with 
sympathy, and supported by charity. 

In 1840 Mr. Goodyear received a letter from a manufacturing 



?9 2 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

house in Paris, offering him a handsome sum for his discovery of 
the use of aquafortis in preparing the cloth, but the experiments 
which he had since made proved that this was of no use in itself, 
and he disdained to profit by their ignorance. His friends were 
in despair over his stubborn folly, and almost without exception 
turned from him in anger, and declared they did not care what 
he had to endure. His situation was dreadful — his sufferings, 
both mental and physical, were intense. He was desperate, but it 
was a despair in which he stood firm ; it was a despair that ren- 
dered him frantic, but he was resolute. The winter was long and 
bitterly cold, while the snow fell to an unprecedented depth, 
and the storms were the most violent and protracted that were 
ever known, and while it was almost impossible for man or brute 
to live out of doors, the last mouthful of food in the house was 
exhausted ; there was not a particle of fuel ; and he had not a 
friend or neighbor to whom he could apply, so vexed were all by 
his perseverance in what they called his mad projects. He was 
scarcely able and not at all fit to stir out of doors, or, indeed, to 
leave his bed, but something must be done, and he remembered a 
gentleman living fifteen miles away who had often assisted him, 
and who he believed would aid him now if he could reach him. 
Almost too feeble to walk, but half dressed, reduced as he was by 
long fasting, his sufferings, as he battled with his weakness, the 
storm and the bitter, bitter cold, can never be pictured or told ; yet 
nerved by his agony and the thought of his helpless family, he 
tottered on, feeling as if every step must be the last, and again 
and again he reeled blindly and fell, or sat down, while his mind 
wandered dreamingly for a while to the probabilities that some 
passing traveller would find him lying there dead and stark, and 
he speculated, as if it were not himself, of what would be the sen- 
sation of the stranger as he looked at the cold white face — even 
how that face would look, and from whence would come the means 
to bury him — of whether it would not be better for his family, if 
the art he would have given his life to discover would ever be found 
out then, and when and who would have the reward that should 
have been his ; and this last thought only of all, would sting 
him back to life and action, and once more he would stagger on 
and thus he succeeded in reaching the house of his acquaintance, 
and obtained aid sufficient to carry his family through the winter. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 793 

He was fully satisfied that he would never be able to raise the 
means necessary for work in Massachusetts, and his mind turned 
to New York, and he determined to make an effort to get there. 
To do this he first went to Boston, where he met every discour- 
agement and utter failure at last, and returned home to meet, in 
addition to poverty that was absolute squalor, the shadow of the 
dark pinions of the angel of death brooding over his household. 
His baby was dying, and when the light went out of the beautiful 
blue eyes, and the dainty waxen fingers were folded over its sin- 
less breast, there was not one morsel of food for the living, or a 
farthing in his purse. A few who pitied his wife and children, con- 
tributed some food, and the means to bury the dead birdie in his 
nest, and the family followed it to its little grave on foot; All 
this, even he was forced to say bitterly to himself, all this for the 
sake of something he might never win. 

Could darker days or drearier nights be in store for this man ? 
Could fate be more unkind, or bring to him a cup of wormwood 
and gall whose unmixed bitterness would be more intense? Yea, 
but there were greater sacrifices yet to be made. It cost thou- 
sands more failures — it cost him thousands of dollars, and taunts, 
and sneers, and reproaches that were endless. It cost him friends 
and position, and fortune ; it cost him eVen his own self-respect, 
yet the iron will of this man, who had been born with " genius " 
stamped upon his brow and upon his soul, would not yield. 
There is a depth below which human misery cannot sink, and 
having reached this, and lying prostrate, crushed, helpless and 
blind, suddenly there arose in the east a star, heralding the ap- 
proach of the day of his triumph. A relative lent him fifty 
dollars, and with this he went to New York, and there enlisted the 
sympathy and interest of two gentlemen by the name of Kieler, 
who advanced him the money to pursue his experiments and sup- 
port his family, leaving his mind free from the care that had 
eaten half of his life away. 

In 1844, after ten years of patient endurance of scorn, and re 
proach, and contempt and discouragement, he held firmly in his 
grasp the prize he had coveted so long — ten years of experiment, 
•of anxiety, of humiliation, of poverty such as rarely comes to 
mortal, he stood at last on the crest of the wave that bore him 
safely to a haven* of rest. In England and France he lost the 



794 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

profits of his invention through the dishonesty of his agent, and in 
his own country was scarcely less unfortunate, and even after law 
had secured his rights beyond question, it is said he was too little 
the man of business to look after them. The Commissioner of 
Patents said of him : " No inventor, probably, was ever so har- 
rassed, so trampled upon, so plundered by that sordid and licen- 
tious class of infringers known in the parlance of the world, with- 
out exaggeration, and without sufficient severity, as pirates.' The 
spoliation of their incessant guerrilla warfare upon his defenseless 
rights, have no doubt amounted to millions." 

In one sense, the life of this great man seems thrown away. 
True, he lived long enough to fulfil his mission to the human 
race, but with the first heart-throb of exultant triumph, the over- 
wrought system gave way, and in the mature prime of his years, 
the " silver cord was loosed, and the pitcher broken at the foun- 
tain," and he passed over to the land where there is no watching 
and waiting, and where the heart sickness of " hope deferred," is 
never felt or known. Though his reward fell so far short of his 
deserts, he had, it seems to us, a satisfaction very like, yet more 
complete than even that of Moses, as he stood on the mount and 
looked over into the promised land, mournful as he watched the 
sands of his own life ebb away, yet joyful in the knowledge that if 
he might not share in the blessings he had brought the world, at 
least those blessings were countless, and came in every form to 
manufactures and to science, and that art made millions of homes 
beautiful with the material he had brought into use and within 
the reach of the people. After his death, which occurred in July, 
i860, an effort was made to secure something to his family, but 
this, too, was defeated, and though the world owed him so great a 
debt, they were left in penury. In the fullest sense of the term 
he was what he most aspired to be, a benefactor of his r3.ce, and 
his name can never die from their hearts or memorie* 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. ^- 

795 



CYRUS W. FIELD. 



>T is said that the tree of knowledge is guarded by angels 
who stand with bare and gleaming swords to watch their 
treasure, lest, as they say, " Man should eat of its fruits and 
become like one of us ; " and in the far back ages when art and 
science were but in embryo, when the great world herself was 
unconscious that under her mother-heart nestled the wee babe 
who would struggle into existence and mature into a giant, it might 
have been successfully done ; but surely the grim sentinels slum- 
bered at their post some day, and this child, already standing on 
the threshhold of manhood, stepped through the charmed circle 
of wearied and worn-out watchers, until he was surfeited, and did 
bring away spoils which he gave to the children of men, and they 
became as gods. We are going to tell you the story of one of these, 
in a few words, too brief and too feeble to do him justice, 
yet the warm and honest tribute of our hearts to his worth, and 
expression of our admiration for his genius. 

Sixteen years ago very few persons had ever heard of Cyrus W. 
Field. Ten years ago he had acquired a notoriety as the vaguest 
visionary — a mad-brained enthusiast, who was determined to sink 
his handsome fortune in the sea, and consign his name to disgrace- 
ful oblivion. Mighty changes have been wrought since then, 
however, and no one hesitates to admit that Mr. Field is a great 
man, and that they knew from the first just how it would be. 

Cyrus West Field was born at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and 
received such advantages as the times admitted of for an educa- 
tion, and when he was fifteen years old went to New York city to 
seek his fortune. He was a bright, active, intelligent boy, and of 
course readily found employment with an enterprising commercial 
house, with which he remained, first as clerk, afterwards as part- 
ner, in various positions, until he stood at the head of the firm 
for twenty years. The manner in which he became interested 







CYRUS W. FIELD. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 797 

in the Atlantic cable was through his brother, quite a distinguished 
engineer, who introduced to him Mr. Frederick Grisborne, of New 
Foundland. He was then visiting New York for the purpose of 
endeavoring to interest American capitalists in a company already- 
organized for the purpose of transmitting news more speedily 
than by any method now in use. Mr. Field declined to take any 
part in the enterprise. He had devoted his life thus far to busi- 
ness ; and, having accumulated sufficient means to enable him to 
retire, felt a distaste for excitement or care of any sort. Mr. Gris- 
borne laid his plans before him and pleaded in behalf of the com- 
pany whose interests he represented, and though it had been 
compelled to go into bankruptcy for the want of funds, its mem- 
bers were not yet content to give up the work now well under way. 
A charter had been granted by the legislature of New Foundland, 
and the termini of their submarine telegraph were to be New York 
and London. Mr. Field listened to his guest with polite indiffer- 
ence, "hoped he would succeed," bowed him out of his study, 
and saw him depart with a sense of relief. He had not disposed 
of the subject however so easily as he had his visitor. The 
thought worked through and through his brain ; its magnitude 
and seeming impracticability pleased him, and the more he 
thought, half unwittingly though it was, the more he liked it and 
believed it could be carried into efTect. He took a globe and 
examined carefully the proposed route, became satisfied that it 
might, if run at all, be very much simplified. Its usefulness to 
the world was the one mighty motive which moved him — not per- 
sonal elevation or aggrandizement. At length, really against his 
better judgment, he set to work to see if the thing were feasibLe, 
or could in any way be made practicable. With this in view he- 
wrote to Lieutenant Maury, chief of the National Observatory at 
Washington, and to Professor Morse, asking if it were possible to 
lay a cable through the ocean in this manner which would work. 
Lieutenant Maury replied to him at once, expressing great inter* 
est in the subject, and sent him a report which had just been made 
to the Secretary of the Navy on the subject. Soundings of the 
ocean had also demonstrated that its bed was of such a nature 
as to favor the work, and the learned professor believed it not 
only practicable, but that it would soon be accomplished, and urg- 
ently advised Mr. Field to undertake it. Mr. Morse came, in 



79** FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

person to consult with Mr. Field, and assured him that there was 
no reason whatever why telegraphs would not work as well in 
water as in air. 

Mr. Field at once declared his willingness to take the work in 
hand as soon as capital enough could be secured, and proposed 
that ten men should contribute each one hundred thousand 
dollars, making their capital a million dollars, which he sup- 
posed would be sufficient to very nearly or quite cover the 
necessary expense. Mr. Field knew that it was a stupendous 
undertaking, but what it would cost him, he little imagined, 
not foreseeing that twelve long years would pass before it 
would be accomplished ; that he would be led on deeper and 
deeper into the work, until upon its success should be staked his 
entire fortune ; that he would sacrifice peace, rest, home and its 
comforts, the favor of friends, and even the confidence of the pub- 
lic, in a large degree, and that he would stand at the door of 
America and Europe — first one, and then the other — pleading like 
the veriest beggar, as it were for himself that he assumed the po- 
sition of a mendicant, and asked their favor. 

So little was the world acquainted with the philosophy and sci- 
ence of telegraphy, that it was very difficult to persuade them that 
it was anything more than a magnificent humbug, and it was some- 
time before he could persuade a single individual to unite with him 
in the enterprise. The first convert to his faith was Mr. Peter 
Cooper, of New York, his friend and next door neighbor. In Mr. 
Cooper's name alone was a tower of strength for his cause. En- 
couraged by the success of his efforts he set to work anew and 
succeeded in enlisting Messrs. Moses Taylor, Marshall O. Rob- 
erts and Chandler White. This was not done without great diffi- 
culty, but once they had pledged themselves, they never lost. 

Mr. Cooper now proposed that the five now engaged in the 
enterprise should continue it in their own names without waiting 
for more assistance from others. This being decided upon, Mr. 
Field went to St. Johns, with his brother, Mr. Dudley Field, who 
was to act as attorney for the company, and took there the neces- 
sary steps to obtain a new charter, which was granted by the Leg- 
islature of New Foundland to the " New York, New Foundland 
and London Telegraph Company," and by assuming the liabilities 
of the old company. Hastening back to New York, with a capi- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 799 

tal of a million and a half of dollars, of which Mr. Field contri- 
buted two hundred thousand, work was begun. 

From New York to St. Johns, the country was a scene of deso- 
lation, an almost unbroken wilderness, and he found that even 
roads over which to travel and convey their supplies, must be con- 
structed. The distance was four hundred miles — the country 
wild, rough, and almost terrific — at least in view of such an under- 
taking ; but under the able management of Mr. White, /ice-presi- 
dent ol the company, who also acted as general agent for them at 
St. Johns, and Mr. Matthew W. Field, constructing engineer, this 
long stretch of road was built — four hundred miles, — also another 
line of one hundred and forty miles in the island of Cape Breton, 
and a submarine cable stretched across the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; 
but to their dismay, when all was in working order, it had cost them 
a million of dollars, and the cable between New Foundland and 
Ireland was yet untouched. 

The further examination of the ocean being necessary, Mr. Field 
requested the government of the United States to send, out the 
necessary means, which was at once complied with, and Lieutenant 
Berryman performed the task with the utmost satisfaction to all 
parties. The next summer he made the same request of the Brit- 
ish government, and Commander Daymon went over the same 
ground with the same results, and proved conclusively that a cable 
could lie easily and safely on the bed of the ocean, below cur- 
rents, the anchors of vessels or the largest icebergs, and that the 
support it would receive from resting there would prevent danger- 
ous tension. 

It was evident to the company, now, that individual means and 
efforts would not be sufficient to defray the expenses, and that the 
two countries who were to be benefited by it to such an incalcula- 
ble extent must unite in furnishing the capital. The English 
press was called into requisition, and through it the sympathies 
of the people enlisted. The effort of securing the desired aid 
from the British government was entrusted to Mr. Field, and to 
his excellent management, not less than to the necessity for the 
completion of the work, was the success which he met there due. 
The English government pledged itself to furnish ships to make 
the necessary soundings, and to furnish vessels to assist in lay- 
ing the cable. It also agreed to pay the company an annual 



8oO FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

subsidy of fourteen thousand pounds for the transmission of the 
government messages, until the net profits of the company were 
equal to a dividend of six per cent., and in case their messages 
exceeded a certain amount, extra payment was to be made. The 
messages of England and America were to be placed on an equal 
footing, and in all cases to be sent out in the order in which re- 
ceived. In everything England exhibited a generous fairness in 
its dealings, and a desire for peace and good will ; and the last 
provision especially, since both ends rested on British soil, was 
exceedingly liberal. From first to last she shared equally with 
America in all its benefits, and gave to us every privilege she 
claimed for herself. 

It became necessary, in addition to the aid thus given by the 
government, to organize a company in London, by which other 
funds might be raised. This was done, and a capital of three 
hundred and fifty thousand pounds subscribed without delay. In 
all his labors Mr. Field was ably seconded by some of the most 
enlightened and enterprising minds in the United Kingdom. Re- 
turning at once to America, he hastened to Washington to lay the 
matter before our own government and secure its co-operation 
with that of England, but to his astonishment, he met more oppo- 
sition to his scheme here than in London. He was opposed by 
a powerful lobby and a spirit of such malignant and bitter hos- 
tility that it seemed impossible to avoid defeat. The measure 
barely passed the Senate by a majority of but just one vote; 
and for a time the prejudice against it in the House was intense. 
It received the president's signature March 3d, 1857. 

Mr. Field returned to England, and in the summer everything 
was declared in readiness for the work. America contributed the 
magnificent steam-frigate " Niagara " to assist in laying the cable, 
and ordered the " Susquehanna " to accompany it. This was also 
a steam-frigate, and one of the finest boats in the navy. The 
British government sent out the steam-frigate " Agamemnon," a 
splendid vessel that had been the flag-ship of the English fleet 
at the bombardment of Sebastopol, and the "Leopard," an 
equally fine vessel, was provided as escort. Both boats were 
commanded and officered by the ablest men — the " Niagara " by 
Captain W. L. Hudson, of the United States Navy, and the " Aga- 
memnon " by Captain Noddal, of the Royal Navy. After receiv- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. Sol 

ing their cable they were ordered to Queenstown, and left 
England in the midst of popular and extravagant rejoicing, which 
argued well for the feeling of the people. At Valentia, which 
was the eastern terminus of the line, they were hailed with delight.. 
Here the cable was sunk and made fast, and the fleet stood out 
to sea, but at five miles distance the wire broke, and being 
spliced, after a little delay, the monster vessels moved on, slowly, 
very slowly, at first, to guard against a second accident. The 
ships kept near each other, so near that the signal bells could 
be heard and answered readily. We have a fancy in our own mind 
how grand a sight this must have been, and though to many it 
may seem a slight thing, a mere accident of the time, to me it 
is a most significant and beautiful thought, that an American's: 
mind planned this work and carried it into effect, and that an 
American vessel, the "Niagara," resembling in her mighty propor- 
tions the unsurpassable cataract after which she was named, fast- 
ened the cable from her own deck to the shores of England, 
bearing it thence to our own, and thus, with this unseen, myste- 
rious thing, along whose hidden pulse throbbed, as it were, the 
life-blood of two nations, bound them forever together as one; 
and we fancy the vessel, too, as if it were indeed " a thing of life," 
turning its prow back to its native land, as though somewhere in 
the midst of that gigantic machinery beat a human, homesick 
heart that longed to revel in the glory of our bluer waters and 
freer air ; and that the soul of the inanimate leviathan laughed for 
joy as it kissed in farewell the snowy foam that parted and sped 
before it. All went well through the day, and the sun rolled 
slowly down the western sky, hanging like a god above the ocean, 
as if reluctant to lose sight of an enterprise that was big with the 
hope of two continents, then sank into the arms of waves that 
rose up at his coming and met him with crimson blushes : 

The dusk grew deeper as crept the night 
With dewy eyes to the lap of day. 

And the stars came out and gemmed the lofty arch above, and 
were reflected back from the apparently deeper and bluer arch 
beneath. It is said that not a man slept on those vessels that first 
night at sea — that not one retired or closed his eyes for a moment. 
Strange thoughts came to them as they swept on their way, look- 

5* 



8o2 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ing with a sort of fascination at the long, sinuous, serpent-like 
cable as it glided out into the darkness and buried itself in the 
bosom of the fathomless waters that were henceforth to be its 
living tomb. All passed on well until two hundred miles were 
made, and suddenly the electric current was lost. They were 
struck with dumb amazement and astonishment, but no one on 
board could explain or remedy it. This lasted for two hours, 
when strangely, silently and mysteriously as it went, it returned, 
and men and officers rejoiced alike, and passed from one to an- 
other, shaking hands in their joy as they assured each other that 
it was " all right." But that night a far greater calamity befell 
them — -the cable parted in mid-ocean, and through the whole fleet 
the deepest grief was felt; they sorrowed together like one 
bereaved household. The fleet at once returned to England, 
where the stockholders made arrangements for the 'manufacture of 
seven hundred miles of cable, to replace that which was lost. 
Mr.* Field believed that the disaster was owing to the imperfect 
machine used in paying out the cable, and Mr. Wm. E. Everett, 
chief engineer of the Niagara, undertook, while waiting for the 
new cable, to invent something better adapted to the work, and 
succeeded to the entire satisfaction of the Company. The brakes 
used were the invention of Mr. Appold, of London, and the whole 
machine, when completed, was a combination of American and 
English skill. In everything pertaining to the work of laying the 
cable, the two nations worked together without a vestige of any 
national jealousy, neither seeming to care to which the credit was 
given. 

In January, 1858, Mr. Field, at the urgent request of the Board 
of Directors, accepted the position of general manager, and though 
a salary of $5000 per annum was offered, he declined all compen- 
sation. In March, of that year, the cable was in readiness for the 
second attempt at laying; the Niagara sailed from New York, 
and Mr. Field learned at the last moment that the " Susquehanna" 
was at the West Indies, in quarantine, her crew, almost to a man, 
being prostrated with yellow fever. Everything had been planned 
with the expectation of again having this vessel to assist ; the 
disappointment was intense, and deepened by the fact that it was 
impossible at this late day to supply the deficiency at home, chiefly 
owing to the strong power which had worked against the enterprise 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY 803 

from the first ; he knew it was useless to appeal to our own gov- 
ernment. In this dilemma, either horn of which it seemed hopeless 
to seize, he laid the matter before the Lords of the Admiralty, of 
England, and asked for a vessel to accompany the Niagara. The 
British Government was at that moment making strenuous efforts to 
charter ships sufficient to transport troops to Malta, and it seemed 
impossible for it to contribute a third vessel that was suitable for 
the service, but the same day it sent the " Valorous " to act as con- 
sort to the Niagara. This assistance, so unhesitatingly given, was 
most generous and timely, and especially so as England was in 
sore need of all her own boats. The fleet immediately sailed for 
the Bay of Biscay with Mr. Field at the head of the expedition. It 
is impossible to give any idea of the weight of care and re- 
sponsibility which burdened him at this time, or the amount of 
work he performed. He had but little rest, frequently not having 
an entire night's sleep in a week, often traveling day and night, 
snatching an hour or two of repose in the carriage while on the 
road. On the ioth of June the fleet sailed, but at two hundred 
miles from shore the cable again parted, and again it lay, a dead 
and useless weight on its ocean bed. The directors were dis- 
heartened by this second failure, and opposed to investing any 
more funds in what the world, and especially the American side 
of it, sneeringly, though wittily, styled the " sinking fund," and 
only Mr. Field's utmost powers of persuasion prevented them from 
totally abandoning it. Obtaining consent to make a third trial, he 
immediately commenced work again, and this time the cable was 
laid successfully, with no accident or hindrance ; but it was in 
another sense a failure, since it never worked perfectly, and soon 
ceased altogether to transmit messages. The discouragement, 
to every one but Mr. Field, was heart-sickening, and so general 
was it, too, that he saw it was hopeless to attempt to raise more 
money by private subscription, and that if more was done it must 
be by the government entirely. America had ever been a reluct- 
ant contributor, little was to be hoped there — and England had 
lost heavily by the failure of the Red Sea cable, yet she nobly 
stepped forward and increased the subsidy already guaranteed 
from fourteen to twenty thousand pounds per annum. For two 
years Mr. Field labored unremittingly to organize another com- 
pany, but with little prospect of success, and it was not until the 



804 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

war broke out in America that, seeing the necessity for more direct 
and rapid communication with Europe than we now possessed 
he received the hearty approval of the President, and the assur- 
ance that the government would cordially unite with England 
to second any efforts made by them, and aid in every possible 
way. A few gentlemen organized a company and purchased the 
" Great Eastern," which having proven unfit for the purpose for 
which it was built, was advertised for sale, fitted it up and offered 
it for the work of laying the cable. On the 23d of July the 
cable was attached to the shore, and the fourth attempt made to 
lay it, and with a hope of success, but twelve hundred miles from 
shore it broke, and fell with a sullen plash to the bottom of the 
ocean. For nine days they used every endeavor to grasp it, but 
in vain, for though repeatedly caught, the rope broke every time, 
and the precious burden sank back to its bed, two miles below the 
surface of the ocean. The spot was marked by buoys, and the 
ship returned to England. 

A new company was organized the next year, under the name 
of the Anglo-American Telegraph Company, with a capital of six 
hundred thousand pounds, and orders were at once given for the 
manufacture of as much cable as had been lost. On the seventh of 
July the Great Eastern arrived at Valentia, and the fifth time the 
cable was fastened to the land, and the mighty ship, with the entire 
telegraph fleet for consorts, sailed for Newfoundland. The voyage 
was made in fourteen days, wind and weather favoring the expedi- 
tion, whose progress was known in England from day to day, while 
America was in uncertainty. A faithful few had gathered at Heart's 
Content to witness the arrival, but the boisterously enthusiastic 
crowd who gathered to welcome it a year ago, shrugged their 
shoulders in contemptuous and scornful unbelief, and stayed at 
home. The boat was hourly expected, and Friday morning th* 
eage* watchers rose early and looked out over the waters that 
were yet gray with the misty garments of night. Far, far away 
the form of a vessel was seen, as if outlined with daintiest pencil- 
ings against the roseate sky. Another, another, and yet another, 
sailed slowly up, then the hull of the " Great Eastern '' 
heaves in sight. The " Albany " entered the harbor first, then 
the "Terrible," then the " Med way," and at last the "Great 
Eastern " glided slowly and majestically in and dropped its 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY, 



8o 5 



anchors with no more ado than if she had come over in the usual 
way, laden with the commonest merchandise. The cable across 
the St. Lawrence was broken, and it was two days more before 
the news reached New York ; but on the Sabbath morning of 
July 29th, the tidings came in the few brief words that told their 
own story, and were also characteristic of the great man who had 
mainly been instrumental in accomplishing the great work : 

" Heart's Content, July 27th. — We arrived here at nine 
o'clock this morning. All is well. Thank God! the cable is laid 
and in perfect working order. 

"Cyrus W. Field." 

The weary man rested here at this place, whose very name was 
sweetly laden with suggestions for him in that moment of supreme 
victory. Twelve long years his energy and perseverance had 
kept the subject before the people of two worlds — twelve long 
years his hands had wrought and his brain had toiled to accom- 
plish it. Twelve years his unremitting industry and unbroken 
faith had been the theme of jest and sneer for the selfish and 
ignorant, and at last — at last — beat high, noble heart ! — at last it is 
accomplished, and the very waves of the ocean raised their voices 
and sang anthems of rejoicing as they caressed with their foam- 
white hands, first the shores of the old world and then the new, 
while they cradled in their heart the perfected fruit of his patient 
endeavor. 





EL1AS HOWE, Ji 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. Sof 

JAMES WATT. 

,AMES WATT was born at Greenock, Scotland, on the 
19th of January, 1736. His father was a merchant, and 
- also one of the magistrates of that town. He received the 
rudiments of his education in his native place ; but his 
health being even then extremely delicate, as it continued to be 
to the end of his life, his attendance at school was not always 
very regular. He amply made up, however, for what he lost in 
this way, by the diligence with which he pursued his studies at 
home, where, without assistance, he succeeded, at a very early 
age, in making considerable proficiency in various branches of 
knowledge. Even at this time, his favorite study is said to have 
been mechanical science. At the age of eighteen, he was sent to> 
London to be apprenticed to a maker of mathematical instru- 
ments. A year or two after this, a visit which he paid to some 
relatives in Glasgow suggested to him the plan of attempting to 
establish himself there in that business. In 1757, he removed: 
thither, and was immediately appointed Mathematical Instrument 
Maker to the college. 

Honorable as this appointment was, he probably did not find 
it a very lucrative one; and, therefore, in 1763, when about to 
marry, he removed from his apartments in the University to a 
house in the city, and entered upon the profession of general 
Engineer. For this his genius and scientific attainments admira- 
bly qualified him. But another pursuit was destined, ere long, 
to divert him from this line of exertion, and to occupy his whole 
mind in efforts still more worthy of its extraordinary powers. 

In the winter of 1763-4, a small model of Newcomen's engine, 
was sent to him by the Professor of Natural Philosophy, to be 
repaired and fitted for exhibition in the class. The examination 
of this model, set Watt thinking anew, and with more interest 
than ever, on the powers of steam. Struck with the radical im- 
perfections of the Atmospheric Engine, he engaged in a course of 
experiments for ascertaining the properties of steam, and was 
rewarded with several valuable discoveries. The rapidity with 
which water evaporates, he found, for instance, depended simply 
upon the quantity of heat which was made to enter it, and this 
again on the extent of the surface exposed to the fire. He also 



808 " FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ascertained the quantity of coal necessary for the evaporation of 
any given quantity of water, the heat at which water boils under 
various pressures, and many other particulars of a similar kind, 
which had never before been accurately determined. In the best 
-of Newcomen's Engines, the perfection of the vacuum was thus 
50 greatly impaired that the resistance to the piston, in its des- 
cent, amounted to about a fourth part of the whole atmospheric 
pressure by which it was carried down, or, in other words, the 
working power of the machine was thereby diminished one- 
fourth. 

After reflecting upon all this, it at last occurred to Watt that it 
might be possible to condense steam in some other vessel than 
the cylinder. This fortunate idea having presented itself, it was 
not long before the means for realizing it were also suggested. 
The plan which he devised was a simple one, therefore the more 
beautiful. He connected the cylinder and another vessel by an 
open pipe, so that, when the steam was admitted into the former, it 
flowed into the latter, and filled it, also ; this latter vessel only 
being subject to a condensing process, by contact with cold 
water, a vacuum was produced, and into that, as a vent, more 
steam would immediately rush from the cylinder, which would 
likewise be condensed, and so the process would go on until the 
steam had left the cylinder, and a perfect vacuum had been effect- 
ed in that vessel, without so much as a drop of cold water having 
touched or entered it. The separate vessel alone, or the conden- 
ser, as Watt called it, was cooled by the water condensing the 
steam, and instead of being an evil, manifestly promoted and 
quickened the condensation. When Watt reduced these views to 
the test of an experiment, he found the result to answer his most 
•sanguine expectations. The cylinder, although emptied of its 
steam for every stroke of the piston, as before, was now constantly 
kept at the same temperature with the steam, (or 212 degrees 
Farenheit,) and the consequence was, that one-fourth of the fuel 
formerly required sufficed to feed an engine. But besides the saving 
of expense in maintaining an engine,its power was greatly increased 
'by the more perfect vacuum ; the condensing water could not, aa 
before, create new steam while displacing the old. 

Thus, by the genius of this great inventor, was the serious de. 
feet of the old apparatus remedied. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 809 

While yet residing in the college, his attention had been direc- 
ted to the employment of steam as a mechanical agent, and the 
practicability of applying this power to the movement of steam 
carriages. He had also made some experiments with Papin's 
digester, to ascertain the expansive force of steam. 

It is gratifying to reflect that even while he was yet alive, Watt 
received from the voice of the most illustrious of his contempo- 
raries, the honors due to his genius. In 1785, he was elected a 
Fellow of the Royal Society ; the degree of Doctor of Laws was 
conferred upon him by the University of Glasgow, in 1806 ; and 
in 1808, he was elected a member of the French Institute. He 
died, August 25th, 1819, in the eighty-fourth year of his age. 



it: 



JOHN FITCH. 

)(Qj»Y THE power of steam, rapid, comfortable, and cheap 
jjJC^J) transit has been attained, and enjoyed for half a century, 
by the nations of Europe, and more especially by our 
own people. In traversing the ocean, and to a greater extent upon 
our own great inland seas, and in threading the great riv- 
ers of our central valley, America has reaped the benefits con- 
ferred by steam navigation. In the year 181 7, the original patents, 
drafts, specifications, and models of Fitch and Fulton, were exhib- 
ited before a committee of the New York Legislature, raised upon 
the petition of Governor Ogden, of New Jersey. Many witnesses 
were examined, and among them men of the highest character, 
and the arguments of able council were heard. After much de- 
liberation, this committee reported to the legislature, and in the 
document submitted are the following expressions : " The steam- 
boats built by Livingston and Fulton were in substance the inven- 
tion patented to John Fitch, in 1791, and Fitch, during the term 
of his patent (fourteen years), had the exclusive right to use the 
same in the United States." 

John Fitch was born January 21st, 1743, at the paternal home- 
stead, in the township of Windsor, Hartford County, Connecticut. 



8lO FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

The father was not inclined to liberality, but was a rigid and stem 
man, who, as his son says, "always had plenty of victuals in the 
house." John began his attendance at school when quite young* 
and, when nine years old, had mastered the " fundamental rules " 
of arithmetic. His father instructed him in surveying to the 
extent of his own information. 

At the age of seventeen, becoming weary with farm labor, he 
started for Rocky Hill, on the Connecticut River, on an agree- 
ment to make one voyage to New York, in a vessel under the 
command of Capt Abbot ; but, experiencing rough treatment at 
the hands of the mate, he quit the craft before leaving port, and 
engaged on another vessel, in which he coasted, and after five 
weeks returned home. 

During the early part of 1785, Fitch seems to have been suf- 
fering from rheumatism, and while making slow progress walking 
with a friend in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, an acquaintance 
passed them at a rapid pace, in a two-wheeled vehicle, then known 
as "a chair." The speed of the horse, brought up in conversa- 
tion some speculations which he had no doubt previously enter- 
tained respecting the feasibility of propelling carriages by steam. 
The rough condition of the roads, and the apparently greater ben- 
efits to be derived by applying the power to vessels, soon turned 
his thoughts to " a steamboat." These facts were certified to in 
1788, by James Scout, to whom Fitch submitted his plan of a 
boat in May or June, 1785 ; and also by James Ogilbee, the friend 
with whom he was walking when the thought of steam power was 
first spoken of. Watson's Annals of Philadelphia gives some 
facts furnished by Daniel Longstreth, whose father was the friend 
and associate of Fitch. He says : "It was in Cobe Scout's log 
shop that Fitch made his model steam-boat, with paddle-wheels, 
as they are now used." 

Fearing that his invention would be supplanted in some way by 
the efforts of a rival interest patronized by Dr. Franklin, he memo- 
rialised the Legislature of Pennsylvania for an exclusive right to 
propel vessels "by fire and steam," in the waters of that State. 
This was dated March n, and on the next day a similar memorial 
was presented by one Donaldson, who "had hit upon or been in- 
formed of the method of sucking in and voiding water through a 
tube," as suggested to the Philosophical Society by Dr. Franklin. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 8ll 

Without waiting further, Fitch left for Trenton, where he obtain- 
ed from the Legislature of New Jersey, an act bearing date March 
18, 1786, which secured to him for fourteen years "the sole and 
exclusive right of constructing, making, using, and employing, or 
navigating all and every species or kind of boats or water craft 
which might be urged or impelled by the force of fire or steam, 
in all the creeks, rivers, etc., within the territory or jurisdiction of 
this State." 

Within a month following, Fitch had organized a company, with 
the number of shares fixed at forty, on many of which twenty 
dollars each were collected. There were, at this time, but three 
steam-engines in the whole country. 

In a letter to Stacy Potts, of Trenton, Fitch says -.(July 28, '86,) 
" I completed my experiments yesterday, and find that they ex- 
ceed my most sanguine expectations. * * We shall not come 
short of ten miles per hour." We find him saying of the model 
also : " It fully convinced me that the steam-engine might be 
worked both ways as well as one." 

" The United States Gazette " of May 17th contained a notice, 
dated Burlington, May nth, in these words: "The friends of 
science and the liberal arts will be gratified in hearing that we 
were favored, on Sunday last, with a visit from the ingenious Mr. 
Fitch, accompanied by several gentlemen of taste and knowledge 
in mechanics, in a steamboat constructed on an improved plan. 
From these gentlemen we learn that thev came from Philadelphia 
in three hours and a quarter, with a head-wind, the tide in their 
favor. On their return, by accurate observations, they proceeded 
down the river at the rate of upwards of seven miles an hour." 

Averaging the trips made at twenty-five miles each, this, 

THE FIRST PASSENGER STEAM-BOAT, 

must have run, before she was laid up, between two and three thou- 
sand miles. The boat is said to have " run five hundred miles," 
without the least accident occurring. 

Gen. Joseph Bloomfield, of New Jersey, testified before a com- 
mittee of the New York Legislature, in 1814, that he had frequently 
been a passenger on Fitch's boat on the Delaware. Dr. Thorn- 
ton, Fitch's former associate, stated that " our boat (Fitch's) went 
at the rate of eight miles an hour, in the presence of witnesses 
yet (1814) living." 



«Sl2 footprints of the ages. 

After Fitch had spent two years with his sister and brother-in- 
law, King, at East Windsor, Connecticut, he seems to have deter- 
mined to seek his lands in Kentucky, and perhaps in passing 
through New York, called upon, or was brought into contact with 
Robert R. (Chancellor) Livingston, who even then was greatly 
interested in steam navigation. A Mr. John Hutchings, mention- 
ed in the Documentary History of New York, says that in the 
summer of 1796 or 1797, he, then a lad, assisted Mr. Fitch in 
steering a steam-boat, and otherwise aiding in the working of the 
machinery. 

No one can reasonably question that Fitch's steam-boats were 
the first vessels successfully propelled by steam. 

Amid all his misfortunes there is much to indicate that he was 
truthful, fair-minded, and upright in his intercourse with men. 
His letters to his children manifest much warmth of affection 
Perhaps we do not err in saying that his sensitive nature received 
a bias from the events which followed the death of his mother, 
before he was five years of age, from which his later training and 
experiences in no degree relieved him. He passed from the 
scenes of earth at the age of fifty-five, in the midst of comparative 
strangers, and among those who, under the circumstances, could 
have but little sympathy for him. 




FRENCH AND SHREVE 

,ERE leading names in early steamboat navigation on 
the Ohio. Two years prior to the date of Fulton's patent, 
in 181 1, Daniel French, of New York, obtained a patent 
for a steamboat and engine, October 12th, 1809. 
In the year 1787, while the Revolutionary Fathers were fram- 
ing the Federal Constitution at Philadelphia, John Fitch was 
offering them free rides in his steamer on the Delaware. 

Captain Henry M. Shreve was the first that ascended the Mis- 
sissippi and Ohio rivers, and he was the succesoful inventor and 
improver of Western River Steamers, and also inventor of the 
Snag-boat. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 813 

At the period of 1817, there had been built on the Ohio about 
fifteen boats, several of them under one hundred tons capacity- 
After the memorable success of Captain Shreve with the " Wash- 
ington," all fears respecting the navigation of Western waters by- 
steamboats seem to have vanished. Boat-yards were established 
at convenient points and steamboat building was active. It is 
difficult, at this late day, to appreciate the enthusiasm excited 
among " the people of the West " over the achievements of the 
" Washington " and her gallant captain. Dr. McMurtrie, in his 
sketches of Louisville, published in 1819, remarks : "Next to 
Fulton, the Western country owes avast debt of gratitude to 
Captain Henry M. Shreve. It is to his exertions, his example, 
and, let me add, to his integrity and patriotic purity of principle 
that it is indebted for the present flourishing state of its naviga- 
tion. The offer of the Livingston Company was rejected with 
scorn and indignation, and the affair left to justice, whose sword 
instantly severed the links that enchained commerce on the 
Western rivers." Had Shreve been weak and grasping, how dif- 
ferent the result ! How long would the great monopoly have 
held control of steamboats, and the prices of transportation for 
freight and passengers ? Fulton had really almost no legitimate 
claim to originality in connection with the steamboat ; he had, 
however, secured the co-operation of large capitalists, who, after 
quarreling with each other over the steam apparatus of Watt, 
John Fitch, John Stevens, and Robert R. Livingston, had finally 
concluded to join forces and take the country, at least the fluid 
portions of it, and put it in charge of their monster leviathan ; 
but justice, under an over-ruling Providence, brought their coun- 
sels to naught, and gave to the wings of commerce on water,, the 
power of steam free of all constraint, as came to be as palpably 
the case on land, a few years later, when the locomotive sprang 
upon the iron track, ready to move in all its ponderous power 
and winged fleetness, without paying tribute to patent laws, or 
being in the least restrained from fulfilling its destiny as fast as 
the laws of nature would permit. The " Washington " was not 
built under French's patent, as was the "Enterprise," but was 
built after the plans of Captain Shreve. 

The " General Pike " was the first boat built in the West for 
the special accomodation of passengers ; she was constructed, in 



814 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

1818, at Cincinnati for a company of her citizens. According to 
the City Directory of 1820, "she measures 100 feet keel, 25 fett 
beam, and draws only 3 feet and 3 inches water." 

By the use of Shreve's snag-boat, the great raft of the'' Red 
River, consisting of trees, logs and drift-wood of every descrip- 
tion firmly imbedded in its channel for more than one hundred 
and sixty miles, was removed, and the navigation of that river 
opened, including the raft a distance of nearly twelve hundred 
miles. This work, alone, in consequence of the immense quan- 
tity of public land reclaimed in that region and rendered fit for 
cultivation, the enhanced value of other lands on the upper part 
of the river, and the reduced cost in the transportation of sup- 
plies to Fort Towson and to the Indians located in that neigh- 
borhood, has been worth millions to the Government. Eighty- 
five thousand dollars was the saving in one season on freight alone. 
The cost of removing those obstructions was but about $300,000, 
instead of $3,000,000, as had been prophecied. Such snag-boats 
have to be constantly removing new obstacles in all the Western 
rivers. 

Upon the advent of John Tyler to the Presidency, after the 
decease of General Harrison, Captain Shreve was officially in- 
formed of his removal from office, by a letter dated at Washing- 
ton, September nth, 1841. After thirty-four years literally spent 
on the waters, he returned to the quiet pursuits of an agricultu- 
ral life, in which he was engaged in youth. His farm was near 
St. Louis, and with the same zeal and liberality which he had 
always manifested, he devoted himself energetically to improving 
his landed estate. 

At the opening of the telegraph at St. Louis, Captain Shreve 
sent the first message borne by electricity from the banks of the 
Mississippi to the tide waters of the Atlantic. It was to the 
President of the United States, at Washington. Thus did he fill 
out the measure of a career of great usefulness and brilliant en- 
deavor. Quietly at his home, for the last ten years of his life he 
enjoyed the pleasures of a serene old age, and died, after a pro- 
tracted illness, in his 66th year, March 6th, 1851. 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 815 

RICHARD TREVITHICK 

} AS born on the 13th of April, 1771, in the parish of II- 
logan, a few miles west of Redruth, in Cornwall. He 
may be fairly regarded as the inventor of the rail- 
way locomotive, if any single individual be entitled to that ap- 
pellation. He was a person of extraordinary mechanical skill, but 
of marvelous ill fortune, who, though the inventor of many ingeni- 
ous contrivances, and the founder of fortunes of many, himself 
died in extreme poverty, leaving behind him nothing but his 
great inventions and the recollection of his genius. 

He early entertained the idea of making the expansive force of 
steam act directly on both sides of the piston, on the high-pres- 
sure principle, and thus getting rid of Watt's process of condensa- 
tion. Although Cugnot had employed high-pressure steam in his 
road locomotive, and Murdock in his model, and although Watt 
had distinctly specified the action of steam at high-pressure as 
well as low, in his patents, the idea was not embodied in any 
practical working engine until taken in hand by Trevithick. The 
results of his long study were embodied in the patent which he 
took out in 1802, in his own and Vivian's name, for an improved 
steam-engine, and " the application thereof for driving carriages 
and other purposes." 

The arrangement of Trevithick's engine was ingenious. It ex- 
hibited a beautiful simplicity of parts; the machinery was ar- 
ranged effectively, uniting strength with solidity and portability, 
and enabling steam to be employed with very great rapidity, 
economy, and force. 

Trevithick's steam carriage was the most compact and hand- 
some yet invented, and, as regards arrangement, has scarcely to 
this day been surpassed. It consisted of a carriage capable of 
accommodating some half dozen passengers. Underneath the en- 
gine and machinery was inclosed, in about the size of an orchestra 
drum, the whole being supported on four wheels — two in front, 
by which it was guided, and two behind, by whieh it was driven. 
The engine had but one cylinder. The piston-rod outside the 
cylinder was double, and drove a cross-piece, working in guides, 
on the opposite side of the cranked axle to the cylinder, the crank 



8l6 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

of the axle revolving between the double parts of the piston-rod. 
Toothed wheels were attached to this axle, which worked into 
other toothed wheels fixed on the axle of the driving-wheels. The 
steam-cocks were opened and shut by a connection with the 
crank-axle ; and the force-pump, with which the boiler was sup- 
plied with water, was also worked from it, as were the bellows to 
blow the fire and thereby keep up the combustion in the furnace. 

The first railway locomotive was finished and tried upon the 
Merthyr train-road, on the 21st of February, 1804. As a loco- 
motive, it was a remarkable success. The pressure of the steam 
was about 40 lbs. on the inch. The engine ran upon four wheels, 
coupled by cog-wheels, and the four wheels were smooth. 

On the first trial, this engine drew, for a distance of nine miles, 
ten tons of bar iron, together with the necessary carriages, water, 
and fuel, at the rate of five and a half miles an hour. 

Trevithick, in a great measure, solved the problem of steam loco- 
motion on railways. He had produced a compact engine, work- 
ing on the high-pressure principle, capable of carrying fuel and 
water sufficient for a journey of considerable length, and of draw- 
ing loaded wagons at five and a half miles an hour. He had 
shown by his smooth wheeled locomotive that the weight had given 
sufficient adhesion for hauling the load. He had discharged the 
steam into the chimney, though not for the purpose of increasing 
the draught, as he employed bellows for that purpose. 

There can be no doubt as to the great mechanical ability of 
Trevithick. He was a man of original and intuetive genius in in- 
vention. Every mechanical arrangement which he undertook to 
study issued from his hands transformed and improved. But 
there he rested. He struck out many inventions, and left them 
to take care of themselves. His great failing was the want of 
perseverance. 

Trevkhick made the first railway locomotive, and cast the in~ 
vention aside, leaving it to others to take it up and prosecute it to 
a successful issue. He introduced, if he did not invent, the cy- 
lindrical boiler and the high-pressure engine, which increased so 
enormously the steam power of the world ; but he reaped the profits 
of neither. He invented an oscillating engine and a screw pro- 
peller; he took out a patent for using superheated steam, as well 
as for wrought iron ships and wrought iron floating docks ; but 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. Slf 

he left it to other men to introduce these several inventions. 

Never was there such a series of splendid mechanical begin- 
nings. He began a Thames Tunnel, and abandoned it. He 
went to South America with the prospect of making a gigantic 
fortune, but he had scarcely begun to gather in his gold than he 
was forced to fly, and returned home destitute. But even when 
he had the best chances, Trevithick threw them away. 

There may have been some moral twist in the engineer's charac- 
ter, into which we do not seek to pry ; but it seems clear that he 
was wanting in that resolute perseverance, that power of fighting 
an up-hill battle, without which no great enterprise can be con- 
ducted to a successful issue. 

The character of Richard Trevithick presents a remarkable con- 
trast to that of George Stephenson, who took up only one of the 
many projects which the other had cast aside, and by dint of ap- 
plication, industry, and perseverance, carried into effect one of 
the most remarkable, but peaceful revolutions which has ever been 
accomplished in any age or country. 

During the last year of his life, Trevithick resided at Dartford,, 
in Kent. He was entirely without means at his death, being 
some sixty pounds in debt to the landlord of the Bull Inn, where 
he had lodged for nearly a year. 



ALFRED VAIL. 

N THE month of September, 1807, there was born into the 
family of a sturdy machinist, a son, who in process of time 
came to be given the name of Alfred Vail. 
Stephen Vale was the first man in New Jersey to set up a ma- 
chine for making cut nails, which he started at Dover in his native 
county. He early married a young lady of excellent sense and 
of great amiability and nobleness of character, who manifested 
the best qualities of a true housewife and an earnest Christian 
mother, Mrs. Vail had several children ; the eldest was a daugh- 
ter, Harriet, and the second a son, Alfred, the subject of our 
sketch. 

52 



8l8 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Alfred Vail passed his early life at the home of his parents and 
amid influences which were likely to engender and foster mechan- 
ical tastes. His youth until his seventeenth year was spent in 
attending school in Morris Academy. When young Vail had left 
school, his tastes and the tendencies of his surroundings led him 
at once into the business of his father — the manufacture of steam 
engines and other machinery manufactured of iron and brass. 
He was much in the brass foundry, and at an early age became 
noted for his skill. With great fondness for study, especially in 
the mechanic arts and sciences, he had frequent longings for more 
thorough attainments. He had, however, become a citizen of 
full age before he broke away from his moorings, and began his 
preparations for college. With great zeal and energy he pursued 
his studies at the academy in Bloomfield, Essex County, until 
duly prepared he entered the New York City University in 1832, 
probably at precisely the period of Professor Morse's return from 
Europe in the packet ship " Sully." Vail graduated in due course 
in 1836, with decided honor, and with such recognition from the 
faculty as led to an early offer of a professorship in the institu- 
tion. 

Through Professor Morse, Mr. Vail became interested, and 
finally absorbed, in improving the telegraph. He had at least as 
soon, as the earlier part of September, 1837, entered with Profes- 
sor Morse upon a series of experiments at Speedwell with the 
rude machine of Morse's own construction. When he had by 
working with Professor Morse satisfied himself as to the capacities 
of his system and machine, Mr. Vail, with his accustomed patience 
and the concentration of his fine natural and acquired abilities for 
nvention, gave himself up to the work of improving on Professor 
Morse's machine. Mr. Vail's machine was exhibited at Washing- 
ton, by Professor Morse, who, after failing to accomplish anything 
practically beneficial, left for Europe under the patronage of his 
friends at Speedwell. Professor Morse, in his first letter to Alfred 
Vail, from Europe, writes : 

" Paris, October n, 1838. 

" I exhibited the telegraph to the Institute, and the sensation produced was 

as striking as at Washington. It was evident that hitherto the atsembled 

science of Europe had considered the plan of an electric telegraph as ingenious 

but visionary, and like aeronautic navigation, practicable in littl« more than 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 8lQ 

theory and destined to be useless. Icannot describe to you the scene at the Insti- 
tute when your box with the registering machine, just as it left Speedwell, was 
placed upon the table, and surrounded by the most distinguished men of all 
Europe, celebrated in the various arts and sciences— Arago, Baron Humboldt, 
Guy Lassac, and a host of others whose names are stars that shine in both 
hemispheres. Arago described it to them, and I showed its action. A buzz of 
admiration and approbation filled the whole hall, and the exclamations 'extra- 
ordinaire? 'tres bien % ' 'tres admirable? I heard on all sides. The sentiment was 
universal." 

Here we insert the text of the original fac -simile certificate as 
it was found, excepting the erasures made by Mr. Vail, and the 
word combination given in italics, which was undoubtedly the word 
used, but it was torn off when first discovered by Mr. Vail's fam- 
ily: 

" This lever and roller were invented by me in the 6th story of the New 
York Observer office, in 1844, before we put up the telegraph line between 
Washington and Baltimore, and this combination has been always used in 
Morse's instrument. I am the sole and only inventor of this mode of telegraph 
embossed writing. Professor Morse gave me no clue to it, or did any one else, 
and I have not asserted publicly my right as first and sole inventor, because I 
wish to preserve the peaceful unity of the invention, and, because, I could not, 
according to my contract with Professor Morse, have got a patent for it. 

(Signed) "Alfred Vail." 

Mr. Vail proposed and draughted his plan of printing instrument. 
The complicated machinery necessary to produce the result, 
which seemed more curious than useful, and its slowness of opera- 
tion, compared with the Morse-(Vail) instrument, were obstacles 
to its practical application. It was never practically tested. 

Mr. Vail's thorough scientific and mechanical knowledge of all 
that pertained to the telegraph, and his deep interest in its suc- 
cess, made him a valuable counsellor in the new projects which 
frequently came up for consideration during those early years in 
which Mr. Kendall was effectively urging forward the schemes for 
erecting new lines, then being set on foot in all directions. 

Alfred Vail deceased on the 18th of January, 1859, in his fifty- 
second year, at his residence on South street, Morristown, N. J. 




820 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT. 

ICHARD ARKWRIGHT, was born at Preston, in Lan- 
cashire, England, on the 23rd of December, 1732. 
Arkwright, from a very humble origin, rose to affluence 
and distinction by his perseverance in improving and perfecting 
machinery adapted to the cotton manufacture. Whitney had, by 
the invention of the Cotton-Gin, made the production of Cotton 
profitable, at a comparatively low price; and the combination re- 
sulted in the development of the great manufacturing interests 
of Britain and the United States. 

The parents of Arkwright were very poor; and he was the 
youngest of a family of thirteen children. The education he re- 
ceived was extremely limited, if indeed he was ever at school at 
all. The profession to which he was bred was that of a barber. 
He followed this business until nearly thirty years of age, and dur- 
ing this early period his history is hidden and obscure enough. 

About the year 1760, however, or soon after, he quit shaving, 
and commenced business as an itinerant hair-dealer, collecting 
the commodity by travelling up and down the country. 

It would appear that his first effort in mechanics was an at- 
tempt to discover the perpetual motion. It was on inquiring after 
a person to make him some wheels for a project of this kind that, 
in the latter part of the year 1767, he got acquainted with a clock- 
maker of the name of Kay, then residing at Warrington, with 
whom it is certain that he was, for a considerable time after, 
closely connected. From this moment we may date his entrance 
upon a new career. 

In the year 1767, Arkwright became acquainted with Kay. In 
1768, the two friends appeared together at Preston, and immmedi- 
ately began to occupy themselves busily in the erection of a ma- 
chine for spinning cotton thread, of which they had brought a 
model with them. They prevailed upon a Mr. Smalley, who is 
described to have been a liquor merchant and painter of that 
place, to join them in their speculation ; and the room in which 
the machine was fixed was the parlor of a dwelling house attached 
to a free grammar-school, which Smalley obtained from his friend, 
the school-master. At this time Arkwright was so poor that, an 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 82 1 

election contest having taken place in the town of which he was a 
burgess, it is asserted that his friends, or party, were obliged to 
subscribe to get him a decent suit of clothes before they could 
bring him into the poll-room. As soon as the election was over, 
he and Kay left Preston, and, carrying with them their model, be- 
took themselves to Nottingham, the apprehension of the hostility 
of the people of Lancashire to the attempt he was making to in- 
troduce spinning by machinery, having, as Arkwright himself 
afterward stated, induced him to take this step. On arriving at 
Nottingham, he first made arrangements with the Messrs. Wright, 
bankers, for making the necessary supply of capital ; but they, 
after a short time, having declined to continue their advances, he 
took his model to Messrs. Need & Strutt, stocking-weavers of the 
place, the latter of whom was a particularly ingenious man, and 
well qualified, from scientific acquirements of which he had pos- 
sessed himself under many disadvantages, to judge of the adapta- 
tion of the new machinery to its proposed object. An inspection 
of it perfectly satisfied him of its great value ; and he and Mr. 
Need immediately agreed to enter into partnership with Arkwright, 
who, in 1769, took out a patent for the machine as its inventor. 
A Spinning Mill driven by horse-power, was at the same time 
erected, and filled with the frames ; being, unless we include those 
erected many years before by Mr. Wyatt, the first works of the 
kind that had been known in England. In 177 1, Arkwright and 
his partners established another Mill at Cromford, in the parish of 
Wirksworth, in Derbyshire, the machinery of which was set in 
motion by a water-wheel, and in 1775 he took out a second patent, 
on additions which he had made to his original apparatus. 

After he had succeeded in forming his partnership with Messrs. 
Need & Strutt, his success was far from being secured. For a 
long time the speculation was a hazardous and unprofitable one, 
and no little outlay was required to carry it on. He tells us him- 
self that in his case it did not begin to pay till it had been perse- 
vered in for five years, and had swallowed up a capital of more 
than twelve thousand pounds. We can not doubt that it required 
all Arkwright's dexterity and firmness to induce his partners to per- 
severe with the experiment under this large expenditure and pro- 
tracted disappointment. But it was the character of the man to 
devote his whole heart and faculties to whatever he was engaged 



822 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

in. Even to the close of his life, the management of his extended 
manufacturing operations was his only occupation, and even 
amusement. Although he had been from early life afflicted with 
severe asthma, he took scarcely any recreation, employing all of 
his time either in superintending the daily concerns of these 
establishments, which were regulated upon a plan that itself indi- 
cated in its contriver no little ingenuity and reach of mind, or in 
adding such improvements to his machinery from time to time as 
his experience and observation suggested. And thus it was that 
he raised himself from a poor barber to what he eventually be- 
came — not merely a man of rank and affluence, but the founder of 
a new branch of National industry, destined in a wonderfully shor- 
space of time, to assume the very first place among the manut 
facturers of his own country and America. 

Mr. Arkwright died at the age of sixty, in 1792, from the result 
of a complication of disorders arising from a sedentary life. At 
the time of his death his wealth amounted to one-half millioB 
sterling. 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



823 




JOSH BILLINGS. 




ANY of our American humorists have as many read- 
ers as Henry W. Shaw, so well known under his pen 
name of " Josh Billings "; none of them have, however, 
so wide and varied an audience. Old and young are alike pleased 
at his amusing oddities, quaint sayings, and natural kindly 
humor. 

His life seems to have been remarkable in no respect except in 
the rapidity with which he made and the ability with which he 
has kept his reputation as a humorist. It is not likely that a 
biography of " Josh Billings " would prove more interesting than 
that of most people. It is in his writings alone that matter for 
interest is to be found. As an author he seems destined to ob- 
tain as much celebrity for the wealth of his humor and the ver- 
satility of its expression, as for its charming quality. He has 
already published four books, all of which have been successful, 
besides his well-known " Farmer's Almanax," of which enough 
were sold at 25 cents each to bring the author a small fortune. 



824 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Like many other authors, he has entered the lecture field, 
where he has also achieved success. He never fails to obtain full 
houses, and is received everywhere with applause. 

The genius of " Billings " is to be seen rather in his quaint and 
original manner of saying things, his " cute " combinations, 
strange juxtapositions, and the peculiar power he possesses of 
presenting high moral truths, so that they may be brought, full 
of life and humor, to the comprehension of the most practical 
minds, than in the giving of new or original matter. He might 
be called an artist rather than a writer ; or to express it different- 
ly, a literateur in whom the artistic sense predominates. There 
jnay, indeed, be originality in matter as well as in manner in 
" Josh Billings' " writings — the humor which grows out of his com- 
parisons and combinations being certainly original — but most of 
his seem to be drawn from the wise old moral laws of our ances- 
tors, united to the odd and practical phraseology of certain 
classes. 

However this may be, " Josh Billings " is always heard and read 
with delight, and we have pleasure in presenting his portrait as 
being that of one of America's greatest humorists. 



DEAN SWIFT. 




^\EAN SWIFT was born in Dublin, in 1667, and wasedu- 
)w cated at Hiekenny, and Dublin University. He is said 
T^^ to have been a careless student, reading human nature 
more than books, and already a keen satirist. Until he was over 
forty years of age, he was a Whig ; then for a short time he sup- 
ported the Tories ; afterwards, until he was seventy he paid no 
attention to politics except as it could be used as a means of bet- 
tering the condition of Ireland. When he reached his majority 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 825 

he emigrated to England. He became a member of the family 
of Sir William Temple, a relative of his, and during his stay- 
there studied, and acted as secretary to his patron. He wrote 
Pindarie odes, which, says a critic, were poor enough to merit 
Dryden's opinion, " Cousin Swift, you will never be a poet." His 
poem, however, was not quite thrown away, but prepared his mind 
for the production of those later comedies in which satire is often 
half buried, or loses its power to harm, in comic wit. Having 
become dissatisfied with his patron, he crossed to Ireland, took 
orders, and accepted a situation as country pastor, on an endow- 
ment of a hundred pounds a year. Whether he only intended at 
the first to frighten his friends, or whether he discovered that he 
had made a mistake and chose a life and vocation for which he 
was unsuited, we know not, but are certain it is that receiving an 
invitation to the Temple in less than twelve months, he obtained 
a transfer of his living to a poorer man than himself, and returned 
to Moor Park, a wiser and perhaps better man. At this time, 
Swift was unmarried and a most arrant flirt, and even while in 
Ireland, engaged in ministerial duties, found time to practice 
enough to keep his hand in two or three games, which he was 
playing secretly. 

During his second stay at Moor Park he wrote " The Battle 
of the Books," and "Tale of a Tub." His first works are his best, — 
strong, fresh, vigorous, not so well calculated to please, perhaps, 
as later writings, since not so polished. His satirical romances 
are called his masterpiece, and for the terrible invectives, for the 
masterly skill with which he uses the cutting lash of irony, 
no doubt they are. The same characteristics which marked his 
^writings marked his conversation. He was brilliant, witty, fear- 
less, and cruel, never failing to throw back a sharp retort at the 
right time. 

On Sir William Temple's death Swift returned to Ireland with 
Lord Berkeley, and when his patron received his recall the next 
year, Swift was left in possession of an annual living of four 
hundred pounds. He now published the two first books written, 
but though popular with the people, they were unpopular with the 
clergy, and were used as a means to so prejudice Queen Anne 
against him that his friends found it impossible to obtain a 
living for him in England, as they would gladly have done since 



826 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

he preferred that country. Provoked by this state of affairs,. 
Swift now made matters worse by his " Project for the advance- 
ment of Religion," and a work entitled " An Argument to prove 
that the Abolishing of Christianity in England may, as things 
now stand, be attended with some Inconvenience." Heretofore 
Swift had been a Whig, and a most zealous high churchman ; but 
his party wounded his heart by their neglect of Ireland, and his 
self-love by refusing to make him a bishop ; so when the Tories 
came into power, he unhesitatingly went over to their ranks. It 
was in their interests that he wrote " The Examiner," followed by 
" The Conduct of the Allies;" and his "History of the four last 
years of the Queen," was a defense of the treaty of Utrecht. In 
1 7 13 his friends obtained 'for him the deanery of St. Patrick's 
Cathedral, in Dublin, which really amounted to banishment from 
England for meddling with politics. What hint accompanied the 
living is not known, but Swift never after took any part in politics. 
During all these years Swift had kept up a most contemptible flirt- 
ation with two ladies, — one " Stella," daughter of Sir William 
Temple's steward, the other an Irish lady who was the " Vanessa " 
of his poems. Upon his return to Dublin, Stella followed him, 
and her frightful temper and jealousy caused stormy scenes, to 
appease which Swift married her secretly, and in so doing, capped 
the climax of their misery. Vanessa, having heard or seen some- 
thing which roused her suspicions, wrote to Stella, and she 
handed the letter to Swift, who, in a towering passion, called upon 
Vanessa, threw the letter ©n her table, and left her without a 
word. The shock killed both his victims and they were buried 
within a few days of each other. " Gulliver's Travels," and " Brob- 
dignag " are specimens of his light literature at this period. In 
his sixty-eighth year he wrote the " Legion Club," one of his best 
rhymed pieces. About this time his health began to give way, 
and gradually declined. His death, in October 1745, was pre- 
ceded by three years of total idiocy. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



827 




MARK TWAIN. 




til AMUEL LANGHORNE CLEMENS, so well known to 
the English-speaking world as Mark Twain, was born in 
the town of Florida, Monroe County, Missouri, in the 
year 1835. He appears to have possessed, from early youth, that 
irresistible desire to write which has brought out and developed so 
many of our most talented men, while it has lured weaker minds 
to their ruin. Mark Twain commenced as a modest contributor 
to the " Daily Alta," of San Francisco, and subsequently appeared 
as regular contributor to the " New York Tribune," " Galaxy/' 
" Packard's " and the " New York Herald," having written for 
some of those journals in conjunction with his regular duties of 
editing and publishing. 

The attention attracted by his earlier contributions appear to 
have decided him in the choice of a profession, for he soon con- 
nected himself as editor with the " Daily Enterprise," Virginia 



-828 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

City, Nevada, where he received that discipline and facility in 
writing which he has turned to such good account. He next en- 
tered on a wider field of enterprise, as editor and part proprietor 
of the " Daily Express," Buffalo, New York, a position he has 
since retained. It is since his connection with this paper that he 
has made the name of " Mark Twain " a household word, and 
some of the brightest small sketches he has written appeared for 
the first time in that journal. He has written, since 1866, several 
books, and published some collections of sketches, all of which 
have been remarkably successful, and have made the author inde- 
pendent of the world. " The Jumping Frog of Calaveras Coun- 
ty, and other Sketches by John Paul," was published abroad in 
1867 by Routledge, and was followed by the " Innocents Abroad," 
(Hartford, 1869,) both of which were surprisingly successful. 

We will make no attempt to analyze the quality of his wit and 
humor. It owes something, doubtless, to the manner in which it 
is employed, and some of the humorist's strongest sketches may 
be suspected of a lack of originality, or at least of ingenious 
change or small adaptations. 

Some talk was created at the time of his connection with the 
"Galaxy." It was thought that he did not equal his former ef- 
forts in his articles for that magazine. It is, perhaps, true, though 
the articles contained much that was sparkling and original. One 
trouble was, however, with the public — they expected too much — 
and had formed little idea of the difficulty of making " a few 
pages of wit," to be ready always at a certain day. Much shorter 
sketches than these presented would have been better. 

Our humorist was married about two years since to an estima- 
ble lady of Buffalo, and has settled into a model pater familias. 
It is likely that he begins to think himself an old man already, 
which is natural enough when we consider that at the age of only 
thirty-six, he has made a reputation which is higher and wider 
than most men, even humorists, attain at sixty. 

Some cynical people say that he has not said so good a thing 
since he made his last joke of his bachelor life. His father-in- 
law had secretly furnished a house for the young pair. When 
Mark was led into and had looked upon its splendor his single 
remark was, "Well, isn't this a first-class sell !" 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 829 



LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 




UDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN was born at Bonn, De- 
cember 1 6th, 1770. He was the second of four children, 
and exhibited, at a very early age, proofs of great musical 
talent. At eleven years of age he is spoken of by a competent 
critic, in a periodical of the time, as playing at sight all the dif- 
ficult and most incomprehensible plays of Sebastian Bach. He 
had also, at that age, already published three sonatas for the 
piano, and a number of pieces for the harpsichord, of which he 
was master. At this period the elector died, and was succeeded 
by Maximillian Francis, who was passionately fond of music. His 
bosom friend was the young Count Waldstein, a practical musi- 
cian, and familiar with the works of the best masters. The Count 
discovered the promise of the boy, became his protector, and had 
him appointed assistant court organist, and afterwards sent him to 
Vienna to study with Mozart, from whence he returned to take the 
position of chief organist. Again his kind patron returned him 
to Vienna at his own expense, and maintained him through five 
years of study and practice. He was now twenty-two years of 
age, handsome as an artist's dream ; polished, easy, graceful, 
learned in the ways of the best society ; with a force, fire and orig- 
inality of conception and a delicate yet brilliant execution in 
which he had scarcely a rival — surely but one — Wolfe, who was 
unsurpassed on the piano. His compositions took the world by 
storm. Whether in heavy thunders, like the tramping of armed 
legions, they swept in volumes of oppressive weight through the 
dim old aisles of the mightiest cathedrals of Europe ; or whether 
m whispers low and deft as those of twilight's softest breeze, they 
crept through nave and corridor, rising with the perfumed breath 
of incense burning upon holy altars, and thrilling and vibrating 
through the rich and dusky gloom, men listened with solemn awe, 
and the swift pulse wildly leaping, caught from the heart a sub- 
dued and measured beat, and women wept with mournful pleasure 



#3° FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

that was almost pain. But the life of the young musician was ak 
ready overshadowed with an impending calamity, and his soul 
grew sick with an unutterable dread, for the brilliant triumphs 
which the future offered were but mockery ; since he, of all the 
world would soon know no more the ravishing strains his own ge- 
nius created, and his masterpieces of composition would be but 
signs whose exquisite expression he would never hear. • 

He had been conscious for some time that his hearing was 
becoming dull ; that he was gradually but surely losing it. It is 
needless to say he was in despair. Every means which human 
skill could devise had been brought to bear upon the case in vain. 
It was far past the help of surgery, and grim and helpless he 
awaited the coming of the inevitable doom. His sensitive nature 
shrank from the society, sympathy and fellowship of men, and 
when only thirty years old he retired from the company which 
he had adorned, and of which he was the idol, and became a re- 
cluse. Henceforth every composition of his was tinged with the 
melancholy that had taken possession of his spirit, and the de- 
pression was so great that he seriously meditated suicide as the 
only way to rid himself of an existence which had grown hateful 
Co him. Only love for his mission stayed his hand. Only the 
wistful longing to give to the world the darling creation of his 
brain — only the memory of what he had done in the past, and the 
knowledge that his powers had not yet reached their prime, pre- 
vented him from closing the door of time and stepping out into 
the darkness of an unknown future. The pensive tone which had 
always marked his productions grew heavier as he advanced in 
years, and in some of his latest works is so strong as to possess a 
curious fascination. 

He was all his life a republican in principle, though circum- 
stances prevented the frequent expression of such sentiments; 
and the aspirations, hopes, triumphs, the grief, woe, despair of the 
nations were themes for his muse. 

Some appreciative critic, says : " The orchestral words of 
Beethoven are the musical record of the great ideas of 
his time in the form and likeness they assumed in his mind. 
Haydn and Mozart perfected instrumental music in its form. 
Beethoven touched it and it became a living soul" He died March 
26, 1827. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 83I 

MOZART. 

fOHANN CHRYSOSTOMUS WOLFGANG GOTTLIEB 
Mozart was born in Salzburg, Jan. 26, 1756. His father 
\Jf was a bookbinder, but having both taste and talent for 
music, studied at Salzburg and became one of the prince-arch- 
bishop's musicians. The young Mozart was born and bred in an 
atmosphere that was redolent with music, where, from matins to 
vespers, the sweet strains rang and vibrated, and thrilled every 
passer-by as if the gates of Heaven had been left ajar, and sera- 
phic strains floated through. At the age of three years he began 
to show signs of that remarkable talent which made his name im- 
mortal, and his compositions, even yet, are the masterpieces of 
musical works. At four years of age he played upon the harp- 
sichord quite a number of pieces, and at five he made his first at- 
tempt at composition ; while he was bright and quick at all his 
other studies, music was his favorite and in this he excelled. 
When seven years of age his family removed from Germany, and 
the boy and his sister played in all the principal cities of Europe, 
where they excited the greatest wonder and astonishment. In 
the fall of the same season he played upon the grand organ be- 
fore the entire court of Versailles. Here he published his two 
first compositions, and the fame of the infant prodigy was the one 
great sensation of the times. From there he went to England, 
where he composed six sonatas, which were, by special request of 
Her Majesty, dedicated to the Queen. In Holland, when not 
more than eight years of age, he composed a symphony for a full 
orchestra. In 1769, when entering upon his teens, he was ap- 
pointed concert master to the Archbishop of Salzburg. Every- 
where he was met with the greatest enthusiasm. In 177 1 he com- 
posed the first opera for the carnival, and heard for the first time 
the celebrated "Miserere?" It may not be generally known that 
the reproduction of this piece was forbidden, that it could not be 
copied or published in any form or manner on pain of excommu- 
nication. 

Mozart was in Rome during Passion W r eek, and going home 
from mass, immediately produced from memory, the intricate and 
marvelous "Miserere." Good Friday he agais. listened to it, 



832 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

corrected any mistakes he might have made, and then took Rome 
by storm by singing it in a manner equal to those who had given 
it years of practice. It had never been written before, and it was 
thought that notes could never be made to express it ; the surprise 
and admiration of professional singers was unbounded. The 
Pope was enraptured with him, and bestowed upon him the order 
of the Golden Spur, and at Bologna he was elected a member of 
the Philharmonic Society, an honor rarely conferred even upon 
the greatest singers. His position was now that of first singer in 
Europe, or rather first musician, for he was unexcelled either in 
vocal or instrumental music. His mother's death, which occurred 
in Paris, in 1777, occasioned his return to Salzburg, from whence 
he again made a tour to Europe, and then entered the service of 
the Emperor at Vienna, where he remained during the rest of his 
life. At the early age of thirty-five, when his already ripening 
honors were falling fast around him, death came suddenly, and 
the hand and brain wrought no more on earth the melodies that 
were fit for the lips of seraphs. His Requiem is perhaps his 
masterpiece, if we can choose, where all are so perfect 




OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY* 833 



HORACE GREELEY. 



IS 



ORACE GREELEY is, in every sense of the word, a 
"self-made man." His father, Zaccheus Greeley, was a 
poor New Hampshire farmer, who was only able to give 
him the advantages of a common school education ; but his ener- 
gy, ambition and capacity supplied all deficiencies, and enabled 
him to push his way from obscurity to the prominent position he 
now occupies. , 

Horace Greeley was born at Amherst, New Hampshire, on the 
3d of February, 181 1. He was a rather feeble child, and for 
years suffered from want of physical strength rather than from 
any positive disease. He lived with his parents in New Hamp- 
shire until the 1st of February, 1821, going to school a little and 
working on the farm a great deal, when, in consequence of his 
father's failure and the enforced sale of his farm, the whole fami- 
ly went to West Haven, Vermont. Here he was distinguished at 
school by the readiness with which he absorbed knowledge. 

In the year 1826, being then fifteen years old, heentered the of- 
fice of the "Northern Spectator," at Poultney, Vt., as an apprentice. 
It did not take him long to learn the typo's trade, and he was 
soon noted for his dexterity and accuracy as a compositor. It 
was here that he first began his literary work — seldom writing 
anything, but composing editorials as he stood at the " case," and 
setting them in type without taking the trouble to write them 
out. While at Poultney he not only set type and helped edit " The 
Spectator," but would lecture in the village lyceum, and was the 
referee in all disputes on historical or literary questions. In 1830 
"The Spectator" suspended publication, and Horace was compelled 
to start anew. He left Poultney richer only by the trade he had 
learned, and' the experience of his four years in a country village. 

One morning in June of the above year, Mr. Greeley 
started from Poultney for the place to which his parents 

53 




Horace Greeley. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 835 

had removed in Pennsylvania, 600 miles away. With all 
his possessions suspended over his shoulder at the end of a hick- 
ory stick, he walked to Schnectady, where he took a boat on 
the Erie canal, walking at the other end of the route over one 
hundred miles before he reached his destination. Making his 
home in the northwestern part of Pennsylvania the base of ope- 
rations he wandered through the surrounding country in search of 
employment. He finally got an engagement on the " Erie Gazette," 
where he remained for some seven months. As he had now near- 
ly attained his majority, he concluded that it was time for him to 
do something, and determined to set out for New York City. At 
sunrise on the 18th of August, 1831, Horace Greeley landed at 
Whitehall, close to the Battery. His cash capital consisted of 
ten dollars. The first work he obtained in this city was assisting 
in the composition of a Polyglot Testament. 

Mr. Greeley made his first business venture in New York as a 
-partner in a daily paper called the " Morning Post," started January 
1, 1833, by Dr. H. D. Shepard. The paper lived about a month. 
In March, 1834, he made his first visible mark in journalism by 
issuing " The New Yorker," a large and handsome weekly paper, 
■devoted to literature and news. 

Two years after starting this paper Mr. Greeley married. 
Five children have been born to him, of whom two boys and one 
girl died at an early age. 

While publishing "The New Yorker" Mr. Greeley made his debut 
as a political writer, in 183-8, on a small campaign paper called "The 
Jeffersonian," and in the Harrison campaign as the editor of "The 
Log Cabin." On the 10th of April, 1841, Mr. Greeley, almost 
moneyless and unaided, issued the first number of " The New York 
Tribune." 

In 1848 Mr. Greeley was elected to Congress to fill a vacancy, 
and served from December 1 of that year to March 4, 1849. 

In 1850 he published a volume of political lectures and essays, 
under the title of "Hints toward Reform." The following 
year he made a voyage to Europe, and during his visit to Eng 
land served as a juryman at the Crystal Palace Exhibition. Ob 
his return he published a volume entitled " Glimpses at Europe. ' 
Mr. Greeley's connection with politics previous to and during the 
late war is too well known to require mention. Striving in the 




836 FOOTPRINTS Or THE AGES. 

first place to preserve peace when the war had broken out, he ad- 
vocated such measures as would bring it to a speedy conclusion. 

Horace Greeley has ably and persistently advocated the inter- 
ests of the working classes, and has used his political and social 
influence to further the schemes which have at various times been 
proposed for their benefit. 

He was nominated for the presidency May 3d, 1872, but was 
defeated by General Grant. He died November 29th, 1872. 



HUGH MILLER. 

'UGH MILLER, son of a sailor, himself destined as 
geologist and naturalist, was born in the town of Cro- 
marty, Scotland, October 10th, 1802. 
Some one has said that Hugh Miller could converse with books. 
His earliest work was the well known essay on " My Schools 
and School-masters," " Scenes and Legends," and " Lykewake." 
The most important stages of his life carry him through his school- 
days — when, undoubtedly, he formed material for that auto- 
graphic work, entitled, *' My Schools and School-masters." That 
book has been recognized by all judges as one of the most capti- 
vating and able of the author's performances, and has a place in 
English literature from which it cannot be moved; but it is no 
substitute for the biography of Hugh Miller. It deals with but 
one portion of its author's career, and that the portion which pre- 
ceded his emergence into public life. There is much biographic 
material relating to Hugh Miller, unencroached upon in the 
"Schools and School-masters." From early boyhood, he was 
fond of jotting down particulars connected with his personal his- 
tory and for many years previous to his being harnessed to steady 
literary toil, he took great delight in letter-writing. 

HUGH MILLER'S BOYISH ADVENTURE IN THE DOOCOT CAVE. 

He was twelve years old when the notable adventure of the 
Doocot Cave afforded him the subject of his first verses. The 



OUR GOVERMENT AND HISTORY. 837 

incident, slight in itself, happens to possess extraordinary inter- 
est in a biographical point of view. There exists at least four 
accounts of the incident drawn up by himself, — four successive 
paintings of the same scene, by the boy, the stripling, the man of 
twenty-seven, and the man of fifty. 

The first is that referred to in the " Schools and School-mas- 
ters," as executed in " enormously bad verse " a day or two after 
the occurrence. The copy from which this sketch is taken 
excited the admiring wonder of Miss Bond, mistress of the Cro- 
marty Boarding School. Attached to it is that pictorial repre- 
sentation of the scene which Miller describes as consisting of 
" horrid crags of burnt umber, perforated by yawning caverns of 
India ink, and crested by a dense forest of sap-green." You can 
see what is intended ; the sea is below the cavern, and the sward 
and wood are above ; but the whole is not superior to the ordi- 
nary daubing of child-artists. The verses exhibit internal evi- 
dence of having been written within a day or two of the event 
they record. The agony of distress and terror experienced by 
the boy of twelve when he and his companion — a lad still 
younger — found themselves, as night came on, with the sea before, 
impassable rocks on either hand, and a dark cavern behind,— 
this, and their contrasted rapture when the boats hailed them at 
midnight, supersede all reflection on the beauties of the land- 
scape or the wonders of the cave. The grammar and spelling are 
about as bad as possible. Here are the first two lines : 

" When I to you unfolds my simple tale, 

And paints the horrors of a rocky vail." 

4 He forgets to say what will happen when the dreadful revelation 
takes place, and strikes presently into description of the cave. We 
need not retain the childish misspelling : 

"There stands a cavern on the sea-beat shore, 
Which stood for ages since the days of yore, 
Whose open mouth stands forth awfully wide, 
And oft takes in the roaring, swelling tide. 
Out through the cavern, water oozes fast, 
Which ends in nothing but white stones at last. 

For several years this version seems to have contented him 
the revision it underwent extending only to verbal alterations. 
The lad of nineteen, however, discards the whole, and produces a 



838 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

more polished and melodious ditty. The friend who shared the 
adventure is dismissed, and the interest centres in the " author,'-" 
or, as he is now more poetically styled, " the Muses' youngest 
child," or, with a touch of remorseful pathos, "the Muses' rude, 
untoward child." He has learned to sketch in Scott's lighter 
manner, and there is something of gracefulness and vivacity in his- 
handling. 

"Well may fond memory love to trace 

The semblance of that lonely place ; 

Much may she joy to picture fair 

Each cliff that frowns in darkness there ; 

For when alone in youth I strayed 

To haunted cave or forest glade, 

Each rock, each lonely dell, I knew, 

Where flowrets bloomed, or berries grew } 

Knew where, to shelf of whitened rock, 

At eve the sable cormorants flock ; 

Could point the little arm to where 

Deep the wild fox had dug his lair ; 

Had marked with curious eye the cell 

Where the rock-pigeon loved to dwell ; 

Had watched the seal with silent ken, 

And, venturous, stormed the badger's den. 
Hugh Miller was, at the time he left school, a rugged, proud,, 
and stiff-necked lad, impossible to drive, and difficult to lead, his 
character already marked with strong lines, and developing from 
within or through self-chosen influences. "I saw," said Baxter 
of Cromwell, "that what he learned must be from himself;" and 
the observation might already have been made of Hugh Miller. 
To his friends he was a perplexity and offense; to his uncles, in 
particular, who knew him too well, and were too sagacious to 
accept the off-hand theory of his school-masters, that he was 
merely a stupid and bad boy, he must have seemed a mass of con- 
tradictions. Intellectual in his wildest play, fond of books, and 
capable of discerning excellence from its counterfeits in thought 
and style, passionately addicted to the observation of nature, and 
forgetting no fact he once ascertained how could he be dull in the 
ordinary sense ? 

We find him as the boy mason in 1829, when he writes to Prin- 
cipal Baird : " My first six months of labor, presented only a 
series of disasters? I was, at the time, of a slender make and weak 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 839 

constitution ; and I soon found I was ill-fitted for such employ- 
ments as the trundling of loaded wheelbarrows over a plank, or 
the raising of huge blocks of stone out of a quarry. My hands 
were soon fretted into large blisters, my breast became the seat of 
a dull, oppressive pain, and I was much distressed, after exertion 
more than usually violent, by an irregular motion of my heart. 
My spirits were almost always miserably low ; and I was so wrap- 
ped up in a wretched, apathetic absence of mind, that I have* 
wrought for whole hours together with scarcely a thought of what 
I was doing myself, and scarcely conscious of what others were 
doing around me." 

Boy-life, with its freshness of faculty, its exuberence of delights, 
its opulence of wayward force, lies behind Hugh Miller. 

He found his way up as master of the workmen with whom he 
was once wont to drudge. But misfortunes overtaking him, he 
was forced back to a barrack life, finally finding himself a friend- 
less wanderer in the woods. But in his wanderings over rock and 
mountain crag, Miller the geologist out-climbed Miller the mason. 
In seeking employment, or in wandering about on pleasant sum- 
mer evenings, he made the best of his talent in those studies 
which the naturalist or geologist delights in following. 

Hugh Miller was a remarkable and eccentric character. His 
life covered the beautiful, august and heroic. From the father, 
whose very image he in later years became, he derived the ground- 
work of his character, and for the education of conscience he 
was indebted to his uncle James. In early manhood he was en- 
compassed with hardships, with coarseness, with manifold temp- 
tations. His soul took no taint. He rose superior to every form 
of vulgarity : the vulgar ambition of wealth, the vulgar ambition 
of notoriety, the vulgar baseness of sensuality and license. He 
aspired to fame, but it was to fame which should be the ratifica- 
tion of his own severe judgment. " I have myself," he said, " for 
my critic;" and while the decision of this sternest censor was 
even moderately favorable, no sneers could depress, no applause 
elate him. His course was a steadfast pursuit of truth and of 
knowledge, an unwearied dedication of himself to all that he 
believed to be true, and honest, and lovely, and of good report. 

Politeness is the last touch, the finishing perfection of a noble 
character. It is the gold on the spire, the sunlight on the corn- 



84O FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

field, the smile on the lip of the noble knight lowering his sword- 
point to his lady-love. It results only from the truest balance 
and harmony of soul. Hug h Miller possessed it. A duke in 
speaking to him would know .. . was speaking to a man as inde- 
pendent as himself; a boy, in expressing to him an opinion, would 
feel unabashed and easy, from his genial and unostentatious 
deference. Years in the quarry have not dimmed in Hugh Miller 
»that finishing gleam of genial light which plays over the frame- 
work of character, and is politeness. Not only did he require 
honest manliness for this ; gentleness was also necessary. He 
had both, and has retained them ; and therefore merits fairly 

" ' The grand old name of gentleman.' " 

So far as "we can penetrate the charm of his composition, it lies 
mainly in the fine continuity of it, in the absence of all jerking, 
jolting movement, in the callida junctura, not of word to word 
merely, but of sentence to sentence, thought to thought, illustra- 
tion to illustration. An author's peculiar excellence, if we have 
rightly discriminated it, will give us a hint as to where we should 
look for his besetting fault, and in reading Miller long at one 
time, we may find in his billowy regularity and smoothness of 
movement a sense of monotony. Yet, after all, there is a mar- 
velous enchantment in his books; the breath of the hills is in 
them, the freshness of the west wind and the sea. 

It was impossible to be long in Miller's company without per- 
ceiving the ardor of his devotion to science. He considered lit- 
erature inferior to science as a gymnastic of the mind. For the 
facile culture of the age he had great contempt, and ranked both 
religion and labor as stimulating, training agencies for mind and 
character, higher than what is commonly called education. "As 
for the dream," he says in one of his books, "that there is to be 
some extraordinary elevation of the general platform of the race 
achieved by means of education, it is simply the hallucination of 
the age — the world's present alchemical expedient for converting 
farthings into guineas, sheerly by dint of scouring." All that he 
had won had been won by stern effort, and he had no faith in royal 
roads to any kind of attainment. 

A man of priceless worth ; fine gold, purified sevenfold; deli' 
cate splendor of honor, sensitive and proud ; perfect sincerity and 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 841 

faitntuJaess in heart and mind. He never failed a friend. His 
comrade of the hewing-shed sits down at his table when he has 
become one of the most distinguished men of his time ; another 
friend is discoved to be at hand-grips with fortune, and he applies 
himself, with cunning delicacy, to solve the problem of inducing 
him to accept assistance. This was the manner and habit of the 
man. 

Of his power of brain — of his genius and originality — his 
books, viewed in connection with the circumstances of his career, 
are the living witnesses. To their testimony must be added the 
fact of the great influence he exerted upon his contemporaries, 
the personal weight, the intellectual mass and magnitude, he was 
felt to possess. 

Hugh Miller was a Presbyterian. He performed editorial la- 
bors during the Great Disruption, and later was a most eloquent 
and vigorous writer in the newly constituted Free Church. Severe 
mental toil at last undermined his powerful brain, and, in a mo- 
ment of insanity, on the night of Dec. 23d, 1856, he committed 
suicide at Portobello, near Edinburgh. 



DWIGHT L. MOODY. 



P WIGHT L. MOODY, the great Evangelist was born in 
Northfield, Massachussets, in 1837. In his boyhood he 
displayed great originality and force of character and the 
power of leadership that characterizes his later movements. At 
eighteen years, he entered the boot and shoe store of his uncle, in 
Boston ; his parents were Unitarians, and he had been brought up 
in their belief; but he became a member of the Sunday-school 
attached to Dr. Kirk's Congregational Church, where an evangel- 
ical sermon had the effect of making him uncomfortable, and he 
determined not to go again; induced to go back the next Sunday, the 
serious impression was renewed,and having obtained joy and peace 
in believing, he applied for admission to the church on the 16th of 
May, 1855. The committee by whom his application was consi- 
dered, recommended delay until he could acquaint himself 



842 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

thoroughly with the fundamental truths of Christianity. After si* 
months he was received into the communion of the church. 

He removed, in 1856, to Chicago, where he obtained a situation 
in a shoe store. Desiring to make himself useful, he went into a 
Mission Sunday-school, and asked for a class. The answer to his 
application was, that the school was fully supplied with teachers, 
but that if he could gather a class for himself, he would be allowed 
a place in the school-room. He succeeded in bringing in eighteen 
boys, and he enjoyed this sort of work, and handed the class over 
to another teacher, and continued bringing in recruits until he had 
filled the school. He soon organized a separate school for the 
benefit of the lower classes, in one of the most forbidding parts of 
Chicago. It was called the "North Market Hall Mission School," 
and it became one of the most famous of the West, the attend- 
ance reaching one thousand. Mr. Moody decided to give up his 
business and devote his time to the work he had planned for him- 
self. 

Mr. Moody's work lay in a part of the city in which Roman 
Catholics and Germans abounded. Being no singer, he secured 
the help of a friend to sing for him, and for the first few evenings 
they spent the time alternately singing hymns and telling stories 
to the children. Very soon the children began to manifest a lively 
interest. Meetings were held every evening, and prayers offered 
and addresses delivered, the parents began to attend these meet- 
ings, and some of them were greatly blessed. Some of those then 
converted through his instrumentality, have since been among Mr. 
Moody's most valuable and active helpers in Chicago. An inde- 
pendent church grew out of the school and Mr. Moody became 
its unordained pastor. It was a hive of Bible readers, tract dis- 
tributors, lay preachers, and missionary visitors. 

Mr. Moody is not a man of education or culture ; his manner is 
abrupt and blunt, his voice is sharp, rapid, and colloquial, and he 
never attempts anything like finished or elaborate composition, 
But he is in downright earnest. He believes what he says, says it 
as if he believed it, and expects his audience to believe. There is 
nothing of novelty in the doctrine which he proclaims. It is the- 
old Gospel, old yet always fresh. 




D. L. MOODY. 




IRA D. SANKEY. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 845- 

IRA D. SANKEY. 

>RA D. SANKEY, the great singer and companion of Moody, 
was born at Edinburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1840. In early 
life he displayed a taste for sacred music, and after join- 
ing the church at the age of fifteen, he actively promoted the 
training of Sunday-school children in the singing of hymns. It 
was in Indianapolis, at a national convention of Young Men's 
Christian Associations, that Mr. Moody first heard him sing. 
The two men found that their views and wishes harmonized, and 
they decided to work together. 

Mr. Sankey has a fine, full, soft, baritone voice, well trained, 
and over which he has complete mastery. His singing is plain 
and natural, v/ith wonderful distinctness of articulation, and un- 
affected feeling. A certain class of hearers attend their meetings 
solely to hear Mr. Sankey. 

The story of the successful European tour of Messrs. Moody 
and Sankey, of the auspicious opening of their work in this coun- 
try, and their success everywhere, is one of the marvels of our 
day, and those who deny that the presence and blessing of God 
attend them and crown their labors, must concede to them per- 
sonally and collectively a degree of power that is rarely possessed 
by two men. For our part, we prefer to believe that it is the 
Lord of Life whose power is working by their instrumentality. 




COMMERCE. 



LABOR— BANKS AND BANKING— THE MONEYED 

INSTITUTIONS OF THE OLD WORLD, PAST 

AND PRESENT.— SOLUTION OF 

OUR MONEY PROBLEM. 



AN ADDRESS BY SYDNEY MYERS BEFORE THE CHICAGO 

philosophical society. 

Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Philo- 
sophical Society : Lord Bacon remarked that all matters in 
this universe are so connected together link by link, one thing to 
another, that it would seem impossible to give a full and clear 
dissertation upon one subject without entering into the consider- 
ation of all things. Believing this to be true, it strikes me that 
one should always approach the discussion of any subject in 
which great interests are involved with humility. My theme 
to-night is " Commerce," which in its broadest sense involves all 
intercourse. Its history is coeval with that of man and its future 
is in the ages. In its narrower sense commerce involves the 
interchange of commodities, and the interchange of commodities 
involves two departments, the one of transportation, and the 
other of exchange of ownership. Before commodities can exist 
labor must be pursued, and until I can find a better definition in 
the books I have adopted as a definition for labor " the intelligent 
application of power to use." Our mission here is to confer 
benefits one upon another, to exercise all the faculties with which 
the Creator has endowed us, to do in this life all the good we can, 
and to use our faculties physically, intellectually, and morally. If 
all were disposed and willing to exercise all their faculties to the 
full extent for the good of their fellows the 

846 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 847 

TRANSACTIONS OF COMMERCE 

would be easier settled. The shoemaker would secure an 
abundance of flour from the miller ; the bricklayer would offer 
his services to the shoemaker to build his house, and the laborer 
would come forward and carry the mortar. But it soon becomes 
necessary that the shoemaker, the butcher, the baker, and the 
builder should keep some record of how far they exercised their 
faculties for the good of their neighbors severally. We have first 
a verbal agreement on the part of one to compensate the other 
for services rendered as in our farming community. An exchange 
of labor takes place, and after a while perhaps some persons may 
come into the neighborhood who are forgetful of the services 
rendered, and therefore they take to keeping books. After a 
while these books become disputed and questions arise before the 
justices of the peace with regard to the validity of the entries, 
and then they say " give me your promissory note." From the 
promissory note, transactions becoming larger, the bill of exchange 
is brought into use. A large portion of the commerce of Eng- 
land is carried on by means of bills of exchange. After that 
comes the account with the great merchant, and after that come 
the accounts of numerous merchants who aggregate together 
their wealth, experience, and skill in that corporation sometimes 
called a bank. Again, another evidence of service, and which 
passes from hand to hand, is the obligation or promissory note of 
the bank. These promissory notes having at times been refused, 
we have in this country advanced to a condition where the 
promissory note is secured by collateral. This is one of the 
great steps in advance in that department of commerce which 
involves the change of ownership. By the New York banking 
system for the first time the promissory note of the bank was 
secured by something that was intrinsically valuable, superior in 
value to gold. 

There have been a few advances made in regard to the 

EXCHANGE OF VALUES 

within the last 700 years, at which distant period the Bank of 
Venice was established. The next event occurred 217 years ago, 
when a man named Palmstruck, a Swede, invented the bank 
note. He became so unpopular on account of his invention of 



848 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

the bank note that he go.t into difficulties, and finally was obliged 
to leave his country. But soon afterward the government of 
Sweden decided that after all the bank note was not such a very 
bad thing, and they took possession of the bank which Palm- 
struck had abandoned, and that bank to-day is the great central 
bank of Sweden. 

The next step made was the establishment of the London 
Clearing House 100 years ago. The next step I believe to be the 
New York banking system, by which every promissory note was 
absolutely secured to the bill-holder. There was perhaps some- 
thing of circuit to be pursued in order to ultimately reach 
security ; but it was there. Every bill-holder was secured by the 

OBLIGATION OF THE STATE. 

After this soon followed the issue of the greenback and the 
3 per cent, certificate. The impression may perhaps prevail that 
in other countries the bank notes are absolutely secured by some- 
thing of intrinsic value behind its promise. I think that this is a 
mistake. I do not know of any country where every bank note 
in circulation is absolutely secured by something that is not only 
its equivalent but superior to it in value. Upon the New York 
system has been ingrafted our national bank system, and the 
mode of securing the notes is the same in both cases. Accord- 
ing to Palgrave, who is considered a high authority on this sub- 
ject, the total note circulation in Great Britain at a recent date 
was ^43,620,000 sterling. Of this amount ^30,000,000 com- 
posed what is called the fiduciary circulation — based on faith,, 
" the substance of things hoped for and the evidence of things 
not seen." Behind ^£i 4,000,000 of the bank notes only is gold 
available for their redemption of the notes. The provincial banks 
have ,£5 ,000,000 in circulation, the Bank of England ^25, 000,000, 
the banks of Scotland ^5,000,000, and the banks of Ireland 
^7,000,000, making with the country and private bank circulation 
a total of ^43,620,000, as before stated. Of the 

BANK OF ENGLAND 

circulation ^15, 000,000 is fiduciary, making ^30,000,000 in all. 
This fiduciary circulation is authorized partly by the charter of 
the bank, and has been increased to some extent since the act of 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 849 

1844. But it was authorized in this way — and I am probably 
reminding most of you of facts that are perfectly familiar to you, 
and I believe the proper office of a speaker, and perhaps of a 
writer, is to remind people of what they know, and help them to 
organize their ideas. This ^14,000,000 was authorized either 
upon the charter of the bank or at various times subsequent 
thereto. During the Napoleonic and other wars, the British 
Government had contracted a debt to the bank. It was a book 
account, and is a book account to-day. It was not based upon 
consols or anything of that kind. It was simply a charge against 
the British Government '• of ^14,000,000. The law of 1844 
permits the Bank of England to issue bank notes to the amount 
of this government debt, without having anything behind it. 
Now we may say that they have the government debt behind it ; 
but Ernest Seyd, in his recent work on the Bank of England, 
says that it is acknowledged by all good authorities in London 
and Great Britain that the bill holder has 

NO MORE CLAIM 

for the security of the note which he holds upon the indebted- 
ness of the British Government to the Bank of England, than has 
the depositor. Palgrave refers to but does not indorse an article 
which he designates as able, and from which he quotes, which 
was published in an issue of Blackwood's Magazine of rather 
recent date, in which the writer claims that the holder of the 
note, in case of the stoppage of the Bank of England, would not 
be a preferred creditor over the depositor as regarded the amount 
of gold which might be in the issue department of the bank 
The system of the Bank of England, and I say it with due 
respect, but merely for the purpose of making an illustration, is 
very much like what would be a system of this kind a 

CHICAGO ELEVATOR, 

which, having a capacity for 250,000 bushels of wheat, should 
issue warehouse receipts for 1,000,000 of bushels, and which 
should be required to keep on hand 250,000 bushels as a reserve 
to redeem the warehouse receipts with. The price of grain rises, 
a demand for it is made, and it is flowing out of the country, and 
the owners of receipts require great quantities of wheat delivered. 



85O FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

After having delivered 250,000 bushels they suspend, or the 
government suspends the act by which they are required to 
deliver wheat on presentation of receipts, and by which they are 
restricted to the issue of receipts for 1,000,000 bushels on a 
reserve of 250,000 bushels. But the comparison is objected to, 
and it is claimed the Bank of England never suspended and never 
refused to deliver gold, or in the other case that the warehouse 
never refused to deliver wheat. But the act by which they were 

REQUIRED TO REDEEM, 

and were restricted from making excessive issues, has been 
suspended from time to time by order in council, and then notes 
are issued ad libitum. These notes are transferred from one to 
another who owes the bank in its discount department, and they 
finally are worked in as the bank squeezes the merchants and 
compels them to cover their obligation and are canceled in the 
issue department, and when they have got no eucess of notes out, 
then they resume. I do not know whether I make myself clear in 
mixing up grain with notes, but I am trying to state the principle 
on which the Bank of England has issued that ^14,000,000 of 
fiduciary circulation behind it, and how it acts when gold is 
demanded on it. A person having a Bank of England note is 
permitted to draw coin as long as it lasts. This is merely an 
illustration of the system upon what are called specie-paying 
banks are concucted — that is, upon the English system. 

THE BANK OF HAMBURG 

is conducted upon the European system, which is quite different 
—the system on which our large warehouses in Chicago are now 
conducted. The Bank of Hamburg receives coin and charges 
storage, and keeps on hand as much coin as it gives receipts for. 
It was in this way that the Bank of Amsterdam was conducted. 
When the Bank of Amsterdam took from the coin in its ware- 
house a certain moderate amount and loaned it to the Dutch 
East India Company, and when it was understood that the bank 
had not as much gold coin on hand as it had receipts out for, it 
was declared that the bank had failed. That bank compromised 
with its creditors, but when it was declared that it had failed it 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 05 1 

was in the normal condition of the Bank of England, and the 
banks established on the English system. 

THE BANK OF VENICE 

was peculiar in its organization, and its organization arose in a 
peculiar way. It is the first bank of which we have any record 
whatever. The Republic of Venice was carrying on a war with 
the Emperor of the East and with Greece at the same time. 
This was 1171, and they were pressed by land and sea, and 
needed money. The Council of Ten called upon the merchants 
to bring in their coin to the treasury, and assessed them all around 
according to their wealth. The government gave each individual 
credit on the books of the nation for the amount brought in. 
Soon one of the merchants, in the course of nature, died. He 
had credits in the Bank of Venice on which 4 per cent, interest 
was promptly paid. It became necessary, on his death, that this 
loan should be distributed among his five children, and five 
accounts were opened instead of one. A custom of transferring 
credits in the bank soon prevailed, and in such transfers all the 
great business of the merchants was soon transacted. The custom 
proaed exceedingly convenient and was soon approved and regu- 
lated by law, and under this system for 500 years Venice was 
prosperous. During that period they had but few failures, and 
the credits were transferred at the request of any person owning 
them. The credits were as high as 

THIRTY PER CENT. PREMIUM, 

over the coin which was in circulation. The government then 
undertook to reduce the premium by opening a branch office, 
receiving the coin of merchants, giving them credit for it and 
allowing them to draw out coin if they desired to send it abroad. 
They also allowed them to transfer their credits. 

The banks of Amsterdam and Hamburg were established on 
this principle, and are doing business successfully. The Bank of 
Venice did bnsiness for 

FIVE HUNDRED YEARS, 

and during the Napoleonic wars, when the bank was thoroughly 
in operation, Massena, I think, a Marshal under Napoleon, 



852 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

entered Venice, found the books of the bank and preserved them, 
and when the government was restored the credits were paid and 
nobody lost anything. 

Mr. Myers then proceeded to quote from statistics published 
in 1840, showing the 

AVERAGE FAILURES 

in business. Not more than three in 100 business men of Boston 
acquired independence, and only 5 per cent, continued in busi- 
ness for forty years. A full examination of the books of the 
Union Bank of Boston showed that? only six accounts in too 
remained open after a period of forty years. Ninety-five in 100 
business men died poor. 

In Philadelphia not over 1 per cent, retired with a competency 
without failure, and not two in 100 in New York acquired wealth 
without failure. This was in the United States from 1800 to 
1840. 

IN ENGLAND 

there was one failure for every 1,500 inhabitants. One-fifth of 
1,500 adults was 300. One-half of 300 adults was 150 male. 
One-tenth of these men would be in business, and therefore one 
in fifteen men failed in business in England in 186 1. In Scotland 
there was one failure for every 6,000 persons, and by the same 
process of reasoning there was one failure in sixty. In the 
United States during the past fifty-nine years there had been ten 
panics, an average of one every 5 9-10 years. Professor Sumner, 
in his history of American currency, said that in England they 
had a panic once in every five years ; but that in this country the 
average was one in ten years. He (Professor Sumner) attributed 
this to the extra momentum the American people possessed. 
They were like General Taylor's troops on the occasion ot the 
battie of Buena Vista; they did not know when they were 
whipped. (Applause.) After observing that investigation and 
earnest thought and study was the best means by which we could 
secure a system by which the business of the country would not 
be continually brought to a standstill, he said he did not believe 
the 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 853 

FINANCIAL WISDOM 

of the world had been exhausted in the past, although by refer- 
ring back 700 years they found that under the old bank of Venice 
they succeeded in getting along for 500 years without a financial 
crisis. He believed that the subject of finance would soon be as 
generally studied in the United States by all classes as had been 
the art of war, and that the press was about taking hold of it in 
earnest ; that it would detail its ablest writers for this especial 
work, and would concentrate and place. before the people the gist 
and essence of all that had ever been said, written or done in 
connection with the subject. The people would study and discuss 
it in their shops, offices, counting houses, in harvest fields and in 
granges, on the platform and on the stump. 

The result of such a study would be as glorious in the case of 
finance as it had been in the study of the art of war, and they 
would live to see the day which would have a currency 

ABSOLUTELY CONVERTIBLE. 

Even Bonamy Price has said a currency which was absolutely 
convertible could ever be excessive. They would have a currency 
that was on a specie basis — that would be so valuable, that as 
Americans, they might be proud of it when they carried it abroad. 
They would have a currency that would not only be an equiva- 
lent of gold, readily exchangable for gold, but like the credits of 
the Bank of Venice be at a 

PREMIUM OF GOLD. 

Mr. Myers next referred to a paper he had prepared in 1872, 
previous to the stringency of that year. In the preparation of 
this paper he had endeavored to recognize the interest of all 
classes that might be affected by any legislation, and to produce 
a system which would be for the benefit of all and make the least 
possible disturbance in the community. 

He introduced the intro-convertible bond idea in two forms, 
one to relieve extraordinary pressure, such as occurred after the 
Chicago fire, after the Boston fire, and in the panic of 1873, tne 
other to absorb the excess of currency in mid-summer and mid- 
winter, when not needed, and thus prevent undue speculation and 



854 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES; 

inflation of prices, providing both a governor and safety- valve,, 
and a guage to measure the actual needs of the country for more 
or less currency — divide the reserves among all the redemption 
cities and secure mutual redemption of national bank notes, and 
in the additional provision substituted for the fourth proposition 
to take the falsehood out of the greenback with the consent of the 
holder 

FIVE PROPOSITIONS. 

Provided by act of Congress : 

1. To permit any holder of $io,ooo, or multiples thereof, in any of the 
gold-bearing bonds of the United States, to retire the same temporarily, at the 
Sub -Treasuries or designated depositories in New York, San Francisco, New 
Orleans or Chicago, under regulations to be made by the Secretary of the 
Treasury, and receive an amount of United States legal-tender notes equal to 
the face of said bonds temporarily retired; and upon presentation of a like 
sum in United States notes at the place where said bonds were temporarily 
retired, to receive the said bonds, or their equivalent in kind, less the interest 
which would have accrued during the time that the said bonds were temporarily 
retired. And provided further, that the Secretary of the Treasury be required 
to hold in reserve United States legal-tender notes to the amount of $40,000,- 
ooOj to be used for the purpose of temporarily retiring United States bonds as 
aforesaid, but the said notes shall not be used for any other purpose, nor shall; 
the whole amount of United States legal-tender notes, including those which 
may be held in reserve and those which may at any time be held in the 
United State Treasury, Sub-Treasuries, and depositories exceed $400,000,000 
until expressly authorized by law. 

2. Provide for the convertibility and revartibility of United States legal- 
tender notes and gold-bearing certificates at Sub-Treasury or designated 
depositories in all the recognized financial centres (see sec. 31, national bank 
act*) in sums of $10,000, or multiples thereof, at the pleasure of the holder; 
certificates to be revertible at pleasure into legal-tender notes, at places of 
issue, to bear gold interest at the rate of $1 per day on $10,000 (equal to about 
three per cent, per annum, if dies non and the day of presentation for reversion 
be excluded) ; these certificates to be available for all the purposes for which 
three per cent, certificates were available (see act March 2, 1867). Said United 
States notes, temporarily retired, to remain in the Sub-Treasury or depository, 
where received, until demanded on presentation of certificates issued at said 
Sub-Treasury or depository, from each of which reports of expansion and 
contraction shall be forwarded daily to the United States Treasury, both by 
mail and by telegraph, and said reports shall be open to the inspection of 
representatives of the press. 

The remaining sections were as follows : 

3. Permit national banks, in redemption cities, to keep one-half of their 
lawful money reserved with redeeming agents in any or all of those cities 
named in section 31 of national bank act, and amend section 31 aforesaid, so 
as to include Savannah Mobile, Galveston, Leavenworth, Denver, Nashville, 
Vicksburgh, St. Paul, and Portland (O.), and permit the banks in said cities to 
count said balances as part of their reserve, as is now permitted as to one-half 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 855, 

of their lawful money reserve kept with redeeming agents in New York City 
alone. 

4. Amend section 21, national bank act (as amended by act of March 3, 
1865, and by act July 12, 1870), so as to remove those restrictions upon national 
bank circulation, which are based upon location, representative population, 
and reputed banking cities. 

5. Permit any national bank (without necessarily reducing its capital or 
surrendering any of its franchises) to reduce its circulation and withdraw its 
securities prorata, until its circulation shall not exceed five thousand dollars 
($5,000). 

The fourth section having been practically applied by act of 
Congress, he has added the following clause : 

Provide by act of Congress that all persons who shall deposit United 
States legal-tender notes, as provided in proposition 2, shall, by such act of 
deposit, be deemed to have given their consent to the exchange herein provided ; 
and it shall be the duty of the Secretary of the Treasury to replace all notes 
that shall be so deposited with a new issue and to destroy as much of the old 
issue of United States legal-tender notes as shall from time to time be so 
deposited and replaced by the new issue, provided the total amount of legal- 
tender notes, at any time outstanding, shall not be increased or diminished by 
these provisions ; and provide further that the new issue of legal-tender notes 
shall read: "The United States is indebted to the bearer," etc., in place of 
the words, " The United States will pay the bearer," etc., and all new notes 
shall have an additional indorsement on the back thereof, setting forth briefly 
the terms under which said notes are convertible as provided in proposition 1. 

In conclusion Mr. Myers said : The design of these amend- 
ments is to induce the holders of legal-tender notes, for the con- 
sideration of privileges offered in proposition 2, to release the 
United States from the obligation to pay its legal-tender notes as 
implied by the present wording thereof, and to enable the people 
to realize that any holder of legal-tender notes is a shareholder in 
the debt of the United States ; and that under provisions of law 
he may transfer these evidences of debt due from the United 
States to him in payment of private indebtedness, in the absence 
of any contract or stipulation to the contrary ; or that he may, at 
his option, exchange these legal-tender evidences of debt for 
obligations bearing interest payable in gold, and reconvertible 
into legal tender notes at his pleasure. Import duties being levied 
upon foreign goods should be paid as now in money recognized 
as such by the world at large — the money in which a national 
government must pay money obligations. No nation or individual 
can pay debts with its or his own promises. 

He predicted as a result of these discussions the evolution of 



856 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



a system superior to that enjoyed by any nation, not excepting 
Venice. That the delivery of amended greenbacks would trans- 
fer national debt as in Venice, and that as all other civilized 
nations were dissatisfied with existing systems, ours would prob- 
ably ultimately prevail in other countries. That when once 
aroused our people could and would bring to bear upon the sub- 
ject great intellectual power and in that orderly expression of 
public opinion called law, would secure the best possible results. 




OCEAN IRON STEAMER. 



LEGAL AND COMMERCIAL FORMS. 



Notes, Bills, Orders, Checks, Drafts, Receipts, and 
General Legal Forms. 



DEFINITION OF COMMERCIAL TERMS. 



•means dollars, being a contraction of U. S., which was 



formerly placed before any denomination of money, and meant, 
.as it means now, United States Currency. 

jQ means pounds, English money. 

@ stands for at or to. ft> for pound, and bbl. for barrel. ^ 
'for per or by the. Thus, Butter sells at 2o@3oc <jp ft), and Flour 
.at$8@i2 $> bbl. 

°/o for per cent, and tt for number. 

April i.— Wheat sells at $i.2o@i.25, "seller May." Seller 
means that the person who sells the wheat has the privilege of 
delivering the same at any time during the month of May. 

Selling short, is contracting to deliver a certain amount of 
grain or stock, at a fixed price, within a certain length of time, 
when the seller has not the stock on hand. It is for the interest 
•of the person selling " short " to depress the market as much as 
possible, in order that he may buy and fill his contract at a profit. 
Hence the " shorts " are termed " bears." 

Buying long, is to contract to purchase a certain amount of 
grain or shares of stock at a fixed price, deliverable within a stip- 
ulated time, expecting to make a profit by the rise of prices. 
The " longs " are termed " bulls," as it is for their interest to 
"".operate " so as to "toss " the prices upward as much as possible. 



858 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AOl-.S. 

PROMISSORY NOTES. 

A promissory note is a promise or engagement m writing to 
pay a specified sum at a time therein limited, or on demand, or at 
sight, to a person therein named, or his order, or assigns, or to the 
bearer. The person making the note is called the drawer or maker. 

A note is void when founded upon fraud. Thus, a note ob- 
tained from a person when intoxicated, or obtained for any reason 
which is illegal, cannot be collected. A note given upon Sunday 
is also void in some States. 

Notes bear interest only when it is so expressed ; after they 
become due, however, they draw the legal rate of the State. 
Notes payable on demand or at sight, draw no interest until after 
presentation or demand of the same has been made, unless they 
provide for interest from date on their face ; they then draw the 
legal rate of interest of the State. 

If " with interest " is included in the note, it draws the legal 
rate of the State where it is given, from the time it is made. 

If the note is to draw a special rate of interest higher than the 
legal, but not higher than the law allows, the rate must be speci- 
fied. 

If the note is made payable to a person or order, or to a person 
or bearer, to a person or his assigns, or to the cashier of an incor- 
porated company, such notes are negotiable. 

When transferring the note, the endorser frees himself from 
responsibility, so far as the payment is concern*, d, by writing on 
the back above his name, " Without recourse to me in any event.' ' 

When a note is made payable at a definite peroid after date, 
three days beyond the time expressed on the face of the note 
(called days of grace) are allowed to the person who is to pay the 
same, within which to make such payment. Notes payable on 
demand are not entitled to days of grace. 

If a note is payable at a bank, and it is held there on the day 
upon which it falls due, until the usual hour for closing, ready for 
receiving payment thereon, no further demand upon the maker is 
necessary, in order to charge the indorser. The demand must, 
in all cases, be made upon the last of the days of grace; a 
demand before that time passing for nothing as against the 
indorser. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 859 

The days of grace, which must be computed according to the 
laws of the State where the note is payable, are to be reckoned 
exclusive of the day when the note would otherwise become due, 
and without deduction for Sundays or holidays ; in which latter 
case, by special enactments in most of the States, notes are 
deemed to become due upon the secular day next preceding such 
days. Thus, a note, due upon the twenty-fifth of December, is 
payable on the twenty-fourth, as the day when due is Christmas 
day ; if the twenty-fourth chance to be Sunday, it is due upon the 
twenty-third. 

In order to charge an indorser, the note, if payable at a par- 
ticular place, must be presented for payment at the place upon 
the very day it becomes due ; if no place of payment be named, 
it must be presented, either to the maker personally, or at his 
place of business, during business hours, or at his dwelling house, 
within reasonable hours; if payable by a firm, a presentment may 
be made to either of the partners, or at the firm's place of business ; 
if given by several persons jointly, not partners, the demand must 
be made upon all. If the note has been lost, mislaid or destroyed^ 
the holder must still make a regular and formal demand, offering 
the party at the same time, a sufficient indemnity in the event of 
his paying the same. 



NEGOTIABLE NOTE. 
$700. Cairo, 111., June 1, 1875. 

Three months after date, I promise to pay to Charles Jones, or order, 
Seven Hundred dollars, for value received. 

John Smith. 

NOTE NOT NEGOTIABLE. 
$400. Camden, N. J., Sept. 12, 1875. 

Six months after date, for value received, I promise to pay J. H. 
Foster, Four Hundred dollars. 

Stephen Mills. 

NOTE FOR TWO OR MORE PERSONS. 
$i,ooo. Clinton, La., July 5, 1874. 

We, or either of us, promise to pay to the order of James Grant, 
0*t Thousand dollars, for value received. 

J. R. Shaw. 
Henry Smith. 



FOOTPRINTS OP THE AGES. 

NOTE ON DEMAND. 

$150- Chicago, Ills., March 10, 1870. 

On demand, I promise to pay John Anderson, or order, One 
Hundred and Fifty dollars, value received, with interest. 

U. S. Grant, 

JOINT NOTE. 
$800.60. Boston, Mass., March 15, 1872. 

One year after date, we jointly, but not severally, promise to pay 
J. D. Smith, or order, Eight Hundred and 60-100 dollars, for value received, 
with interest at ten per cent. 

Peter Mason. 

Julius Hart. 

NOTE PAYABLE BY INSTALLMENTS. 

$700. Avon, 111., May 10, 1875. 

For value received, I promise to pay to Simon Butterfield, or order, 
Seven Hundred dollars, in manner following, to wit : Two Hundred dollars 
in one month from date ; Two Hundred dollars in two months ; and Three 
Hundred dollars in three months, with interest on the several sums as they 
become due. 

Caleb Jones. 

JUDGMENT NOTE. 

For value received, I promise to pay to Delos Anderson of Buffalo, or 
order, Three Hundred dollars, with interest, on the first day ef April next. 
And further, I do hereby empower any attorney of the Court of Common 
Pleas of Erie County, or 'of any Court of Record in New York, or elsewhere, 
to appear for me, ana after a declaration filed therefor, to confess a judgment 
against me in the above sum, as of last, next, or any other subsequent term, 
with costs of suits, release of errors, etc., with stay of execution until said first 
day of April next. 

Witness my hand and seal, at Buffalo, N. Y., this first day of October, in 
the year one thousand eight hundred and seventy-two. 

Signed, sealed, and delivered, gtooocffj 

in presence of Henry Soper. °b SEAL. $ 

Hiram Dows, ^oooog 
Martin Foster. 



NOTE PAYABLE IN MERCHANDISE. 

$1,500. Chester, Ind., July 24, 1876. 

For value received, on or before the first day of October next, we 
promise to pay H. Miller & Co., or order, Fifteen Hundred dollars, in good 
merchantable White Wheat, at our warehouse in this city, at the market value 
on the maturity of this note. 

Smith & Jones. 



OTJB GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 861 

DUE BILLS. 

FORM OF DUE-BILL PAYABLE IN MONEY. 
$100. Rochester, Ind., Oct. 21, 1875. 

Due Walter W. Kelley, or order on demand, One Hundred dollars, 
value received. 

C. Mason. 

PAYABLE IN FLOUR. 
$400. Chicago, Ills., Feb. 11, i860. 

Due on demand, to Sanford Burton, Four Hundred dollars, in 
Flour, at the market value when delivered. Value received. 

Chas. H. Wheeler. 

PAYABLE IN MONEY AND MERCHANDISE. 
$200. Keokuk, Ia.y May 19, 18 — . 

Due, on the 10th of June next, to A. B. Condit, or order, One 
Hundred dollars in cash, and One Hundred dollars in merchandise from our 
sjore. 

Miller & Co. 

PAYABLE IN MERCHANDISE. 
$20. West Arlington, Vt., April 9, 18 — . 

Due Wright Marsh, Twenty Dollars, in merchandise from our 
store. 

J. W. Goodspeed & Co. 



ORDERS. 

FOR MONEY. 

Winona, Minn,, Feb. 8, 18 — . 
Mr. H. L. Merriman : 

Please pay Chas. B. Wilson, or bearer, Five dollars, on my 
account. 

Patterson Smith. 

FOR MERCHANDISE NOT EXCEEDING IN VALUE A SPECIFIED SUM. 

Cincinnati, O., March 2, 1871. 
Messrs. Tower, Powell & Co. : 

Please deliver to the bearer, T. B. Sands, such goods as he may 
desire from your store, not exceeding in value the sum of Fifty dollars, and 
charge the same to my account. 

Thomas Peterson. 

FOR MERCHANDISE. 

Galesburg, Ills., June 5, 1876. 
Mr. B. H. Benson : 

Please pay James Chandler, Seventv-five dollars in merchandise, 
and charge to 

Weller & Mason. 






862 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

- FOR GOODS STORED,.. _. 

Mobile,. Ala., May 5, 1873. 
Messrs. Scribner, Carson & Co. : 

Please deliver to H. Alston, or order, One Hundred barrels of 
Flour, stored by me in your warehouse. 

Walter Madison. 

RECEIPTS. 

FOR MONEY ON ACCOUNT. 

Received, Richmond, Va., Mar. 21, 1873, of Wm. Baxter, Fifty dollars 
on account. 

$50. J as. Allison. 

FOR MONEY ADVANCED ON A CONTRACT. 
$1,000. New York, N. Y., Dec. 23, 1855. 

Received of Geo. Hamilton, One Thousand dollars in advance, on 
a contract to build for him a brick house at No. 85 Water St., Pensacola. 

Richard Matz. 

IN FULL OF ALL DEMANDS. 
$100. San Francisco, Cal., Sept. 12, 1875. 

Received of Benj. Eustace, One Hundred dollars, in full of all 
demands to date. 

Peter Millingford. 

FOR RENT. 
$300. Phila., Penn., Jan. 2, 18 — . 

Received of Walter B. Haskins, Three Hundred dollars, in full 
for one year's rent on dwelling at No. 237 Warren Ave. 

D. C. Rowe. 

FOR A NOTE. 
$500. Washington, D. C, April 7, 1863. 

Received of Campbell Fields, his note at sixty days for Five 
Hundred dollars, in full of account. 

Charles Murray. 

IN FULL OF ALL ACCOUNTS. 
$160. Boston, Mass., Oct. 18, 1870. 

Received of H. H. Sawyer, One Hundred and Sixty dollars, in 
fall of all accounts. 

Brown, Bates & Co. 

FOR A NOTE OF ANOTHER PERSON. 
$200. Memphis, Tenn., June 8, 1871. 

Received of Ed. Jansen, a note of Sam. Fowler, for the sum of 
Two Hundred dollars, which, when paid, will be in full of all demands to 
date. 

Herbertson & Welch. 






OTJR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORF. 863 

BILLS OF EXCHANGE. 

A Bill of Exchange is an order addressed to some person at a 
distance, directing him to pay a certain amount to the person in 
whose favor the bill is drawn, or to his order. A merchant in 
Chicago, owing a sum of money for goods to a merchant in Lon- 
don, instead of remitting money or goods to the amount of the 
debt, goes into the bank and buys from the banker, who keeps an 
account in London, a bill of exchange for the amount, and sends 
it to his creditor ; in this way the creditor gets payment from a 
person in his own city, generally a banker, who keeps an account 
with some American banker for the purpose of paying such drafts. 

Letters of Credit have come largely into use, of late years, 
with tourists abroad, though bills of Exchange are yet frequently 
used by persons who wish to travel in foreign countries. Thus, 
if A, an American, wishes to travel over Europe, he estimates the 
expense of the journey, and finds it to be, perhaps $3,000. To 
carry this with him, in gold, would be unsafe and troublesome. 
He therefore goes to a banker and gets a bill of exchange for a 
thousand dollars, which is the amount he thinks he may require 
while in England. The banker also having money deposited in 
Paris, perhaps, and also in Vienna, he takes a bill for a thousand 
on a bank of each of those places. With these bills in his pos- 
session, he commences his journey, with only money in his pocket 
sufficient to pay the incidental expenses of the trip, and draws on 
the London, Paris and Vienna bankers as occasion requires. The 
object of this arrangement is to secure travelers against loss, the 
bankers affording this accommodation to merchants and travelers 
for a percentage, which is paid them when they sell the bill of 
exchange. 

In issuing these bills of exchange, it is customary for the 
banker to issue a set of two or three, worded nearly alike. One 
of these is kept by the purchaser, to be presented by him to the 
foreign banker, the other two are transmitted by mail, at different 
times, to the same bank. Thus, if the first bill is lost, the second 
or third, that go by mail, will still be available, and the holder 
can obtain the money without being subjected to the delay of writ- 
ing to America for another bill. 



864 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

DRAFTS. 

A draft may properly be called an inland bill of exchange. It 
is customary for the bankers in all large cities, to make deposits; 
with bankers in other large cities, and also for the banks in the in- 
terior towns to make deposits with some one bank in the nearest 
metropolis. Thus, the bankers of Milwaukee, Chicago and St.. 
Louis, have deposits in New York, so that any person wishing to^ 
pay a certain sum of money to another person, East, has only to> 
step into a bank and purchase a draft for the amount on New 
York, which he sends by mail to the creditor, who can usually 
get the amount the draft calls for, at the nearest bank. 

The banker, as with bills of exchange, charges a certain com- 
mission to pay him for his trouble, which is termed " Exchange." 
There being less liabilitity to lose these inland bills, only one is 
usually issued. The merchant in the interior town, or other per- 
son, wishing to send money to Milwaukee, St. Louis, Cincinnati, 
or any other large city, can generally buy, of their home bank, 
drafts, thus, on the nearest metropolis, by the payment of the 
exchange. 

The object in purchasing a draft is to avoid the danger of loss, 
when sending money from one part of the country to another. 
Such form is worded as follows, and is known as a blank draft : 

In making collections of money, drafts are frequently used, 
which are usually sent through the banks. A sight draft is used, 
where the person upon whom it is drawn is expected to pay the 
debt immediately. In the time draft the same is made payable in: 
a certain number of days. 

SIGHT DRAFT. 

~$2oo. Canton, III, July 10, 1875. 

At sight, pay to the order of Higgins & Co., Two Hundred, 
dollars, value received, and charge the same to our account. 

To J. D.Smith, Chicago. LELAND & CO. 

TIME DRAFT. 

$50 New Orleans, La., Aprils 1876, 

Thirty days after date, pay to the order of Cobitt & Co..- 
Fifty dollars, value received, and charge to our account. 

To Howe & Co., New York. JONES & CO. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 865 

ACCEPTANCE. 

The acceptance of a draft is effected by the drawee, or the per- 
son upon whom the same is drawn, if he consents to its payment,, 
by writing across the face of the draft thus : " Accepted July 
22, 1874. U. S. Grant." 

DAYS OF GRACE. 

Three Days of Grace are allowed upon Promissory Notes and 1 

Bills of Exchange in the following States, according to laws in. 
force, January i, 1875 : 

Colorado, Maryland, Ohio, 

Dist. of Columbia, Massachusetts, Oregon, 

Florida, Michigan, Rhode Island, 

Illinois, Minnesota, South Carolina, 

Indiana, Missouri, Texas, 

Iowa, Nebraska, Utah, 

Kansas, New Hampshire, Vermont, 

Kentucky, New Jersey, Virginia, 

Louisiana, New York, West Virginia, 

Maine, North Carolina, Wisconsin, 

Note. — In States not enumerated here, the Commercial Laws of the 
States regulate in regard to Grace, Protest and Notice, 

LANDLORD AND TENANT. 

A person leasing real estate to another is. termed a landlord ; the 
person occupying such real estate is known as a tenant. The person 
making the lease is known in law as the lessor; the person to 
whom the lease is made, as the lessee. No particular form of 
wording a lease is necessary. It is important, however, that the 
lease state, in a plain, straightforward manner, the terms and con- 
ditions of the agreement, so that there may be no misunderstand- 
ing between the landlord and tenant 

It is essential that the lease state all the conditions, 
as additional verbal promises avail nothing in law. It is held, 
generally, that a written instrument contains the details, and states 
the bargain entire, as the contracting parties intended. 

The tenant can sub-let part, or all, of his premises, unless pro- 
hibited by the terms of his lease. 

A lease by a married woman, even if it be upon her own prop- 
erty, at common law, is not valid ; but, by recent statutes, she, in 
many States, may lease her own property and have full control of 
the same ; neither can the husband effect a lease that will bind 
her after his death. His control over her property continues only 
so long as he lives. 

Neither a guardian nor a minor can give a lease, extending 
55 



866 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

beyond the ward's majority, which can be enforced by the lessee; 
yet the latter is bound unless the lease is annulled. 

If no time is specified in a lease, it is generally held that the 
lessee can retain possession of the real estate for one year. A 
tenancy at will, however, may be terminated in the Eastern States 
by giving three month's notice in writing; in the Middle and 
Southern States, six months; and in the Western States, one 
month ; though recent statutes, in some States, have somewhat 
modified the above. 

The lease that specifies a term of years without giving the de- 
finite number is without effect at the expiration of two years. A 
lease for three or more years, being signed by the Commissioner 
of Deeds, and recorded in the Recorder's office, is an effectual bar 
to the secret or fraudulent conveyance of such leased property: 
and it further obviates the necessity of procuring witnesses to 
authenticate the validity of the lease. 

Duplicate copies of a lease should always be made, and each 
party should retain a copy of the same. 

A new lease invalidates an old one. 

A landlord misrepresenting property that is leased, thereby 
subjecting the tenant to inconvenience and loss, such damages can 
be recovered from the landlord by deduction from the rent. 

A lease on property that is mortgaged ceases to exist when the 
person holding such mortgage forecloses the same. 

A landlord, consenting to take a substitute, releases the first 
tenant. 

When there is nothing but a verbal agreement the tenancy is 
understood to commence at time of taking possession. W T hen 
there is no time specified in the lease, tenancy is regarded as com- 
mencing at the time of delivering the writings. 

If it is understood that the tenant is to pay the taxes on the 
property he occupies, such fact must be distinctly stated in the 
lease, as a verbal promise is of no effect. 

PARTNERSHIP. 

An agreement between two or more persons to invest their 
labor, time and means together, sharing in the loss or profit that 
may arise from such investment, is termed a partnership. 

This partnership may consist in the contribution of skill, extra 
labor, or acknowledged reputation upon the part of one partner, 
while the other, or others, contribute money, each sharing alike 
equally, or in fixed proportion, in the profits, or an equal amount 
of time, labor and money may be invested by the partners, and 
the profits equally divided; the test of partnership being the joint 
participation in profit, and joint liability to loss. 

A partnership formed without limitation is termed a general 
partnership. An agreement entered into for the performance of 




VIEW OF RUINS ON THE SOUTH SIDE, CHICAGO. 




GINIBAL VIEW OP RUINS OF THE NORTH DIVISION 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 869 

only a particular work, is termed a special partnership ; while the 
partner putting in a limited amount of capital, upon which he 
receives a corresponding amount of profit, and is held correspond- 
ingly responsible for the contracts of the firm, is termed a limited 
partnership, the conditions of which are regulated by statute in 
different States. 

A partner signing his individual name to negotiable paper, 
which is for the use of the partnership firm, binds all the partners 
thereby. Negotiable paper of the firm, even though given on 
private account by one of the partners, will hold all the partners 
of the firm when it passes into the hands of holders who were 
ignorant of the facts attending its creation. 

Partnership effects may be bought and sold by a partner ; he 
may make contracts; may receive money; endorse, draw, and 
accept bills and notes ; and while this may be for his own private 
account, if it apparently be for the use of the firm, his partners 
will be bound by his action, provided the parties dealing with 
him were ignorant of the transaction being on his private account ; 
and thus representation or misrepresentation of a partner having 
relation to business of the firm, will bind the members in the 
parntership. 

An individual lending his name to a firm, or allowing the 
same to be used after he has withdrawn from the same, is still 
responsible to third persons as a partner. 

A partnership is presumed to commence at the time articles of 
copartnership are drawn, if no stipulation is made to the contrary 
and the same can be discontinued at any time, unless a specified 
period of partnership is designated in the agreement • and even 
then he may withdraw by giving previous notice of such with- 
drawal from the same, being liable, however, in damages, if such 
are caused by his withdrawal. 

Should it be desired that the executors and representatives of 
the partner continue the business in the event of his death, it 
should be so specified in the articles, otherwise the partnership 
ceases at death. Should administrators and executors continue 
the business under such circumstances, they are personally res- 
ponsible for the debts contracted by the firm. 

If it is desired that a majority of the partners in a firm have 
the privilege of closing the affairs of the company, or in any way 
regulating the same, such fact should be designated in the agree- 
ment ; otherwise such right will not be presumed. 

Partners may mutually agree to dissolve a partnership, or a 
dissolution may be effected by a decree of a Court of Equity. 
Dissolute conduct, dishonesty, habits calculated to imperil the 
business of a firm, incapacity, or the necessity of partnership no 
longer continuing, shall be deemed sufficient causes to invoke the 



870 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

law in securing a dissolution of partnership, in case the same can- 
not be effected by mutual agreement. 

After dissolution of partnership, immediate notice of the same 
should be given in the most public newspapers, and a notice like- 
wise should be sent to every person having special dealings with 
the firm. These precautions not being taken, each partner con- 
tinues liable for the acts of the others to all persons who have no 
knowledge of the dissolution. 



GENERAL FORM FOR AGREEMENT. 

This agreement made this day of -i87__ 

by and between of _ _ and 

of-- Witnesseth : That the said -_for 

the consideration of (here state nature of consideration) to be 
(if money paid,) (if work or labor or delivery of property) to be 
performed or delivered as hereinafter provided, hereby agrees that 
(state agreement of this party fully.) 

And for the consideration above mentioned the said 

hereby agrees, that (state agreement of this party fully.) 

In witness whereof, we hereto subscribe our names and affix 
our seal this day and date first above written. 

Name - [seal.] 

Name [seal.] 



AGREEMENT FOR SALE OF PERSONAL PROPERTY. 

This Agreement, made this day of ___i87_.,. 

between of and of 

Witnesseth : That the said in consideration of the agree- 
ments on the part of hereafter named, agrees to and with 

the said that on or before the __day of 

i87__. he will deliver to the said at (state place of de- 
livery,) the following property (state kind of property). 

And the said in consideration of the aforesaid agree- 
ments and promises on the part of the said , hereby 

promises and agrees to and with the said , that he 

will pay to him (state price to be paid) said payments to be made 
as follows (state how and when.) 

In witness whereof, we hereto subscribe our names and affix 
our seals this the dav and year first above written. 

Name .-. [seal.] 

Name - [seal.] 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 871 

AGREEMENT FOR THE SALE OF REAL ESTATE. 

This agreement, made this day of 187 -., by 

and between of ._ and _ of , 

Witnesseth : That for and in consideration of the sum of 

dollars, to be paid by the said to the said 

as follows (state manner of payment), the said hereby 

promises and agrees to convey by (state nature of conveyance, 
whether warranty or quit-claim), the following described real estate 

situate in coun ty, State of (Give description 

of land.) And the said hereby promises to pay said 

the sum of dollars as above provided. 

And upon the payment in full of said amount, then said con- 
veyance is to be executed and delivered. 

In witness whereof, we hereunto subscribe our names and affix 
our seals this the day and date above written. 

Name [seal.] 

Name , , - - [seal. J 

Note. — To be executed and acknowledged as a deed for real 
estate. 



FORM OF LEASE. 

Agreement of Lease, made this day of , be- 
tween of and of , 

Witnesseth: That the said agrees to pay to , 

dollars per for the rent of the house and prem- 
ises on (description of land.) 

The said agrees to use said premises for no other 

purpose than , and not underlet the same without the writ- 
ten consent of This lease to commence on the 

day of 187-., and continue until the day 

of ._, 187... The rent to be paid {state how) to the said 

at A failure to pay the rent as agreed, 

or to comply with any of the stipulations of their lease by 

, shall authorize the said to consider the same 

forfeited ; and he may take possession of the premises without 
notice and without process of law, or he may bring his action as 
allowed by law to recover possession. 

In witness whereof, we hereunto subscribe our names and affix 
our seals this the day and date first above written. 

Name [seal.] 

Name [seal.] 



872 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

FORM OF DEED. 

This Deed made this .day of.- 187.., Witness- 

eth : That for the consideration of dollars, we 

of county, State of , hereby sell and 

convey unto of _ _county, State of , 

all the following describee* real estate, situate in county. 

State of (Here give a description of the land) together 

with all the estate, title and interest, dower, and right of dower of 
said grantors, or either of them. 

And we hereby warrant the title to said premises against all 
persons whomsoever (or if quit claim say), and we hereby quit 
claim all our right, title and interest in and to said premises to the 
grantees herein. 

Witness our hands and seals this day and date above written. 

Name . . . [seal.] 

Name [seal.] 

The State of ....... 

County, 

Beit Remembered, That on this ...day of. 

187.., before me a within and for said county and 

State, personally appeared ._ , who personally known 

to me to be the identical person whose name affixed to the 

foregoing deed as grantor, and she acknowledged the same to be 

her voluntary act and deed, and the said , having 

been made acquainted with the contents hereof, and the nature 
of the above instrument having been fully explained to her, and 
having been examined by me separate and apart from her hus- 
band, acknowledged that she signed and executed the said deed 
freely and voluntarily, and without compulsion, and that she does 
not desire to retract the same. 

. In witness whereof, I hereto set my hand and seal th is 

the day and date last above written. 

Name [seal.] 

Note. — In all cases should have two witnesses to the signature. 



!■ ss. 



MORTGAGE DEED. 

This Deed, made this day of , 187.., Wit- 

nesseth : That for the consideration of dollars, we 

of county, State of , hereby 

sell and convey unto .of all the following 

described real estate, situate in county, State of 

. to wit : (Here describe real estate. ) 

And we hereby warrant the title to said premises against all 
persons whomsoever. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 873 

This deed to be void, however, on condition pay. (State 

nature of indebtedness, time and manner of payment.) 

(If homestead say), and the property conveyed being our 
homestead, we hereby expressly waive all benefit of the homestead 
and exemption laws, and consent that said property shall be liable 
for the payment of said indebtedness. Otherwise of force and 
virtue. 

Witness our hands and seals this the day and date above 
written. 

Name [seal.' 

Name = - - [seal/ 



FORM OF WILL. 

In the name of God, Amen. 

I, (give name of testator) of (residence), being of sound 
mind and memory, do hereby make, publish, and declare this to 
be my last Will and Testament, hereby revoking and making void 
all former Wills by me at any time heretofore made. 

First — I order and direct my Executors, as soon after my 
decease as practicable, to pay off and discharge all the debts, dues 
and liabilities that may exist against me at the time of my decease. 

Second — I give and bequeath unto my wife (name). (Here state 
property bequeathed.) 

Third — I give and bequeath unto my son (name). (Here state 
property bequeathed.) 

Same form for each legacy. 

Fourth — I hereby nominate and appoint. (Here give name of 
person or persons selected as Executors.) 

In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto subscribed my name 

this day of A. D. 

Name. 

The above and foregoing instrument was at the date thereof 
signed, sealed, published and declared, by the said (name of tes- 
tator), as and for his last Will and Testament, in presence of us,who, 
at his request, and in his presence, and in the presence of each 
-other, have subscribed our names as witnesses. 

Name. _.__ ^Residence. 

Name Residence. 

Note. — Must be signed by the testator before acknowledged 
by him to be his will — and must be signed by testator in presence 
of witnesses — or acknowledged by him in presence of witnesses. 
Two witnesses are necessary. 



874 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ARTICLES OF CO-PARTNERSHIP. 

This agreement, made and entered into this _ day 

of , 187 — , by and between-.. * 

of, _ , and __ , of_ _ 

Witnesseth : that the said parties hereby agree to become 
partners in the business of at 

for the term of years from the date hereof, under the firm 

name of 

Said parties have each contributed the sum of 

dollars as the capital stock of said firm. 

Both parties are to devote their entire time and skill for the 
common benefit. 

All expenses of the business and all losses are to be borne in 
common, and the profits are to be equally divided. 

Books of account are to be kept, in which shall be entered all 
money received or paid, all purchases and sales of goods, and all 
matters of account relating to the business of the firm, which 
shall at all times be accessible to both. 

No money or other property shall be withdrawn by either 
partner, or applied to his own use, except with the written con- 
sent of the other partner ; and in every such case the same shalL 
be charged, and his share of the profits shall be reduced in pro- 
portion to the amount withdrawn. 

Once in each year a correct account shall be taken and stated 
on the ledger of all stock property and assets of the firm, and of 
all debts and liabilities. 

At the close of the partnership a like account shall be taken 
and stated, and the stock and property, and the debts, shall be 
equally divided after payment of the liabilities of the firm. 

No debt or claim of the firm shall be released or settled with- 
out payment in full, unless by consent of both partners. 

Neither partner shall have power to bind the firm as surety in 
any case ; and neither partner shall become surety for another 
without the written consent of the other partner. 

Witness our hands and seals this the day and date abov& 

written. Name [seal.] 

Name [seal. J 






AGREEMENT TO CONTINUE A CO-PARTNERSHIP. 

As the partnership existing between the undersigned will ex- 
pire on the ..day of._ .., .187.-, it is hereby 

agreed that said co-partnership shall continue upon the same 
terms and conditions as provided in the original articles of co- 
partnership for the further term of from the date of 

the expiration of said co-partnership as fixed by the said articles. 

Witness our hands (as in articles, giving date). 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 875 

AGREEMENT for DISSOLUTION of CO-PARTNERSHIP. 

The undersigned hereby agree that the co-partnership existing 
between them, as is witnessed by the Articles of Co-partnership 
signed by us, be, and the same is hereby, dissolved, except for the 
purpose of final settlement of the business thereof, which may be 

settled by And upon such settlement, then said 

co-partnership shall be wholly dissolved. 

Witness, etc. (as above.) 



POWER OF ATTORNEY. 

Know all men by these presents, that I _ 

of , hereby make, constitute, and apppoint 

of , my true and lawful Attorney, for me, and in my 

name, place and stead, to (here state duty of Attorney) granting 
unto my said Attorney full power and authority to do and perform 
each and every thing necessary and proper to be done in the per- 
formance of his duty, as fully as I might or could do if personally 
present, hereby ratifying and confirming all the lawful acts of my 
said Attorney, done under and by virtue hereof. 

Witness my hand and seal this day of 

A. D. 187... 

Name [seal.] 

Note. — To be signed and acknowledged as a deed for the con- 
veyance of real estate. 



FORM OF SUBMISSION TO ARBITRATION, 

Know all men by these presents, that whereas a controversy is 
now existing between (name), of (residence), and (name), of 
(residence), touching (here state nature of controversy)': 

Now, therefore, we, the said (here give names of parties), do 
hereby submit said controversy to the decision and arbitration of 
(here give names of three persons selected as arbitrators), of 
(here state residences), and do covenant each with the other that 
we will faithfully keep and abide by the decision and award that 
they, or any two of them, may make in writing — said award to be 
made and signed on or before (here give date). 

And it is agreed by the parties hereto, that the party that 
shall fail to abide by and observe said award, made in accordance 
with the foregoing submission, shall forfeit and pay to the other 
the sum of (here insert amount). 

Witness our hands this day of A. D 

Name. 

Name. 



$76 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



AWARD OF ARBITRATORS. 

The undersigned to whose arbitration was submitted the mat- 
ters in controversy between (here give names of parties) as more 
fully appears by their written submission hereto attached, report 

that on the day of A. D. 18 — , after having been duly sworn 

according to law, and having given both parties days notice 

in writing of the time and place of our meeting to consider said 
matter, we proceeded to the discharge of our duty; said (name 
of party) appearing in person (if by Att'y also, so state) and said 
(name of party) appearing in person (if by Att'y also so state.) And 
having heard the allegations and proofs of said parties, and the 
witnesses introduced by them, and having examined the matter in 
controversy submitted by them, do make and declare this as and 
for our award. 

Here state findings of Arbitrators. 

Witness our hands this — day of ..A. D . 

Name. 

- Name. 

Name. 




PENNSYLVANIA OIL WELLS. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 577 

THE SILVER BILL OF 1878. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United 
States of America in Congress assembled. 

That there shall be coined at the several mints of the United States, 
silver dollars of the weight of 41&| grains troy, of standard silver, 
as provided in the act of January 18, 1837, on which shall be the 
devices and superscription provided by said act, which coins, to- 
gether with all silver dollars heretofore coined by the United 
States of like weight and fineness, shall be a legal tender at their 
nominal value for all debts and dues, public and private, except 
where otherwise expressed and stipulated in the contract; and the 
Secretary of the Treasury is authorized and directed to purchase, 
from time to time, silver bullion, at the market price thereof, not 
less than 82,000,000 worth per month, nor more than $4,000,000 
worth per month, and cause the same to be coined monthly, as fast 
as so purchased, into such dollars, and a sum sufficient to carry out 
the forgoing provisions of this act is hereby appropriated out of any 
money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated. And any gain 
or seignorage arising from this coinage shall be accounted for and 
paid into the Treasury as provided for under existing laws relative 
to the subsidiary coinage; provided, that the amount of money at 
any one time invested in such silver bullion, exclusive of such 
resulting coin, shall not exceed 85,000,000; and provided, further, 
that nothing in this act shall be construed to authorize the payment 
in silver of certificates of deposit issued under the provisions of 
section 254 of the Revised Statutes. 

Sec 2. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with the provisions of this 
act are hereby repealed. 

Sec 3. That immediately after the passage of this act the President shall 
invite the governments of the countries composing the Latin Union, so 
called, and of such other European nations as he may deem advisable, to 
join the United States in conference to adopt a common ratio between gold 
and silver, for the purpose of establishing internationally the use of bi- 
metallic money, and securing a fixity of the relative value between those 
metals ; such conference to be held at such place in Europe, or in the United 
States, at such time within six months as may be mutually agreed upon by 
the executives of the governments joining in the same, whenever the govern- 
ments so invited or any, or any three of them, shall have signified their will- 
ingness to unite in the same. The President shall, by and with the advice 
and consent of the Senate, appoint three Commissioners, who shall attend 
such conference on behalf of the United States, and shall report the doings 
thereof to the President, who shall transmit the same to Congress. Said 
Commissioners shall receive the sum of $2,500 and their reasonable ex- 
penses, to be approved by the Secretary of State, and the amount necessary 
to pay such compensation and expenses is hereby appropriated out of any 
money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated. 

Sec 4. That any holder of the coin authorized by this act may deposit 
the same with the Treasurer or any Assistant Treasurer of the United States 
in suras of not less than $10, and receive therefor certificates of not less 
tban $10 each, corresponding with the denominations of United States notes. 
The coin deposited for. or representing the certificates, shall be retained in 
the Treasury for the payment of the same on demand. Said certificates shall 
be receivable for customs, taxes, and all public dues, and when so received 
may be rei-suecl. 

This Bill passed the Senate February 16, '78, by a vote of 48 to 21, and 
passed the House February 21 , by a vote of 204 to 72. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 879 



IMPORTANT TO WORKINGMEN. 



The artisans of Philadelphia deserve the credit of a thoroughly 
successful scheme for the benefit of their class. Some years ago, 
the first " Co-operative Building and Loan Association " was 
organized in the City of Brotherly Love. Since then the work 
has gone quietly on, until now students of social science are 
amazed to hear that 600 of these societies exist in Philadelphia 
alone; that their aggregate capital is $150,000,000; and that 
many, very many, of their members, who have always worked and 
still work for day-wages, now own houses and land worth from 
$10,000 to $15,000. Only a small percentage of these associations 
has failed. 

They are all organized on substantially the same plan. A 
share is issued to every applicant. One dollar per month is paid 
on each share. Each month, the money on hand is loaned to the 
shareholder who offers the largest premium and can give the best 
security. No loans are made except on real estate. The pre- 
miums bid sometimes amount to 25 or even 50 per cent. This is 
one source of income and the monthly interest is another. Fines, 
small in amount, rarely incurred, but rigorously exacted, are still 
another. In eight and a half years,the amount paid in will amount 
to (102 months at$i) $102. Profits, interest and fines swell this 
to $200, the par value of each share. The shareholder then 
receives this sum, thus making a net profit of $98 on an invest- 
ment of $102, or, if he has borrowed money, his mortgage is can- 
celled pro tanto. A man can hold any number of shares. This 
fact enables the laborer to buy his home. A man who takes five 
shares in one of these societies will accumulate $1000 in eight 
and one-half years, by paying $60 per year. If he borrows $1,500 
as soon as he becomes a stockholder, at such a rate that he pays 
an average of $140 a year in premiums and interest (this is the 
usual rate on a loan of $1,500), and buys with this sum a house 
and lot, which are pledge to the society as security,- he will pay, each 
year,$2oo — that is $60 on his shares and $140 on his loan. At the 
end of eight and one-half years, his payments on his shares will 
cease, and he will have $1000 to his credit on the books, which 
will cancel his mortgage: He will then own his home, subject to a 
mortgage of only $500. If he now takes three more shares, his 
annual dues will be $36 on them and about $44 interest — $80 in 
all. In eight and a half years more, his shares will be worth $600, 
which will cancel his mortgage and give him $100 cash. He has 



88o 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



thus bought his house and lot in seventeen years, by paying $200. 
per year for half that time and $80 annually thereafter. This is 
$2,380 in all. If he had rented such a house, he would have paid 
§200 a year rent, or $3,400 in seventeen years, and would own 
nothing. If he can afford to take eight shares at the beginning, 
his house will be paid for in eight and a half years. Thousands 
of workmen have become small capitalists in this way. 

These societies are organized, controlled, and managed by 
workingmen. This explains their success, as it explains that of 
the great co-operative establishments of England and of Schulse- 
Delitsch's " Peoples' Banks " in Germany. A summary of the 
report of one building and loan society, " The Artisans','' shows 
that its receipts for the year 1875 were $88,622 ; the loans, $68,872 \ 
and the profits, $19,749. The total property is $252,1 12, and the 
mortgages held amount to $227,600. The expense of managing, 
this business was only $873. 




LOADING STEAMBOAT WITH COTTON ON THE. 
MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 88l 

ARE RICH MEN DANGEROUS TO THE REPUBLIC ? 

The Record of the Astor family cause some people to look 
with apprehension and dislike upon this massing of enormous 
wealth in the hands of one person. They fancy that it tends to 
make him too powerful for a republic like ours, and too influen- 
tial for evil in a community, so many of whose citizens are de- 
pendent upon their labor for their daily bread. They attribute 
to great wealth a snow-ball like quality of attracting to itself the 
lesser fortunes with which it comes in contact, and predict that if it 
be allowed full liberty, an epoch will arrive when a few rich men 
will own the whole country, and all the rest of its inhabitants be 
obliged to pay them tribute. In their view, the Legislature should 
interfere to prevent this calamity, and by a compulsory division of 
such great estates as Mr. Astor's, scatter its bulk, and thus destroy 
its weight and momentum. 

The conclusive objection to legislation of this kind is, that to 
be just it must be general, and a general law taking away from 
men the privilege of disposing of their property at their own 
pleasure, would discourage industry and enterprise. Human na- 
ture is such that with most of us selfish motives are powerful, and 
unselfish ones are weak. If no work were done in the world but 
what contributes to the welfare of others, comparatively little, be- 
yond that which necessity compels, would be done at all. Nearly 
all the immense advances of modern civilization are due to efforts 
of which the mainspring has been the love of gain. Paralyze, or 
even weaken, this mainspring by impairing the right of disposing. 
of the gain when it has been acquired, and you arrest the onward 
progress of the world. Whatever evils may arise from the exist- 
ing liberty of accumulation, a greater evil would result from 
abolishing it. 

But, to our minds, the danger to the public from the perpetua- 
tion of great estates is more imaginary than real. By a gracious 
dispensation of Providence, men who are rich by inheritance find 
their abilities scarcely sufficient for the task of taking care of their 
riches, and have none to spare for that of oppressing their fellow 
men. The founder of a fortune, like the first Astor or the present 
Vanderbilt, must, of course, be a man of great force and ambi- 
tion, but his successor never equals him in this respect. The in- 
centive dies with the attainment of the object which aroused it. 
A son who finds a large estate ready made to his hands cannot 
possibly exert himself to increase it with the energy that his father 
displayed in getting it. He inevitably subsides into a mere stew- 
ard or investment agent, and leaves the field of new enterprise to 
others. John Jacob Astor was a mercantile genius. His schemes 
embraced the whole globe, and he gathered in wealth from its four 
quarters. His son, who inherited the fruits of his toil f has done 

56 



8&2 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

nothing all his lifetime but build houses and collect their rents. 
His son and his son's son will do no more. Neither commerce 
nor politics has anything to fear from them. What they will 
chiefly care for will be to hold on to what they have. This is the 
case with the Duke of Westminster, the great English landed pro- 
prietor, with the Orleans family in France, and the Austrian Es- 
terhazys. Even the present head of the Rothschilds has subsided 
into a humdrum banker, who never runs a risk, and is content to 
let younger and more adventurous houses take the lead in finance. 
Besides, the truth is that the accumulative power of money, unlike 
that of the snowball, diminishes as its bulk increases. It is impossi- 
ble to handle millions of dollars and make them yield the same in- 
come that thousands do. Where a small investor can safely get 
his seven, eight or ten per cent.J>er annum, a large capitalist like 
Mr, Astor cannot, on an average, get five. The good things are 
all snapped up by men who, having less to look after, do it more 
thoroughly ; and the proverbial timidity of millionaires interferes 
with that promptness and soundness of judgment essential to a 
succssful investor. This is proved by the history of this very 
Astor estate. When John Jacob Astor died in 1848 it was worth 
$20,000,000. With all the rise of the real estate, of which it is largely 
composed, it has only doubled in value in the twenty-seven years 
which have since elapsed, and the probability is that it will take 
as long to double it again. The Girard estate in Philadelphia, 
and that of Thellusson in England, illustrate the same law. Neither 
of these great properties has grown at a rate at all approaching 
that of lawful interest compounded half yearly. 

The counterbalancing advantages, too, of great permanent for- 
tunes should not be left out of consideration. When money re- 
mains for a length of time in a family, it usually comes, at some 
period or other, into the possession of a generous, public-spirited 
owner, who uses it in a way that profits his fellow man. He may 
be a lover of art and gather a collection of pictures and statues 
which he will throw open to the public ; or he may be fond of 
books and form a library for the use of poorer scholars ; or he 
may — and heaven send such an one to us soon ! — have a taste for 
good architecture and build streets of houses which shall be at 
once grateful to the eye and convenient to dwell in. Or, finally, 
the family may die out, and the last survivor may imitate the ex- 
ample of Peabody, and devote his wealth to public benefactions. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY, 883 



THE STEAM ENGINE. 



Mk Phillips, the eminent Professor of Geology, in the Univer- 
sity of Uxford, remarks that, " coal, since it has been applied to 
the steam-engine, is really hoarded power applicable to almost 
every purpose which human labor, directed by ingenuity, can ac- 
complish." He then goes on to remark, with the pride of a gen- 
uine Briton, " It is the possession of her coal-mines which has 
rendered Britain in relation to the whole world, what a city is to 
the rural district which surrounds it — the.producer and dispenser 
of the various products of art and industry. Our coal-fields are 
vastly more precious to us than would have been mines of the 
precious metals, like those of Peru and Mexico." If the latter 
statement be true of Britain it must be true of the United States 
also, even to a much greater extent. 

According to Mr. Hunt, the keeper of the Mining Records of 
Britain, the coal area of the British Islands is 12,800 square miles, 
or one-tenth of the whole surface; according to the same author- 
ity, the proportion in the United States is still greater; the coal 
area being two-ninths of the whole surface. Scotland possesses 
the largest coal-field in Britain — 1,600 square miles in the basin 
of the Forth and Clyde ; this field is very rich in iron as well as 
coal. Between the Tweed and the Trent, in the north of Eng- 
land, there are nearly 10,000 square miles. 

WHO DEVELOPED STEAM-POWER? 

It was in one of these districts that Watt brought forth his 
almost, if not quite, perfect condensing engine. On the Forth and 
Clyde Canal was the theater for Symington's steam-boat. Near 
Newcastle — the Newcastle of coals — the Stevensons grew to 
maturity, connected with those great collieries; and there, too, 
grew to full development of monstrous power and bird-like speed, 
their giant pet, the locomotive. On the Schuylkill and the Dela- 
ware successfully experimented Oliver Evans and John Fitch; 
here, too, on or near the great anthracite coal-fields of Pennsyl- 
vania, Robert Fulton first saw the light, and noted the develop- 
ment of steam-power, to which he has allied his name for all 
time. 

We propose now to see what the steam-engine, well fed and 
watered, can do. In the language of Dr. Lardner, " Coals are by 
the steam-engine, made to spin, weave, dye, print, and dress silks, 



884 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

cottons, woolens, and other cloths; to make paper and print 
books upon it when made ; to express oil from the olive [aye, 
we may add, and from cotton seed too, which is largely taking 
therplace of the oil from the olive, for which it is sold in all the 
markets of the world], and wine from the grape ; to draw up 
metals from the bowels of the earth; to pound and smelt it, to 
melt and mold it, to forge it, to roll it, and fashion it into every 
desirable form ; to transport these manifold products of its own 
labor to the doors of those for whose convenience they are pro- 
duced ; to carry persons and goods over water and land, from 
town to town, and country to country, with a speed as much ex- 
ceeding the ordinary wind, as the ordinary wind exceeds that of 
a common pedestrian." 

INTERESTING FACTS. 

" Such are the virtues, such the powers, which the steam- 
engine, with its rotary or continuously circular motion, as brought 
into being by Watt, has conferred upon coals. The means of 
calling these powers into activity are supplied by a substance 
which nature has happily provided in unbounded quantity in 
every part of the earth; and though it has no price, it has ines- 
timable value. This substance is water. A pint of water may 
be evaporated by two ounces of coals. In its evaporation it 
swells into two hundred and sixteen gallons of steam, with a me- 
chanical force sufficient to raise a weight of thirty-seven tons a 
foot high. The steam thus produced has a pressure equal to that 
of common atmospheric air ; and by allowing it to expand by vir- 
tue of its elasticity, a further mechanical force may be obtained 
at least equal in amount to the former. A pint of water, there- 
fore, and two ounces of common coal, are thus rendered capable 
of doing as much work as is equivalent to seventy-four tons raised 
a foot high. 

" The circumstances under which the steam-engine is worked 
on a railway are not favorable to the economy of fuel ; neverthe- 
less, a pound of coke burned in a locomotive-engine will evapo- 
rate about five pints of water. In their evaporation they will 
exert a mechanical force sufficient to draw two tons weight on 
the railway a distance of one mile in two minutes. Four horses, 
working in a stage-coach on a common road, are necessary to 
draw the same weight the same distance in six minutes. 

" A train of cars, weighing about eighty tons, and transporting 
240 passengers with their luggage, has been taken from Liverpool 
to Birmingham, and thence back to Liverpool, the trip each way 
taking about four and a half hours, stoppages included — the dis- 
tance being 95 miles. This double journey of 190 miles is effect- 
ed by the mechanical force produced from the combustion of four 
tons of coke, valued at 5/. To carry, in England, the same num- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 885 

£>er of passengers daily between the same places, by stage coaches, 
would require 20 vehicles and an establishment of 3,800 horses, 
with which the journey would be performed both ways in about 
twelve hours, stoppages included. 

"The circumference of the earth measures 25,000 miles; and 
if it were begirt with an iron railway, such a train as that described 
carrying 240 passengers would be drawn round it by the combus- 
tion of about thirty tons of coke, and the circuit would be accom- 
plished in five weeks." 

Capt. Savery contrived his engine, in 1698, with especial ref- 
erence to the drainage by pumping of the deep mines of England, 
and it was used mainly for this purpose. Indeed, it is necessary 
to recollect that, notwithstanding the extensive and various appli- 
cations of steam-power in the arts and manufactures, up to the 
time when Watt got his patent extended in 1775, the steam-engine 
had never been employed for any other purpose than that of rais- 
ing water by working pumps. 

The water of streams was used over and over again, in the 
manufacturing districts of England, by being pumped up, and 
thus re-supplied to water-wheels driving machinery. The motion 
required, therefore, was merely an upward force, such as is neces- 
sary to elevate the piston of a pump. 

" In the drainage of the Cornish mines now, the economy of 
fuel is much attended to, and coal is made to do more there than 
elsewhere. A bushel of coal usually raises 40,000 tons of water a 
foot high; but on some occasions it has raised 60,000 tons a foot 
high. Let us take its labor at 50,000 tons. A horse worked in a 
fast stage coach, pulls against an average resistance of about a 
quarter of a ton weight. Against this he is able to work at the usual 
speed through about 8 miles daily ; his work is, therefore, equiv- 
alent to about five hundred tons raised one foot. A bushel of 
coals, as used in Cornwall, therefore, performs as much labor as a 
day's work of one hundred such horses." 

"When steam-engines were first brought into use, they were 
commonly applied to work pumps for mills, which had previously 
been worked or driven by horses. In forming their contracts, the 
first steam-engine builders found themselves called upon to sup- 
ply engines for executing the same work as before had been exe- 
cuted by a certain number of horses. It was, therefore, conven- 
ient, and indeed necessary, to be able to express the performance 
of these machines by comparison with the animal power to which 
manufacturers, miners, and others, had been so long accustomed. 
When an engine, therefore, was capable of performing the same 
work, in a given time, as any given number of horses of average 
strength usually performed, it was said to be an engine of so many 
horses' power. It was, however, a considerable period before this 
term came to have a definite meaning. Mr. Smeaton estimated that 



880 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

a horse of average strength, working for eight hours a day, was cap- 
able of performing a quantity of work equal in its mechanical 
effect to 22,916 tons raised one foot per minute, while Desaguliers 
estimated the same power at 27,500 tons. The difference between 
these estimates probably arose from their being made from the 
performances of different classes of horses." 

" Messrs. Boulton and Watt caused experiments to be made 
with the strong horses used in the breweries of London, and from 
the results of these trials they assigned 33,000 pounds, raised one 
foot per minute, as the value of a horse's power. This is the unit 
of engine power now universally adopted. The steam-engine is 
no longer used to replace the power of horses, and, therefore, no 
contracts are based upon this comparison. The term horse-power, 
then, means simply the ability of the engine to move 33,000 pounds 
through one foot per minute." 

" The conversion of a given volume of water into steam is pro- 
ductive of a certain definite amount of mechanical force, this 
amount depending on the pressure under which this water is 
evaporated, and the extent to which the expansive principle is 
used in working the steam. It is evident that this amount of 
mechanical effect is a major limit, which cannot be exceeded by 
the power of the engine. 

" What is known as the duty or service of engines varies ac- 
cording to their form and magnitude, the circumstances under 
which they are worked, and the purposes to which they are ap- 
plied. In double-acting engines, working without expansion, the 
coal consumed per nominal horse-power per hour varies from ) 
to 12 lbs. An examination of the steam-logs of several govern> 
ment steamers, made a few years since, gave as the average con v 
sumption of fuel at that time, of the best class of marine engines, 
about 8 lbs. per nominal horse-power per hour. Out of fifteen 
atmospheric engines working at Newcastle-on-Tyne, in 1769 — = 
the date of Watt's earliest discoveries — the yearly duty of the 
poorest was shown to be 3,220,000 lbs., and of the best 7,440,000 
lbs. In 1772, Smeaton began his improvements on the atmos- 
pheric engine, and raised the duty to 9,450,000, but when Watt, 
in 1776, had obtained a duty of 21,600,000, Smeaton acknowl- 
edged that Watt's engines gave a duty double that of his own. 
From 1779 to 1798, Watt increased that of his engines from 23,- 
400,000 to 27,000,000. The engine which accomplished the last 
was under the care of Mr. Murdock, at Cornwall, and was by Mr. 
Watt pronounced perfect. [Mr. Murdock will be remembered as 
the ingenious producer of a model locomotive heated by a spirit- 
lamp, which so frightened the village parson upon a dark evening, 
as it moved rapidly down upon him on the side-walk.] Mr. Watt 
thought further improvement in the duty of his steam-engine 
could not be expected. Yet in twenty years afterward the best 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 887 

engine had attained to an average duty of 40,000,000 lbs., and 
in forty years it was about 84,000,000 lbs. per year. How impos- 
sible, then, for even the most sagacious to foresee the results of 
mechanical improvement." 

COAL CONSUMED. 

We now revert again to fuel, or the food of what the men of 
the Newcastle collieries originally called the "Iron Horse." For 
this home of the Stephensons, near the close of the thirteenth 
century Henry III. gave a charter, granting license to the bur- 
gesses of Newcastle to dig for coal. In 1281 — just five hundred 
years before George Stevenson was born, at Wylam Colliery — 
Newcastle is said to have had a considerable trade in this article, 
and about this time the use of coal had commenced in London, 
by smiths, brewers, dyers, soap-boilers, etc. A notion got abroad 
that the smoke was highly injurious to the public, and in 1316, 
on petition of parliament his majesty Edward I. issued a proc- 
lamation prohibiting its use, on the ground of its being an intol- 
erable nuisance. Notwithstanding this, and the fact that more 
rigorous means were resorted to, its use continued progressively 
to gain ground. Since the reign of Charles I., the use of coal in 
London has been universal, to the exclusion of nearly all other 
articles of fuel. The coals of Britain are almost wholly bitumin- 
ous, similar to the coals taken out of the Western Alleghanies and 
generally mined in the Mississippi Valley. The anthracite coal 
of Pennsylvania is nearly pure carbon, igniting with some diffi- 
culty, and giving out intense heat during combustion. It is al- 
most exclusively used in the cities and towns of the Northern 
Atlantic States, and wherever wood is not cheaper, in that part of 
the Union. Its adaptation for use in blast furnaces makes it im- 
mensely valuable to the great home interest in iron, of the Key- 
stone State; and it yields a rich revenue to her citizens from the 
demand for it in the large manufacturing and commercial districts 
of the Eastern States, while it is in growing request wherever in 
the South and West a cleaner fuel is preferred to the smoky and 
sooty coals of the great central valley. Strangely enough, it was 
scarcely known to exist in this country fifty years ago, and now 
the tonnage engaged in transporting it — to a minor extent by the 
old canals — on the railroads of the East is of enormous magni- 
tude, as will appear from the reports of the Philadelphia and 
Reading Railroad, the Lehigh Valley, the Delaware and Lacka- 
wanna, the New Jersey Central, the Pennsylvania Central, and 
other roads. A half century ago, this coal, as discovered in Ire- 
land, and in South Wales, was considered to be incombustible 
refuse and was thrown away, but now it is there thought to be of 
the very highest value for furnace purposes. 

In this running and brief history of coal, we not only discover 



888 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

the food for our iron horse developed from the great store-houses 
of nature in a rapidly increasing measure, just as the creature is 
developed into a perfect life, but we also discover the work it is 
being called upon to perform. Its family is growing by thousands 
a year, while its habitat, the railroads, are multiplying in endless 
ratio. The iron steamers of the sea, too, and of the great inland 
routes of commerce, are, and are to be, insatiable in their demands 
for this great generator of strength for iron arms and sinews 
Europeans, if not Americans, are demonstrating that iron steam- 
ships can carry much cheaper than sailing vessels, the time taken 
for trips considered, because vessels propelled by steam are grad- 
ually superseding sailing vessels. It is probable that coal will ere 
long be included among those articles that are reckoned as contra- 
band of war. Now that steam is destined to play an important 
part in naval warfare, the coal by which steam is produced is cer- 
tainly entitled to a prominent place among munitions de guerre. 

Nearly all the coal consumed in London was taken there by 
coastwise vessels from Newcastle and elsewhere forty years ago 
(1832), while within that period the transportation into London, 
by railways alone, has grown to be equal to that taken by vessels, 
and the amount carried by the latter is fifty per cent, in excess of 
what it was then; meantime, its average price has not increased 
there. In this no mention is made of the tonnage required on 
railways for distributing coal to the manufacturing and other dis- 
tricts of Britain. Herein may be seen outlines of a future traffic, 
huge in proportions, yet to be acquired by the railroads of the 
Western States of the Union, not to name others. 

The importation into the United States of what has been for 
many years known on the Atkntic coast as " Liverpool coal " has 
always been considerable; so late as 1865 the amount was 134,- 
000] tons; an ugly fact in view of our greater supplies. The 
productive coal measures of the United States exceed those of all 
the rest of the world, as at present known, and the greatest fields 
of coal in the Union are in the districts of the Mississippi Valley, 
already pointed out. 

Coal, for most purposes, is much better than wood ; but, in fact, 
the two, although in appearance so different, are, in their ultimate 
composition, very nearly allied. They both have for their basis 
or chief ingredient the substance called by the chemists carbon, 
and their chief other ingredient, the substance called hydrogen, 
which, when separated, exists in the form of gas. The hydrogen 
is easily driven away or volatilized from either coal or wood, by 
heating in a close place ; and when it is caught and preserved, it 
forms the gas now used to light the streets and buildings of our 
cities and larger towns. What remains of coal after being so 
treated is the substance' called coke, referred to in this article as 
used in running locomotives on the English railways ; and what 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 889 

remains of wood, similarly treated, is the substance called charcoal; 
both being nearly pure carbon, but differing as to the states of 
compactness This kindred nature of coal and wood does not 
surprise us when the fact is known that much of our coal is really 
transformed wood ; many coal-mines being evidently the remains 
of antediluvian forests, swept together in the course of terrestrial 
changes, and afterward solidified to the state now seen. The 
species of the plants or trees which formed them are often quite 
apparent. The extensive beds of peat moss or turf, now existing 
on the surface of the earth consist chiefly of vegetable remains in 
an early stage of change, which finally terminates in the formation 
of coal. 

The phenomenon of common fire or combustion is merely the 
fuel being chemically dissolved in the air of the atmosphere. If 
the fuel has nothing volatile in it, as is true of pure carbon, and 
nearly true of coke and charcoal, it burns with the appearance of 
red-hot stones; but if there be an ingredient, as hydrogen, which 
on being heated, readily assumes the form of air, that ingredient 
dilates before burning, and in the act produces the more bulky 
incandescence called flame. 

The two great purposes which combustion serves to man are 
to give light and heat. By the former he may be said to lengthen 
considerably the duration of his natural existence ; for he converts 
a portion of the almost useless night into what, for many ends, 
serves him as well as day; and by the latter, besides converting 
winter into any climate — within doors — which he desires, he is en- 
abled to effect most important mutations in many of the substances 
which nature offers for his use ; and since the invention of the 
steam-engine, he makes heat perform a great and constantly in- 
creasing proportion of the work of society. From these consider- 
ations may be perceived the importance of having fire at com- 
mand ; and as the cheapest means of commanding fire, of having 
abundance of coal. By it our dwellings are lighted and heated, 
and thus made more comfortable ; with it the steam-engine may 
be fed, labor lifted from our shoulders and taken from our hands, 
and we may be enabled comfortably to go with railroad and 
steamer speed to the ends of the earth. 

From an admirable article by Robert Hunt, F. R. S., we make 
the following extract on 

"COAL AS A RESERVOIR OF POWER." 

"The sun, according to the philosophy of the day, is the 
great store-house of force. All the grand natural phenomena are 
directly dependent upon the influence of energies which are 
poured forth without intermission from the central star of our 
system. Under the influences of light, heat, actinism, and elec- 
tricity, plants and animals are produced, live and grow, in all their 



89O FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

infinite variety. Those physical powers, or, as they were formerly 
called, those imponderable elements, have their origin in one or 
other of those mysterious zones which envelope the orb of day, 
and become evident to us only when mighty cyclones break them 
up into dark spots. Is it possible to account for the enormous 
amount of energy which is constantly being developed in the sun ? 
This question may be answered by saying that chemical changes 
of the most intense activity are discovered to be forever progress- 
ing, and that to these changes we owe the development of all the 
physical powers with which we are acquainted. In our labor- 
atory we establish, by mechanical disturbance, some chemical 
phenomenon, which becomes evident to our senses by the heat 
and light which are developed, and we find associated with them 
the principal which can set up chemical change and promote 
electrical manifestations, We have produced combustion, say, of 
a metal, or of a metallic compound, and we have a flame of a 
color which belongs especially to the substance which is being 
consumed. We examine a ray of light produced by that flame 
by passing it through a prism, and this analysis informs us that 
colored bands, having a fixed angle of refraction, are constant for 
that especial metal. Beyond this, research acquaints us with the 
fact that, if the ray of light is made to pass through the vapor of 
the substance which gives color to the flame, the lines of the spec- 
trum which were chormatic become dark and colorless. 

SUNSHINE AND COAL BEDS. 

" We trap a ray of sunlight, and we refract it by means of a 
spectroscope, when we detect the same lines as those which we 
have discovered in our artificial flame. We pursue this very in- 
teresting discovery, and we find that several metals which give 
color to flame, and produce certain lines, when subjected to 
spectrum analysis, are to be detected in the rays of the sun. 
Therefore our inference is, that some substances, similar to the 
terrestrial bodies, with which we are familiar, are actually under- 
going a change in the sun, analogous to those changes which we 
call combustion ; and, more than this, we argue that the high 
probability is, that all solar energies are developed under those 
conditions of chemical change — that, in fact, the sun is burning, 
and while solar matter is changing its form, Force is rendered 
active, and as ray-power passes off into space as light, heat, etc.* 
to do its work upon distant worlds, and these forms of Force are 
expended in doing the work of development on those worlds. 
This idea — theory — call it what you may — involves of necessity 
the waste of energy in the sun, and we must concede the possi- 
bility of the blazing sun's gigantic mass becoming eventually a 
globe of dead ashes, unless we can comprehend some method by 
which energy can be again restored to the inert matter. Certain it 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 89 1 

is that the sun has been shining thousands of years, and its in- 
fluence on this earth we know to have been the production of 
organized masses, absorbing the radiant energies, in volumes cap- 
able of measurement. On this earth, for every equivalent of heat 
developed, a fixed equivalent of matter has changed its form; 
and so likewise is it with regard to the other forces. On the sun, 
in like manner, every cubic mile of sunshine represents the change 
of form of an equivalent of solar matter, and that equivalent of 
matter is no longer capable of supplying Force, unless by some 
conditions, beyond our grasp at present, it takes up again that 
which it has lost. That something of this kind must take place is. 
certain. The sun is not burning out. After the lapse of thousands 
of years we have the most incontrovertible evidence that the light 
of to-day is no less brilliant now than it was when man walked 
amid the groves of Eden. We may venture farther back into the 
arcana of time, and say that the sun of the past summer (1872) 
has shone with splendor equal to the radiant power which, myriads 
of ages ere man appeared on this planet, stimulated the growth of 
those luxuriant forests which perished to form those vast beds 
from which we derive our coal. Not a ray the less is poured out 
in any hour of sunshine ; not a grain-weight of matter is lost 
from the mass of the sun. If either the sunshine were weakened, 
or the weight of the vast globe diminished, the planets would vary 
in their physical conditions, and their orbits would be changed. 
There is no evidence that either one or the other has resulted. Let 
us see if we can guess at any process by which this stability of the 
solar system is maintained". 

" It was first shown by Faraday, in a series of experimental in- 
vestigations which may be regarded as the most beautiful example 
of inductive science with which the world has been favored since 
Bacon promulgated his new philosophy, that the quantity of elec- 
tricity contained in a body was exactly the quantity which was 
necessary to decompose that body. For -example, in a voltaic 
battery — of zinc and copper plates — a certain fixed quantity of 
electricity is eliminated by the oxidation of a portion of the zinc. 
If, to produce this effect, the oxygen of a given measure of water 
— say a drop — is necessary, the electricity developed will be ex- 
actly that which is required to separate the gaseous elements of 
a drop of water from each other. As equivalent of electricity is 
developed by the oxidation of an equivalent of zinc, and that 
electricity is required for the decomposition of an equivalent of 
water, or the same quantity of electricity would be equal to the 
power of effecting the re-combination of oxygen and hydrogen, 
into an equivalent of water. The law which has been so perfectly 
established for electricity is found to be true of the other physical 
forces. By the combustion — which is a condition of oxidation — 
of an equivalent of carbon, or of any body susceptible of this - 



892 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

change of state, exact volumes of light and heat are liberated. 
It is theoretically certain that these equivalents of light and heat 
are exactly the quantities necessary for the formation of the sub- 
stance from which those energies have been derived. That which 
takes place in terrestrial phenomena is, it is highly probable, 
constantly taking place in solar phenomena. Chemical changes, 
or disturbances analogous to them, of vast energy, are constantly 
progressing in the sun, and thus is maintained that unceasing out- 
pour of sunshine which gladdens the earth, and illumines all the 
planets of our system. Every solar ray is a bundle of powerful 
forces ; light, the luminous life-maintaining energy, giving color to 
all things ; heat, the calorific power which determines the condi- 
tions of all terrestrial matter ; actinism, peculiarly the force which 
produces all photographic phenomena ; and electricity regulating 
the magnetic condition of this globe. Combined in action, these 
solar radiations carry out the conditions necessary to animal and 
vegetable organization, in all their varieties, and create out of a 
-chaotic mass forms of beauty rejoicing in life. 

" To confine our attention to the one subject before us. Every 
person knows that, to grow a tree or shrub healthfully, it must 
have plenty of sunshine. In the dark we may force a plant to 
grow, but it forms no woody matter, it acquires no color ; even in 
shade it grows slowly and weak. In sunshine it glows with color, 
and its frame is strengthened by the deposition of woody matter 
eliminated from the carbonic acid of the air in which it grows. 
A momentary digression will make one point here more clear. 
Men and animals live by consuming the products of the vegetable 
world. The process of supporting life by food is essentially one 
of combustion. The food is burnt in the system, developing that 
heat which is necessary for life, and the living animal rejects, with 
every expiration, the combinations, principally carbonic acid, 
which result from this combustion. This carbonic acid is in- 
haled by the plant ; and, by its vital power, excited by sunshine, 
it is decomposed ; the carbonic forms the ligneous structure of the 
plant, and the oxygen is liberated to renew the healthful condition 
of the atmosphere. Here we see a sequence of changes analo- 
gous to those which have been shown to be a law of electricity." 



HOW WOOD AND COAL ARE DEVELOPED. 

Every equivalent of matter changing form in the sun sends 
forth a measured volume of sunshine, charged with the organizing 
powers as potential energies. These meet with the terrestral mat- 
ter which has the function of living, and they expend themselves 
in the labor of producing a quantity of wood, which represents 
the equivalent of matter which has changed form in the sun. The 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND- HISTORY. 895 

;ight, heat, chemical and electrical power of the sushine have pro- 
duced a certain quantity of wood, and these physical energies 
have been absorbed — used up — in the production of that quan- 
tity. Now, we learn that a cube of wood is the result of a fixed 
measure of sunshine ; common experience teaches us that, if we 
ignite that wood, it gives out in burning, light and heat ; while a 
little examination proves the presence of actinism and electricity 
in its flame. Philosophy teaches us that the powers set free in 
the burning of that cube of wood, are exactly those which were 
required for its growth, and that, for the production of it, a defi- 
nite equivalent of matter changed its form on a globe ninety mil- 
lions of miles distant from us. 

Myriads of ages before man appeared — the monarch of this 
world — the sun was doing its work. Vast forests grew as they 
now grow, especially in the wide spread swamps of the tropics, 
and, decaying, gathered into thick mats of humus-like substance. 
Those who have studied all the conditions of a peat-morass, will 
remember how the ligneous matter loses its woody structure in 
depth — depth here representing time — and how at the bottom a 
bituminous or coaly matter is not unfrequently formed. Some 
such process as this, continued through long ages, at length pro- 
duced those extensive beds of coal which are so distinguishingly 
a feature of the English and American coal-fields. At a period 
in geological time, when an Old Red Sandstone land was washed 
by ocean waves highly charged with carbonic acid, in which ex- 
isted multitudinous animals, whose work in Nature was to aid in 
building up mases of lime-stone rock, there prevailed a teeming 
vegetation from which have been derived all the coal-beds of the 
British Isles. Our space will not allow of any inquiry into the 
immensity of time required for the growth of the forests necessary 
for the production of even a single seam of coal. Suffice it to 
say, that within one coal-field, we may discover coal beds to the 
depth of 6,000 feet from the present surface. The section of such 
a coal-field will show us coal and sandstone, or shale, alternating 
again and again — a yard or two of coal and hundreds of feet of 
5hale or sandstone — until we come to the present surface, every 
jne of those deeply-buried coal-beds having been atone time a for- 
est, growing under the full power of a brilliant sun, the result of 
solar forces, produced then, as now, by chemical phenomena tak- 
ing place in the sun itself. Every cubic yard of coal in every coal- 
bed, is the result of a very slow, but constant change of a mass 
of vegetable matter; that change being analogous to the process 
of rotting in a large heap of succulent plants. The change has 
been so slow, and continued under a constantly increasing pres- 
sure, that but few of the gaseous constituents have escaped, arid 
nearly all those physical forces which were used in the task ol" 
producing the woody matter of the plant have been held prisoner* 



894 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

in the vegetable matter which constitutes coal. How vast, then 
must be the store of power which is preserved in the coal de- 
posits of these islands ! 

We are now rasing from our coal-pits nearly one hundred and 
ten millions of tons of coal annually. Of this quantity we are 
exporting to our colonial possessions and foreign parts about ten 
million tons, reserving nearly a hundred million tons of coal for 
our home consumption. Not many less than one hundred thou- 
sand. steam boilers are in constant use in these islands, producing 
steam — to blow the blast for smelting the iron ore ; to urge the 
mill for rolling, crushing, and cutting, with giant power; 
to twirl the spindle and to urge the shuttle. For every 
purpose, from rolling cyclopean masses of metal into form 
to weaving silky textures of the most filmy fineness, steam 
is used, and this steam is an exact representative of the coal 
employed, a large allowance being made for the imperfec- 
tions of human machinery. This requires a little explanation. 
Coal is a compound of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, 
the last two elements existing in quantities so small, as compared 
with the carbon, that they may be rejected from our consideration. 
The heat which we obtain in burning the coal is almost all 
derived from the carbon ; the hydrogen in burning produces some 
heat, but for our purpose it is sufficient to confine attention to the 
carbon only. 

THE POWER OF COAL. 

One pound of pure coal yields, in combining with oxygen in 
combustion, theoretically, an energy equal to the power of lifting 
10,808,000 pounds one foot high. The quantity of heat necessary 
to raise a pound of water one degree will raise 772 pounds one 
foot. A pound of coal burning should yield 14,000 units of heat, 
or 772x14,000=10,808,000 pounds, as above. Such is the theo- 
retical value of a pound of pure coal. Many of our coal seams 
are about a yard in thickness ; several important seams are much 
thicker than this, and one well-known seam, the thick coal of 
South Staffordshire, is ten yards in thickness. This, however, 
concerns us no further than that it is useful in conveying to the 
mind some idea of the enormous reservoir of power which is 
buried in our coal formations. One square yard of coal from a 
yard thick seam — that is, in fact, a cubic yard of coal — weighs 
about 2,240 pounds avoirdupois ; the reserved energy in that 
cube of coal is equal to lifting 1,729,200 pounds one foot high. 
We are raising every year about 110,000,000 tons of coal from 
our coal-beds, each ton of coal being about a square yard. The 
heat of that coal is equal to a mechanical lifting power which it 
is scarcely possible to convey to the mind in anything approach- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 895 

ing to its reality. If we say it is 190,212,000 millions, we merely 
state an incomprehensible number. We may do something more 
than this, if we can convey some idea of the magnitude of the 
mass of coal which is raised annually in these islands. 

The diameter of this globe is 7,926 miles, or 13,880,760 yards ; 
therefore, the coal raised in 1870 would make a solid bar more 
than eight yards wide and one yard thick, which would pass from 
east to west through the earth at the equator. Suppose such a 
mass should be in a state of ignition, we can imagine the inten- 
sity of its heat, and its capability, if employed in converting water 
into steam, of exerting the vast force which we have endeavored 
to indicate. It was intimated last year in the House of Com- 
mons, by a member of the coal commission, that the decision of 
that body, after a long and laborious inquiry, would be that there 
existed in our coal-fields a supply for about one thousand years at 
our present rate of consumption. We have therefore to multiply 
the above computation by 1,000 to arrive at any idea of the re- 
serve power of our British coal-fields. What must it have been 
ere yet our coal deposits were disturbed ! At the time of the 
Roman occupation coal was used in this country. In the ruins 
of Roman Uriconium coal has been found. Certainly up to the 
present time a quantity of not less than three thousand million 
tons of coal has been dug out of our carboniferous deposits and 
consumed. All this enormous mass of matter has been derived 
from vegetable organizations which have been built up by sun- 
shine. The. sun-rays which compelled the plants to grow were 
used by the plant, absorbed, imprisoned in the cells, and held 
there as an essential ingredient of the woody matter. The heat, 
light, actinism, and electricity, which are developed when we burn 
a lump of coal, represent exactly the quantity of those forces which 
were necessary to the growth of the vegetable matter from which 
that coal was formed. The sunshine of infinitely remote ages 
becomes the useful power of the present day. 

Let it not, however, be supposed that we employ all the heat 
which is available in our coal. All our appliances, even the very 
best, are so defective that we lose far more than we use. A pound 
of pure coal should evaporate thirteen pounds of water ; in prac- 
tice a pound of coal does not evaporate four pounds, even in the 
most perfectly constructed steam boilers, with the most complete 
steam engines, such as have been constructed for pumping water 
for the Chelsea and the other water-works upon the Thames. 

Numerous attempts have been made to burn our coal so as to 
secure a more effective result than this. Still, with the best we 
allow more than one-half of the heat latent in the coal to escape 
us. The subtle element eludes our grasp — our charms are power- 
less to chain the sprite ; he will not be bound to labor for us, but 



896 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

passes off into space, regardless of the human Prospcro, whose 
wand of science he derides. 

In conclusion, our philosophy has enabled us to determine the 
heat value of our coal fields, and to prove that all this heat has a 
solar origin. Our science has shown us that, although we can 
eliminate all this heat, we can not use it. There is an immense 
quantity constantly passing into space as radiant heat which we 
can not retain. 

The circle of action between the vegetable and the animal 
world is a beautiful and a remarkable provision. The animal 
burns carbon and sends into the air carbonic acid (a compound 
of carbon and oxygen) ; the vegetable breathes that carbonic acid 
and decomposes it ; the carbon is retained and the oxygen liber- 
ated in purity, to maintain the life and fire-supporting principles 
of the atmosphere. Changes similar to these may be constantly 
going forward in the sun, and producing those radiations which 
are poured forth in volumes, far beyond the requirements of all 
the planets of our system. Although there is probably some 
circle of action analogous to that which exists upon this earth 
maintaining the permanency of the vegetable and animal world, 
still there must be a waste of energy, which must be resupplied 
to the sun. 

May it not be that Sir Isaac Newton's idea — that the comets 
traversing space gather up the waste heat of the solar system, and 
eventually falling into the sun, restores its power — is nearer the 
truth than the more modern hypothesis, that meteorites are inces- 
santly raining an iron shower upon the solar surface, and by their 
mechanical impact reproducing the energy as constantly as it is 
expended. 

THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORAL COLLEGE, IN 1876, 

Comprised three hundred and sixty-nine members, as follows : 

1. New York 35 2 i. Texas. 8 

2. Pennsylvania 29 22. South Carolina 7 

3. Ohio. « 23 23. Maine.. ., 7 

4. Illinois 21 24. Connecticut. .'. ll".'....'."'.'.".. 6 

5. Indiana I5 25. Arkansas " " 6 

6. Missouri I5 26. California g. 

7. Massachusetts 13 27. Vermont c 

8. Kentucky I2 28. New Hampshire r 

9. Tennessee I2 29. Kansas % 

10. Virginia „ 30# West Virginia ."." 5 

"' A^°k ?ia 1X 3I - Minn esota 5 



Michigan 11 32. Rhode Island". 



13. Iowa 



33. Florida 4 



I4 " ^,°l Carollna 10 34. Delaware 3 

15. Alabama IO 35 . Nebraska 3 

16. Wisconsin IO 36. Oregon 3 

1 7- ^w Jersey g 37. Nevada 3 

^ 08. Colorado 3 

369 



19. Louisiana 

20. Mississippi ._.._.._.._;~;™_";;_\" i Total 



Necessary to a choice 185. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HIST )RY. 897 

THE GRANGERS. 

In the year 1867 a movement was inaugurated by the farmers 
of the West, which bade fair to change the whole social and 
political face of the country. In an incredibly short time the 
organization which was formed numbered its members by 
millions, and it can safely be said that one-fourth of all the 
voters in the country belonged to the Grange. Such sudden 
growth must be ascribed to the magnitude of the evils which it 
was intended to redress, or to the benefits which were to be derived 
therefrom. As money is the American idol, it is to the condition 
of the pockets of the members or originators of the society that 
we naturally look in seeking an explanation of so extensive and 
general a movement, and there is no necessity for going farther. 

In all the large countries of the world agriculture is the chief 
branch of industry, and in Europe the stability of a nation may 
be said to depend upon the extent of its agricultural pursuits 
France, which is in reality the richest nation in the world, although 
England possesses more nominal wealth, was a century ago the 
poorest. This was owing to the fact that all the land was held by 
a few nobles and the king, who farmed out the revenue and lived 
up to the saying of Louis XIV, that " the King was the State." 
Then came that terrible reaction, the reaction of ten centuries of 
oppression, in which all who were born of noble blood were be- 
headed or compelled to leave the country. In 1793 the whole 
country had been confiscated and was then divided equally be- 
tween the inhabitants of the country who chose to dwell upon the 
land assigned to them. The law of primogeniture was repealed 
and on the death of a land owner his real property must be dis- 
tributed among all the children, male and female, thus preventing 
the repetition of the condition of the country in 1789, or that of 
Great Britain to- day, and giving to every man his farm. 

Here is the secret of the recuperative power of France. With 
a population as large as that of this country east of the Rocky 
Mountains, but an area less than that of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
Missouri and Iowa combined, and a soil less fertile than that of 
those states, she is able to raise her own provisions besides raising 
and making wine for the whole world, which is exchanged for 
whatever can be grown and imported at a less cost than it can be 
produced at home. But France has to feed her immense cities, 
where manufactures of all kinds are carried on to enormous ex- 
tent, and thus by a mutual intercourse and exchange of commod- 
ities in the same country, the prosperity of the nation is assured. 
We often hear of emigration from the overcrowded nations of 
Europe, but where the energies of the population are divided 
rightly there is no over-crowding. That term is never applied 
to France, nor is there any emigration properly so called from 

57 



898 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

that country. But when we examine the condition of the United 
States, we find none of those elements which make France wealthy 
and strong. The five states mentioned above contain almost ex- 
actly one-fourth the population of France. The manufactures 
necessary to supply so sparsely settled a country are very limited, 
and are furnished from distant states. The three southern New 
England states can furnish manufactures to the whole section, and 
barely have sufficient labor to keep them employed continually. 

What then is the condition of things, how has it come about, 
and how can it be changed, are the questions to be answered. 

The pursuits of the West are wholly agricultural, and only one 
form at that, stock raising hardly entering in as a branch of em- 
ployment. This is also true of the South, the West confining it- 
self almost exclusively to the culture of grain, the South to that 
of cotton. The employment of the Northeast is manufactures 
combined with agriculture and commerce. The result is the North- 
eastern section of the country is rich and prosperous, the rest of 
the country is comparatively poor and wanting in many of the 
necessary constituents of prosperity. This, then, is the condition 
of things. How has it come about? 

We may say with truth that the railroad is to blame. Previous 
to the introduction of this agency Indiana was a howling wilder- 
ness, and but for it all the country west of the Mississippi would 
be so to-day. Formerly all transportation was performed by cat- 
tle and horses, and it would have been an impossibility to ship 
grain from Illinois to Massachusetts, or even New York, but now 
it can be carried from St. Louis to Portland for less than it could 
be sent from New York to Boston fifty years ago. No sooner 
were the railroads commenced than the demand came up from the 
West for their construction to that region. Emigration from the 
East set in, and thus, in a few years, 20,000,000 souls have taken 
possession of land enough to sustain 200,000,000. 

In order to get the railroads, states granted lands, counties made 
loans, towns gave bonds, and millions, yes, billions of money were 
sunk in building roads for the West by wealthy capitalists. 

At last all the railroads, yes, twice as many as were needed, 
were built. Then the counties and the towns were called upon to 
pay the interest and principal of the bonds and loans they had 
given. The people attempted to compel the courts to declare 
the roads strictly private corporations, and the aid they had ex- 
tended unconstitutional. But they were unsuccessful. The 
courts decided the railroads to be quasi public corporations. 

THE PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY. 

in consequence of this condition of affairs in 1867, the idea of 
organizing that portion of the American people engaged in ag- 
ricultural pursuits into a society for the furthurance of their own 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 899 

interests on some plan similar to the Trades Unions, began to be 
discussed among a few men from different portions of the country, 
gathered at Washington, D. C. The result was that in December 
of that year, they, together with a few others whom they induced 
to join them, organized themselves into what they termed The 
National Grange, of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry. Their 
objects, as announced, were to unite the farmers together for mu- 
tual protection, and enable them to exert an influence in public 
affairs they had never enjoyed, and could not hope to enjoy with- 
out such union. The ideas of self culture and social enjoyment 
were also made a part of the good the members were expecting 
to realize from this association. Again, it was hoped that by 
means of such a combination a powerful influence could be exert- 
ed on the markets for farm products, while at the same time farm 
implements, and in fact all farm supplies, could be bought and 
distributed at a considerable saving. Thus early the principle of 
co-operation, which has won so many and such brilliant triumphs 
in England wthin the last thirty years, became one of the leading 
features of the move. After struggling forward for four years, 
making very little, if any, real progress, in 1872 it received an im- 
petus which suddenly brought it into prominence as one of the 
greatest social movements of the age. Several causes contributed 
to this result. The high prices charged for freight from the north- 
west to the seaboard for farm products, by the railroads, was found 
to absorb almost the whole price received therefor, so that in some 
portions of Iowa farmers were even burning corn for fuel rather than 
ship it to market. At the same time in many locaHties farmers 
were called upon to pay high taxes, considerable portions of which 
went to pay principal and interest on railroad bonds which had been 
issued in aid of the roads in the hope that by means of them they 
would be enabled to enjoy a better market for their products. To 
be called upon to pay principal and interest on these bonds while 
suffering complete prostration of their business consequent on the 
exorbitant rates for freight charged by these same roads, pro- 
duced a wide-spread feeling of discontent among the farmers who 
became ready to embrace any project that seemed to promise re- 
lief. Add to this the revelations of wholesale fraud in the con- 
struction of the railroads, as shown in the Credit Mobilier inves 
ligations in the winter of 1872-3, coupled with official corruption 
in Congress and State Legislatures, and one can readily see how 
the Grange movement should have so suddenly assumed such 
gigantic proportions. A single glance at the official reports of 
the society, taken in connection with the important events of the 
times will be sfficient to explain the whole phenomena. Organ- 
ized in Dec. 1867, no decided effort was made to push the new Or- 
der for at least three months, and even then the success was not de- 
cidedly flattering. During the whole of 1 868 only ten new granges 



900 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

were organized. In 1869 thirty-nine more were brought into be- 
ing, and in 1870 an equal number; 187 1 seemed to have been a 
little better. In this year are reported one hundred and five new 
granges, making a total of one hundred and ninety-three subordi- 
nate granges established in a period of four years. From this 
point the growth was rapid. In 1872 no less than 1,105 new sub- 
ordinate granges were instituted, and this rate of growth, in 
geometrical progression was continued until, at the annual meet- 
ing of the national grange in February, 1874, there were reported 
no less than 16,400 organizations with an average membership of 
fifty persons to each grange. 

The questions which force themselves on the attention of every 
thoughtful person are, will the grange survive a brief period of ex- 
istence and become one of the permanent institutions of our 
country ? and, will it succeed in effecting the reforms at which it 
aims? We shall not attempt to answer either of these questions, 
but certain it is that it will require the exercise of all the wisdom 
possessed by its leaders to steer it clear of the dangers that await 
it, and correct the mistakes which were inseperable from its rapid 
growth and the excitement produced by the issues with which it 
has had to deal. 

THE NATIONAL GRANGE. 

FROM THE SECRETARY'S REPORT, NOV., 1 875. 

In the history of organization our Order is the greatest achieve- 
ment of modern times. The Masonic Order, consisting of blue 
Lodges, chapters, commanderies, and other branches of its organ- 
ization, numbers twelve thousand nine hundred and thirty (12,- 
930) on the entire globe. The Odd Fellows number seven thou- 
sand and fifty-one Lodges, encampments, etc., giving a total of 
nineteen thousand nine hundred and eighty-one in the whole 
world, and those Orders . from thirty to one hundred years old ; 
while at the outside we have but three years' growth, and have 
issued twenty-four thousand two hundred and ninety charters, 
confined to the United States alone. 

It is quite reasonable to suppose that many of the Granges or- 
ganized \mder the excitement of last year should be weak, but 
our records at this date show only 686 that have consolidated, 
suspended, or had their charters revoked since the first introduc- 
tion of the order. 

State Secretaries this year report a membership of 762,263, 
while the increase of new Granges for the past month has been 92. 

The total amount of moneys received in the Secretary's office 
and deposited in the fiscal agencies during the past three years is, 
in rough numbers, about $350,000, exceeding the united paid-up 
capital of all the purely agricultural societies in the United States 
for the past fifty years, or, in fact, since they first had an existence. 



INFORMATION FOR EVERYBODY. 



STATISTICS OF THE GLOBE. 




MHE earth is inhabited by about 1300 millions of inhabit- 
* ants, viz : 

360,000,000 of the Caucassian race ; 
550,000,000 of the Mongolian; 
190,000,000 of the Ethiopian; 
200,000,000 of the Malay races, and 
1,000,000 of the American Indian. 
All these respectively speak 3,064 languages and possess 1,000 
different religions. 

The amount of deaths per annum is 33,333,333, or 91,954 per 
day; 3,730 per hour; 60 per minute, or one per second. This 
loss is compensated by an equal number of births. 

The average duration of life throughout the globe is thirty- 
three years. One-fourth of its population dies before the seventh 
year, and one-half before the seventeenth. Out of 10,000 per- 
sons only one reaches his hundredth year; only one in 500 his 
eightieth; and only one in 100 his sixty-fifth. 

Married people live longer than unmarried ones, and a tall man 
is likely to live longer than a short one. Until the fiftieth year, 
women have a better chance of life than men ; but beyond that 
period the chances are equal. 

Sixty-five persons out of one thousand, marry. The months of 
June and December are those in which marriages are most 
frequent. 

Children born in spring are generally stronger than those born 
in other seasons. 

Births and deaths chiefly occur in the night. 
The number of men able to bear arms is but one-eighth of the 
population. go ^ 



9©4 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ESTIMATED POPULATION OF THE OLD AND NEW WORLD. 

Europe ' = .- 280,000,000 

Asia, including Islands _. 750,000,000 

Africa, estimated from __ioo to 200,000,000 

America 69,000,000 

Australia and Islands 2,000,000 

Polynesia, estimate 1,500,000 

NEGROES IN AMERICA. 

It is estimated that there are some 14,000,000 persons of African 
descent on this continent. In the United States they number 
4,500,000; Brazil 4,000,000; Cuba and Porto Rico, 1,500,000; 
South and Central American Republics, 1,200,000; Hayti, 
1,350,000; British Possessions, 800,000; French, 250,000; Dutch 
and Mexican, 400,000. 

There are about 300,000 Indians in the United States. 

LATEST STATISTICS OF THE GLOBE, 1876. 
For Europe, the area is 2,700,000 square miles; population 
303,000,000. Asia, 13,000,000 square miles, and population, 
799,000,000. Africa, 8,700,000 square miles, population, 206,000,- 
000. America, 12,000,000 square miles; population, 84,000,000. 
Australia and Polynesia, 2,500,000 square miles, population, 
4,500,000. Total Area, 38,900,000. Total Population, 1,396,500,000. 

WEALTH OF THE PRESIDENTS. 

Washington left an estate valued at over $800,000 ; John Adams 
died moderately well off, leaving about $75,000 ; Jefferson died so 
poor that if Congress had not purchased his library at $20,000 he 
would have been a pauper ; Madison was frugal, and left about 
$150,000 ; Monroe died so poor that he was buried at the expense 
of his relatives; John Quincy Adams left about $55,000; Jackson 
died worth about $80,000 ; Van Buren left some $400,000. It is 
said he did not draw his salary while in office, but at the expira- 
tion of his term of service drew the whole $100,000; Polk left an 
estate valued at $150,000; Taylor had saved something from his 
pay while in the army, and died worth $150,000; Tyler married a 
lady of wealth ; Fillmore was always frugal, and added to his 
savings by marrying a lady of wealth, and was worth about 
$200,000 ; Pierce's estate was valued at $50,000; Buchanan left 
$200,000; Lincoln about $75,000; and Johnston $50,000; Grant 
is supposed to be wealthy. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 905 

OUR IMPORTS AND THEIR COST. 

The Chief of the Bureau of Statistics on Commerce and Navigation furnishes 
fthe following statement of the value and duty on the principal articles entered 
into consumption in the United States for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1871: 

Articles. Value. Duty. 

Animals, living, of all kinds $5,287,669 12 $1,165,533 83 

Articles worn by men, women, children, of what- 
ever material, made up in whole or part by 

hand, not otherwise specified 249,519 00 87,331 65 

Beer, ale and porter 1,154,254 98 434,321 63 

Books, periodicals, &c, print, and blank 1,706,304 71 426,576 20 

Brass and manuf. of 54,384 17 10,889 43 

Bricks and tiles 76,866 59 16,088 97 

Bristles — 721,518 00 87,214 28 

Brushes.. 222,188 09 88,875 23 

Butter 1,091,374 87 193,720 50 

Buttons and button molds 1,299,895 75 389,968 73 

Candles and tapers, all kinds 5,891 65 1,088 94 

Chalk of all kinds 18,367 00 37,487 00 

Cheese 376,395 37 100,530 07 

Chemicals, dyes, drugs and medicines 12,979,661 85 4,640,055 94 

Chicory, root and gr'd . 70,495 00 116,120 82 

Chocolate, cocoa, &c 346,210 86 74,583 10 

Clay and fullers' earth 106,527 00 54,917 04 

Clocks, watches and watch materials 3,457,261 21 804,840 71 

Coal and culm of coal 1,144,538 84 543,257 88 

Coffee 29,428,698 27 10,069,098 77 

Copper and manuf. of. 765,186 27 331,703 68 

Cork and manuf. of 237,549 52 100,180 49 

Cotton, manuf. of 26,587,994 91 10,773,832 48 

Diamonds, gems, &c 2,351,963 25 235,234 73 

Earthenware, china 4,632,355 21 1,915,109 81 

Embroideries of cotton, silk, wool, not otherwise 

specified 2,565,914 00 898,069 90 

Fancy articles, perfumery, &c 3,798,816 97 1,718,583 09 

Eire-crackers and fireworks 170,264 25 196,929 80 

Fish of all kinds 2,066,832 70 660,225 34 

Flax and manuf. of (linens, &c.) 19,235,959 55 6,475,953 72 

Fruits of all kinds 6,872,741 36 3,428,097 72 

Furs and manuf. of 2,194,462 58 434,972 72 

Ginger, root, ground and preserved 171,182 51 79,41 1 70 

Glass and manuf. of 4,450,724 68 2,472,412 50 

Gold and silver, manufacturers of, &c. 223,277 07 77,082 44 

Gums, arabic, copal, mastic, myrrh, shellac, &c.__ 422,833 06 221,102 41 

Gutta-percha, crude, and manuf. of 16,173 00 5,109 90 

Hair of alpaca goat, &c, and manuf. of 34,559 70 25,003 13 

Hair and manuf. of (hair-cloth, &c.) 538,942 73 131,202 58 

Hair, human, and mannfactures of 535,852 00 149,608 00 

Hats and bonnets of hair, straw, chip, &c 658,380 58 253 352 24 

Hemp and manuf. of 8,013,364 43 l,7i,009 47 

Hides and skins • 13,431,781 27 1,343,178 14 

Honev 53,119 91 17,071 50 

Hops' 12,81100 5,044 20 

India-rubber and manufacturers of 2,044,936 95 361,365 31 

Instruments, mathematical, philosophical, &c 15,519 00 3,521 20 

Ink and ink powders 85,823 21 30,038 12 



906 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Articles, Value. Duty. 

Iron, manuf. of. 31,852,034 83 13,766,121 32 

Steel and manuf of 11,404,084 85 4,892,562 63 

Ivory and manuf. of... 174,942 00 20,379 70 

Jet and jewelry, real and imitation _ . , 1,322,266 67 374,742 03 

Lead and manuf. of 3,837,363 93 1,870,609 54 

Leather and manuf. of 10,552,155 34 3,839,679 50 

Macaroni and vermicelli 80,478 80 28,167 59 

Marble, granite, stone and manuf. of 764,323 10 396,964 06 

Matts, cocoa, coir, dunnage, &c, and matting... 564,239 85 162,632 36 

Meats, eggs, game, poultry, &c 1,128,395 84 240,612 77 

Metals, bronze, nickel, &c, and manuf. of, not 

elsewhere specified 240,575 85 68,411 85 

Mineral waters 34,918 13 22,934 88 

Music, printed, bound or unbound 47,547 00 9,509 40 

Musical instruments and music strings 842,507 98 253,311 55 

Nuts, almonds, cocoa, filberts, walnuts, &c 1,196,779 44 592,270 63 

Oil-cloths for floors... 63,406 55 27,840 31 

Oils, fixed or expressed^ 

Castor 20,240 49 29,313 62 

Flaxseed or linseed 24,814 49 14,122 57 

Neats-foot and other animal 20,1 55 00 4,031 00 

Olive, in casks... 111,453 00 34,703 13 

Olive, in bottles 257,868 08 142,475 75 

Palm and cocoanut ._ 87,288 40 8,728 84 

Seal and whale 183,75138 26,882 45 

Allother fixed oils 115,479 66 38,776 46 

Total. $821,050 50 $299,093 82 

Oils, volatile or essential : 

Anise 16,355 00 5,237 50 

Bergamot 93,260 00 30,59158 

Citronella 13,535 00 9,100 85 

Orange and lemon 144,505 00 33,809 38 

Roses, attar of 46,242 00 15,219 38 

All other essential oils 132,415 41 82,403 23 

Total $446,212 41 $176,36192 

Olives ... 32,458 58 9,737 57 

Paintings, statuary, &c, not by American artists 767,160 06 76,716 01 

Photographs 43,006 25 8,60125 

Paints and colors : 

White lead... 483,392 31 250,135 26 

Red lead ._ 73,410 75 38,868 48 

Ultramarine blue 115,816 00 33,292 32 

Vermillion ._ 43,935 11 10,983 78 

All other paints and colors 597,276 84 233,084 75 

Total...... $1,318,831 01 $566,364 59 

Paper and manuf. of 1,895,150 35 544,228 04 

Pens, penhold'rs, pencils, crayons, &c. 237,850 47 133,300 86 

Pickles, sauces, catsup, &c. 431,634 39 151,385 80 

Pins, all metallic 60,912 00 21,319 20 

Plumbago or black lead 139,954 00 26,564 75 

Potatoes 225,972 48 107,985 00 

Rice and paddy 1,449,198 50 1,262,197 62 

Salt in bulk and bags, cake &c , 1,158,208 56 1,176,587 37 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 907 

Articles, Value. Duty. 
Seeds, plants, trees, shrubs, &c., &c. : 

Canary 5S,952 00 37,776 24 

Cardamon 13,932 00 2,778 50 

Castor -....._ 44,393 00 22,11180 

Flaxseed or linseed 5,977,925 80 724,420 40 

Garden, agricultural, &c._ 563,536 38 169,006 41 

All other kinds of seeds, &c 159,382 75 64,675 73 

Total.... $6,818,121 93 $1,020,769 08 

Silk and manufactures of: 

Velvets 1,424,123 00 854,473 80 

Ribbons 6,979,527 50 4,187,716 50 

Dress and piece goods 13,235,849 60 7,941,509 77 

Laces, braids, fringes, galloons, &c, 2,281,239 25 1,368,743 55 

All other manuf. of 7,147,512 67 3,613,376 23 

Total $31,068,252 02 $17,965,819 85 

Slate and manuf. of 138,865 00 49,67180 

Soap, common, castile, and toilet 299,560 84 147,434 12 

Spices : 

Cassia ._ 291,972 26 222,330 25 

Cloves 64,547 25 104,197 45 

Mustard ...'. 114,535 74 80,508 27 

Nutmegs.. * . 390,175 10 266,415 00 

Pepper, black and white ■. 484, 635 68 596,020 65 

Pimento 55,288 87 111,073 20 

Vanilla beans 113,212 00 44,292 00 

All other spices 102,100 12 97,574 53 

Total $1,616,467 02 $1,522,411 35 

Spirits and wines : 

Brandy 1,261,343 42 1,793,276 85 

Spirits from grain and other materials 615,292 85 2,042,029 06 

Cordials, liquors, arrack, &c 58,897 96 88,629 90 

Wines of all kinds 5,876,613 14 4,478,973 91 

Spirituous compounds 19,125 59 29,168 55 

Total $7,831,272 96 $8,432,078 27 

Straw, manufactures of 1,360,323 14 408,018 63 

Sponges 113,127 00 22,625 40 

Starch, of corn) potatoes or rice , 2,555 46 1,339 14 

Sugar, &c. : 

Sugar of all kinds 58,382,938 21 29,690,521 58 

Confectionery 11,735 06 7,160 38 

Syrup of cane juice or melado 2,454,696 40 1,060,975 75 

Molasses from sugar cane 10,953,029 02 2,826,462 45 

Total $70,802,398 69 $32,585,120 16 

Tea.. 14,274,488 67 8,322,994 67 

Tin, and manuf. of 12,528,612 76 2,846,695 39 

Tobacco and manufacture of : 

Leaf, manufactured, stems, and snuff 2,784,155 74 2,342,954 11 

Cigars 2,422,552 94 2,458,622 62 

Total $5,206,708 68 $4,801,576 73 



908 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




A rticlcs. Value. Duty. 

Umbrellas, parasols, &c, (not of silk) 94,276 50 47,138 25 

Varnish 72,265 56 829,755 50 

Vegetables, yams, &c, new and prepared 584,611 22 28,768 33 

Vinegar 54,855 06 8,863 22 

Wax, and manuf. of 10,870 76 3,157 53 

Wheat, grain, flour, meal, &c. : 

Wheat, 245,753 79 43,664 80 

Wheatflour 157,805 28 31,56106 

Rye 45,143 75 10,138 76 

Barley 3,632,484 78 721,479 80 

Oats 290,982 90 72,702 20 

Indian corn 100,902 91 10,553 48 

All other kinds _ 911,823 73 167,055 36 

Total $5,424,897 14 $1,057,155 46 

Willow or osier, and manufacturers of 245,507 75 83,930 97 

Wood and manuf. of : 

Cabinet ware, household furniture, &c 942,973 37 330,040 69 

Boards, plank and scantling 6,555,192 03 1,311,038 41 

Roughtimber 494,456 45 98,89128 

Other lumber... 316,057 64 63,21153 

Fire-wood 202,08152 40,416 30 

All other_ 207,006 85 56,623 87 

Total $8,807,857 86 1,900,322 05 

Wool, and manufactures of wool, and worsted : 

Wool, raw of all kinds 9,906,031 03 4,515,103 72 

Cloths 9,187,365 28 6,430,226 41 

Shawls.... 281,669 00 151,052 53 

Flannels. 7,120 49 5,074 65 

Blankets.... _ 19,426 95 17,292 93 

Hatsofwool 131,230 00 81,007 54 

Hosiery... 537,056 50 . 309,195 

Shirts, drawers and other knit goods 21,729 00 12,559 27 

Balmorals. 3,465 75 2,690 21 

Yarns.. 284,792 90 231,873 £< 

Dress goods 21,617,322 94 14,353,853 33 

Clothing, ready-made and article of wear. 2,249,600 00 1,208,568 22 

Bunting 4,167 00 4,898 40 

Carpets and carpeting 4,931,621 90 3,320,097 31 

All other manuf. of, not otherwise specified 3,583,419 63 * 2,895,982 29 

Total ' $52,766,068 37 $33,539,475 93 

Zinc, and manuf. of 943,964 63 348,667 28 

All other articles 3,412,115 57 291,784 86 

Total $459,597,057 86 $201,985,574 9" 

Amount entered for direct consumption 270,967,025 96 109,089,585 94 

Withdrawn from warehouse for consump'n.. 188,630,031 90 92,895,988 99 

Free of duty 59,162,460 46 

Additional and discriminating duty 461,098 3fc 

Aggregate total $518,759,518 32 $202,446,673 32 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



909 



DIFFERENCE OF TIME. 



When it is 12 o'clock at noon at New York City, it will be morning at all 
places west of New York, and afternoon at all places east, as in the annexed, 
table : 



Place. 



Morning. 



Augusta, Ga._ ..-11 28 28 

Buffalo, N. Y..__. -.11 40 24 

Chicago, 111.. ..11 6 2 

Cincinnati, O. 11 18 16 

Detroit, Mich .-11 23 54 

Ft. Leavenworth, Kan 10 87 8 

Galveston, Tex 10 86 58 

Honolulu, S. I 6 24 8 

Jackson, Miss 10 55 32 

Jefferson, Mo 10 47 32 

Louisville, Ky, 11 14 4 

Mexico, Mex... 10 19 44 

Milwaukee, Wis... ..-11 4 16 

Mobile, Ala 11 2 

Nashville, Tenn 11 8 48 

Natchez, Miss 10 50 26 



Place. 



Afternoon. 



Albany, N. Y 16 

Augusta, Me. _ 16 44 

Berlin, Prussia 5 49 39 

Boston Mass 11 50 

Constantinople 6 52 

Edinburgh 3 43 21 

Hamburg, Ger 5 36 58 

London * 4 55 41 



Place. 



Morning. 



H. M. S. 

New Orleans, La _ 10 55 4 

Raleigh, N. C .11 40 52 

Sacramento, Cal 8 56 4 

St. Louis, Mo 10 56 4 

St. Paul, Minn 10 43 45 

San Francisco, Cal 8 46 19 

Santa Fe, N. M 9 51 59 

Springfield, 111 10 57 52 

Toronto, C. W 11 38 38 

Utica, N. Y 11 55 12 

Vera Cruz, Mex 10 31 30 

Washington, D. C 11 47 53 

Wheeling, W.V 11 33 16 

Wilmington, N. C 11 43 21 

Wilmington, Del 11 54 12 



Place. 



Afternoon. 



Montreal, L. C 1 44 

Paris, France _ 5 5 26 

Portland, Me 15 10 

Quebec, L. C Oil 

Rome, Italy. 5 45 59 

St. Petersburg- 6 57 18 

Stockholm, Sw 6 8 18 

Vienna, Austria.. 6 1 37 



STATISTICS OF RELIGION IN THE UNITED STATES. 

The total number of Church organizations upon the 1st of June 1870, were 

VALUE OF CHURCH PROPERTY. 

Baptist (regular) $39,229,221 

Baptist (other) 3,378,977 

Roman Cathojic 60,985 566 

Congregational 25,069,698 

Episcopal 36,514,549 

Lutheran 14,917,747 

Methodist 69,854,121 

Presbyterian (regular) 47,828,732 

Presbyterian (other) 5,436,524 

Aggregate value $354,429,581 

ifices 63,074 



CHURCH ACCOMMODATION. 

Baptist (regular) 3,997,116 

Baptist (other) 363,019 

Roman Catholic 1,990,514 

Congregational 1,117,212 

Episcopal.. 991,051 

Lutheran... 997,332 

Methodist 6528,209 

Presbyterian (regular)... 2,198,900 

Presbyterian (other)-.... 499,344 

Total 21,659,562 

Total number of Church ed 



9io 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



A TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF NEWSPAPERS 
AND PERIODICALS 



PUBLISHED IN THE UNITED STATES, TERRITORIES, DOMINION OF 
CANADA AND BRITISH PROVINCES OF NORTH AMERICA. 





Daily. 


Tri- 

W'kly 


Semi- 
W'kly. 


W'kly. 


Bi- 
W'kly. 


Semi- 
M'thly 


, Bi- 
M'thly 1 M'thly 


Quar- 
terly. 


Total. 




9 
4 
34 
17 
1 
6 
1 

14 

38 

20 

20 

14 

10 

9 

6 

9 

21 

13 

8 

4 

21 

7 

7 

7 

21 

89 

8 

25 

5 

61 

6 

5 

12 

11 

3 

16 

3 

16 

581 

13 

3 
3 

21 
13 


2 
2 
3 

1 

5 
11 
3 
5 
3 
2 
2 
1 

1 

4 
5 
5 
5 

3 
3 
9 

2 

4 
2 

8 

9 

1 
2 


6 

1 
3 

1 

7 
7 
3 
3 

5 
3 

13 

1 
1 

2 

1 
18 
4 
5 

1 

2 

1 
7 

8 
1 
3 


66 

41 

120 

51 

13 

12 

21 

86 

371 

209 

231 

85 

76 

71 

48 

77 

165 

107 

85 

75 

227 

31 

6 

39 

98 

568 

43 

306 

25 

410 

18 

42 

79 

95 

39 

71 

49 

165 


1 

3 
1 

1 

4 
1 

1 
2 

1 


1 

2 
3 

2 
5 
? 
1 

1 

5 

1 

2 
5 
1 

2 

1 

25 

1 

9 

7 

1 

2 
1 
6 


4J 
12 

I 


1 
1 

1 

4 
1 
1 
1 

2 

1 

10 
2 

1 

1 

20 

1 
1 

8 

2 


78 




51 




187 




87 




18 


District of Columbia 

Florida 


25 
25 




123 




5e 

2E 
li 

IS 
J 
J 

6C 
11 

I 
2£ 

1 

6 

16 

167 

5 

53 
1 

82 
1 
4 
9 
2 
2 

11 
3 
9 


! 2 
i 1 

1 

1 

1 
2 
1 
3 


499 




264 




280 




112 




105 




90 




66 




96 




2S0 




139 




104 




93 




289 




46 




15 




56 




138 




894 




65 


Ohio 


411 




33 




584 




26 




59 




104 




123 




44 




116 




58 




201 










102 

3 

1 
5 

1 
5 


108 
4 

2 

7 


4330, 

50 

18 
20 
166 
43 


16 

1 

1 
1 


99 

1 

1 
1 


676 

1 

1 

3 

21 

12 


13 

1 


59 

1 

1 
1 


5983 
73 


New Brunswick, D. C 

Nova Scotia, D. C 

Ontario, D. C 

Quebec, D. C 


26 
32 

213 

82 








40 
3 


12 

1 


9 

8 


247 
15 


2 
2 


2 


37 


1 


3 


353 

29 






Totals 


637 


118 


129 


4642 


21 


100 


715 


14 


62 


6438 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



911 



TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE CIRCULATION OF 
THE NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS 

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES AND DOMINION OF CANADA. 





Daily. 


Tri- 
Wkly. 


Semi- 
Wkly. 


Wkly. 


Bi- 

W'kly. 


Semi- 
M'thly 


M'thly 


Bi. 

M'thly 


Quar- 
terly. 


Taal . 




1960 

788 

3387 

2160 

1488 

7275 

450 

2095 

4333 

2490 

1102 

1539 

3348 

3903 

1496 

4920 

10436 

2354 

1126 

881 

4511 

910 

660 

961 

2164 

10714 

694 

6148 

1264 

7789 

4410 

1686 

2483 

628 

963 

1651 

1267 

2044 

733 

2367 

1367 

3046 

3154 

367 

3717 


838 
250 
2500 

876 
3294 
450 
480 
309 
500 
400 
348 

600 
1301 

480 
480 
2997 

1007 
233 
663 

5000 

906 
1150 
704 

772 
350 
1600 
222 
400 
1610 
1100 
1647 
350 
1057 


1067 
1080 
783 

400 

587 
464 
628 
734 

1080 
1000 

1983 

225 

4000 

575 

300 
4950 
1181 
1720 

5000 

-000 

490 
1700 
443 

986 

216 

2050 

645 

700 
1596 

556 
1272 


944 

652 
1308 
1632 
1278 
4260 

635 
1050 
2249 
1129 

9&3 
1024 
1768 

846 
2377 
1831 
4541 
1429 
1124 

719 
1633 

885 

493 
1760 
1146 
6300 

835 
2888 
1257 
2938 
2066 
1054 
1383 

721 
1465 
1001 

801 
1200 

933 
1600 
1165 
1594 
2687 

758 
1598 


700 

4000 
500 

480 

1267 
800 

200 

900 

300 

2000 

2000 
400 

700 
1096- 


1500 

1500 
410 

438 

7756 
587 

720 
1670 

1968 
7900 
1000 

400 

500 
5332 
2500 

2748 

2671 

950 

600 
1383 
1000 
5000 

14500 
2741 


600 
3519 
10425 
2000 
2500 

3273 
6069 
4102 
1862 
10665 


5500 
5000 


2000 
1500 

500 

1504 

3000 

750 

5000 

1168 

1500 

6174 

980 

1490 

3162 

500 

500 

3400 

475 

1500 

3000 
900 

1951 


1070 




650 




1846 




3000 




1247 


District of C®lumbia 


4323 
616 




1270 




2907 




1490 




1013 




1828 




2880! 
2833 
2763] 
2075| 
8852! 4000 


1968 




1220 




2257 




2277 




5709 




3318 
2056 
1179 
3111 
1021 

6880 


1500 
1000 


1654 




1121 




753 




2104 




913 




516 




2194 




2646! 
10899 3S700 


1475 




7411 




650 
4140 
5000 
10175 

900 
5338 
1305 

980 

25600 

1389 

1550 


1400 
2717 


814 


Ohio ' 


3154 




1352 




3704 




2489 




1354 




1747 




701 




2523 




1107 




842 




2009 
960 




1317 




858 


New Brunswick, D. C 

Nova Scotia, D. C 


700 
2283 
3267 
1492 

4081 


7421 


1750 
1334 

1897 


Quebec, D. C 


1409 




640 


Total average 


1842 



9 12 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN GOLD COINS. 



THEIR VALUE, WEIGHTS AND FINENESS AS TESTED AT THE UNITED 

STATES MINT. 

NOTE.— The weight is given in Troy-ounces and decimals of the same ; the fineness shows how nanrpaffi in. 
1000 are fine gold ; the value is the intrinsic relative value, as compared with the amount of fine gold in V. S. coin. 



Countries. 



Denominations. 



Weight. 


Fine- 
ness. 


0.-281 


916.5 


0.2565 


916 


0. 112 


986 


0.363 


900 


o-357 


900 


0.254 


899 


0.867 


870 


o.575 


9*7-5 


0.209 


853.5 


0.027 


875 


0.867 


870. 


0.492 


900 


0.427 


895 


°-433 


844 


0.2567 


916.5 


0.2562 


916 


0.2075 


899 


0.207 


899 


0.427 


895 


0.128 


900 


0-357 


900 


0.256 


90 


0.185 


900 


0-374 


916 


0.207 


898 


0.362 


568 


0.289 


572 


o.535 


900 


0.8675 


866 


0.8675 


870.5 


1.086 


875 


1.090 


875 


1-245 


996 


0.215 


809 


0.868 


870 


0.867 


858 


0.525 


89I-5 


0.867 


868 


1.055 


898 


0.308 


912 


0.357 


900 


0.14O 


900 


0.210 


916 


0.268 


896 


0.215 


869.5 


O.III 


875 


0.104 


900 


0.161 


900 


0.231 


9i5 


0.112 


999 


0.05375 


900 


O.I3437 


900 


0.16125 


900 


0.26875 


900 


Q-5375 


gco 


1-075 


900 



Value. 



Australia 
Austria .- 



Belgium 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Central America. 



Chili. 



Denmark 
Ecuador . 
England . 



France... 
Germany 



Greece 

Hindostan 

Italy 

Japan 



Mexico . 



Naples 

Netherlands .. 
New Granada. 



Peru. 



Portugal 
Prussia .. 

Rome 

Russia... 
Spain 



Sweden. 



Tunis 

Turkey 

Tuscany 

United States. 



Pound of 1852 

Sovereign, 1855 and i860 

Ducat 

Sovereign 

New Union Coin 

Twenty-five Francs 

Doubloon 

Twenty Milreis 

Two Escudos 

Four Reals 

Old Doubloon 

Ten Pesos 

Ten Thalers 

Four Escudos 

Pound or Sovereign, new 

" average. 

Twenty Francs, new 

" average 

Ten Thalers 

Ten Mark 

Krone (crown) 

Twenty Mark 

Twenty Drachms 

Mohur 

Twenty Lire 

Old Cobang..., 



Yen, (new, assumed) 

Doubloon, average 

" new 

Twenty Pesos (Max.) 

■' " (Repub.) 

Six Ducacti 

Ten Guilders 

Old Doubloon (Begota) 

" (Popayan). ... 

Ten Pesos 

Old Doubloon 

Twenty Sols 

Gold Crown 

New Crow (assumed) 

Two and a-half Scudi (new). 

Five Rubles 

One hundred Reals 

Eighty Reals 

Ducat 

Carolin, 10 frs 

Twenty-five Paistres 

One hundred " 

Seguin 

Dollar 

arter Eagle 

Three Dollars 

Half Eagle 

Eagle ... 

Double Eagle 



$ 5.324 
4.857 
2.283 

6-754 

6.642 

4.72 

15-593 

10.Q06 

3.688 

0.488 

15-593 

9.154 

7.90 

7-555 

4.863 

4.851 

3-8 5 8 

3-874- 

7.90 

2.38 

6.642 

4.76 

3-442 

7.082 

3-843 

4.44 

3.576 

9.956 

15-53 

15. 611 

19.643 

19.72 

5-044 

3-997 

15. 611 

I5-378 
9.675 

15-557 
19-213 
5.807 
6.642 
2.605 
3-976 
4.964- 
3.864 
2.237 
1-935 
2-995 
4-369 
2.313 
1.00 
2.50 
3.00 
5-oo 
10.00 
20.00 



United States Trade Dollar. Weight, 420 grains ; 900 fine. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



9 J 3 



UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN SILVER COINS. 

THE BASIS OF VALUATION BEING $1.22$$ PER OZ. OF STANDARD FINENESS, 
AS TESTED AT THE UNITED STATES MINT. 

[NOTE.— "Weight in Trey ounces fineness in thousandths.] 



Countries. 



Austria . 



Belgium 
Bolivia . 
Brazil ... 
Canada.. 



Central America 
Chili 



China 



Denmark 
England 

France ... 

Germany 



Greece 

Hindostan . 
Japan 



Mexico 



Naples 

Netherlands .. 

Norway 

New Granada. 
Peru 



Prussia , 



Rome , 

Russia 

Sardinia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland... 

Tunis 

Turkey 

Tuscany 

United States. 



Denomination. 



Weight. 



Old Rix Dollar 

OldScudo 

Florin, before 1858 

New Florin. ..^ 

New Union Dollar 

Maria Theresa Dollar, 1780 

Five Francs 

New Dollar 

Double Milreis 

Twenty Cents 

Twenty-five Cents 

Dollar 

Old Dollar 

New Dollar 

Dollar (English) assumed.. 

Ten Cents 

Two Rigsdaler 

Shilling, new 

average 

Five Francs, average 

Two Francs 

One Mark .,. 

New Thaler 

Florin, before 1857 

New Florin, assumed 

Five Drachms 

Rupee .. 

Itzabu 

New Itzabu . 

Ten Sen (new coinage) 

Dollar, new 

" average- 

Peso of Maximilion 

Scudo _ 

Two and a-half Guilders . . 

Specie Daler 

Dollar of 1857 

Old Dollar 

Dollar of 1858 

Half Dollar, 1835 and 1838. 

Sol 

Thaler, before 1857 

New Thaler 

Scudo -. 

Ruble 

Five Lire 

New Pistareen 

Rix Dollar 

Two Francs .... 

Five Piastres 

Twenty Piastres 

Florin 

Dollar 

Half Dollar 

Quarter Dollar 

Dime - 

Half Dime 

Three Cents 



0.902 

0.836 

0451 

°-397 

0.596 

0.895 

0.803 

0.801 

0.820 

0.150 

0.1875 

0.866 

0.864 

0.801 

0.866 

0.087 

0.927 

0.1825 

0.178 

0.800 

0.320 

o 402 

0.595 

0.340 

0.340 

0.719 

o.374 

0.279 

0.279 

0.804 

0.8675 

0.866 

0.861 

0.844 

0.804 

0.827 

0.803 

0.866 

0.766 

o.433 

0.802 

O.712 

0.595 

0.864 

0.667 

0.800 

0.166 

0.092 

0.323 

0.51 1 

0.770 

0.220 

0.859^ 

0.400 

0.200 

0.080 

0.040 

0.024 



Fine- 
ness. 


Value. 


833 


$1,023 


902 


1.026 


8^ 


-511 


900 


486 


900 


•73i 


838 


1. 02 1 


897 


.98 


900 


.981 


9*8.5 


1.025 


9 2 5 


.189 


9*5 


.236 


850 


1.002 


908 


1.068 


900.5 


.982 


901 


1.062 


901 


.106- 


877 


1.107 


924.5 


•23 


925 


.224. 


900 


.98 


835 


364 


900 


19 


900 


.729. 


900 


.417 


900 


.417- 


900 


881 


916 


466 


991 


•376- 


890 


,338- 


800 


.985 


903 


1.066 


901 


1.062 


902.5 


1.055 


830 


•953 


944 


1.033 


877 


1. 107 


896 


.98 


901 


1.062 


909 


.948 


650 


.383 


900 


.982 


750 


.727 


900 


-729 


900 


1.058 


875 


•794 


900 


.98 


899 


.203 


750 


1.115 


899 


•395 


898.5 


.625 


830 


.87 


925 


.276 


900 




900 




000 




900 




900 




900 





The values of United States Silver Coins are not given owing to their fluctuation. 

58 



914 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



CENSUS OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE WORLD, 
NOT IN THE U. 8. 



Adrianople, Turkey, . . . 90,000 
Alexandria, Egypt, .... 220,000 

Algiers, Africa, 49,000 

Amoy, China, 

Amsterdam, Holland, . . . 265,000 
Antwerp, Belgium, . . . 126,000 

Bahia, Brazil, 152,000 

Bangkok, Siam, .... 500,000 
Barcelona, Spain, .... 180,000 

Batavia, Java, 65,000 

Belfast, Ireland, .... 194,000 
Buenos Ayres, Argentine Re- 
public, 178,000 

Beyrout, Syria, 100,000 

Berlin, Germany, .... 825,000 
Birmingham, England, . . 343,000 

Bombay, India 647,000 

Bologna, 116,000 

Bordeaux, France 194,000 

Bradford, England, .... 145,000 
Bristol, England, .... 182,000 
Breslau, Germany, .... 208,000 

Brussels, Belgium 171,000 

Bucharest, Turkey, .... 142,000 

Cairo, Egypt 354»ooo 

Calcutta, India, 616,000 

Canton, China, .... 1,000,000 
Chang-Chio, China, . . . 800,000 
Cologne, Germany, . . . 139,000 
Constantinople, Turkey, . 1,005,000 
Copenhagen, Denmark, . . 162,000 
Damascus, Syria, .... 120,000 

Delhi, India, 152,000 

Dresden, Germany, . . . 177,000 
Dublin, Ireland, .... 246,000 
Dundee, Scotland, .... 119,000 
Edinburgh, Scotland, . . . 196,000 
Erzeroum, Turkey, .... 100,000 

Fez, Morocco, 100,000 

Florence, Italy, 167,000 

Foo-Choo, China, .... 600,000 

Geneva, Italy, 130,000 

Ghent, Belgium, .... 125,000 
Glasgow, Scotland, . . . 477>ooo 
Greenwich, England, . . . 169,361 
Hamburg, Germany, . . . 240,000 

Havana, tuba, 206,000 

Hull, England 121,000 

Ishpahan, Persia, .... 60,000 

Jeddo, Japan, 790,000 

Konigsberg, Germany, . . 113,000 
Leipsic, Germany, .... 107,000 

Leeds, England, 259/00 

Lille, France, 155,000 

Lima, Peru 121,000 



Liverpool, England, . . . 493,000 
Lisbon, Portugal, .... 224,000 
London, England, . . . 3,500,000 
Lucknow, India, .... 280,000 

Lyons, France, 324,000 

Madras, India, 395,000 

Madrid, Spain, 332,000 

Manchester, England, . . 477,000 

Malaga, Spain, 93,000 

Manila, Philippine Islands, 165,000 
Marsailles, France, . . . 300,000 

Messina, Sicily, 112,000 

Melbourne, Australia, . . 194,000 
Mexico, Mexico, .... 200,000 

Miako, Japan, 300,000 

Milan, Italy, 199,000 

Morocco, Africa 50,000 

Montreal, Canada, .... 107,000 
Moscow, Russia, .... 399,000 
Munich, Germany, . . . 169,000 
, Nankin, China, .... 500,000 
Nantes, France, , .... 112,000 

Naples, Italy, 449,000 

New-Castle-on-Tyne, Eng., . 128,000 

Ningpo, China 400,000 

Odessa, Russia 121,000 

Osaka, Japan, 414,000 

Palermo, Italy, 219,000 

Paris, France, .... 1,825,000 

Pesth, Austria, 202,000 

Pekin, China, .... 1,648,000 
Portsmouth, England, . . 113,569 
Prague, Austria, .... 167,000 

Riga, Russia, 102,000 

Rio Janerio, Brazil, . . . 420,000 
Rotterdam, Holland, . . . 116,000 

Rouen, France, 102,000 

Rome, Italy, 244,000 

Santiago, Chili, 115,000 

Seville, Spain, ..... 118,000 

Shang-Hai, China 277,000 

Sheffield, England, . . . 240,000 

Smyrna, Turkey 150,000 

Soo-Choo, China, . . . 2,000,000 
Stockholm, Sweden, . . . 138,000 
St. Petersburgh, Russia, . . 667,000 
Sidney, Australia, .... 135,000 
Toulouse, France, .... 127,000 
Trieste, Austria, .... 70,000 

Tunis, Africa 125,000 

Turin, Italy, 208,000 

Venice, Italy, 129,000 

Vienna, Austria, .... 607,000 
Warsaw, Poland, .... 252,000 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 




915 



<5 



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FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

IMPORTANT EVENTS. 



Before Christ. 

The Deluge 2348 

Babylon built 2247 

Birth of Abraham 1993 

Death of Joseph _ 1635 

Moses born 1571 

Athens founded 1556 

The Pyramids built 1250 

Solomon's Temple finished 1004 

Rome founded 753 

Jerusalem destroyed 587 

Babylon taken by Jews 538 

Death of Socrates ^. 400 

Rome taken by the Gauls 385 

Paper invented in China 170 

Carthage destroyed 146 

Caesar landed in Britain 55 

Caesar killed 44 

Birth of Christ o 

After Christ. 

Death of Augustus 14 

Pilot, governor of Judea 27 

Jesus Christ crucified 33 

Claudius visited Britain 43 

St. Paul put to death 67 

Death of Josephus 93 

Jerusalem rebuilt. .. 131 

The Romans destroyed 580,000 Jews and 

banished the rest from Judea 135 

The Bible in Gothic. 373' 

Horseshoes made of iron 481 

Latin tongue ceased to be spoken . 580 

Pens made of Quills 635 

Organs used 660 

Glass in England 663 

Bank of Venice established 1157 



. _ After Christ. 

Glass windows first used for lights 1180 

Mariner's Compass used 1200 

Coal dug for fuel . 1234 

Chimneys first put to houses 1236 

Spectacles invented by an Italian 1240 

The first English House of Commons... 1258 

Tallow Candles for lights 1290 

Paper made from linen 1302 

Woolen cloth made in England 1341 

The first almanac 1470 

First book printed in England 1507 

Luther began to preach 1517 

Interest fixed at ten per cent, in Englandi547 

Telescopes invented 1549 

First coach made in England 1564 

Clocks first made in England 1568 

Bank of England incorporated J 594 

Shakspeare died.. 1616 

Circulation ef the blood discovered 1619 

Barometer invented 1623 

Death of Galileo . 1643 

Steam engine invented 1649 

Great fire in London.. 1666 

Cotton planted in the United States 1759 

Commencement of the American War. .. 1775 
Declaration of American Independence. 1776 
Recognition of American Independence. 1782 
Bank of Eng. suspended cash payment..i79i 

Napoleon I. crowned emperor 1804 

Death of Napoleon .1820 

Telegraph invented by Morse 1832 

First daguerreotype in France 1839 

Beginning of the American civil war 1861 

End of the American civil war 1865 

Great fire in Chicago 1871 



DIFFERENCE OF TIME 



BETWEEN WASHINGTON AND OTHER CITIES OF THE WORLD. 



12.00 


'clock (noon) at 

P.M 


Washington. 


12.24 
12.27 
i-37 
3-19 
4-31 
4-43 
4-55 
5-07 
5-17 
5.58 
6.02 


tt »t 


Boston. 

Portland. 

....St. John (N.F) 
Angra( Azores) 


u 11 


Lisbon. 

Dublin. 


11 it 




| t 1, 


Paris. 

Rome. 

Berlin. 



6.14 o'clock P.M Vienna. 

6.22 ' w " Cape Town. 

7.04 " " Constantinople. 

11.01 u " Calcutta. 

12.54 " A.M „.Pekin. 

2.48 " '• Melbourne. 

4.51 " " Auckland. 

8.58 u " San Francisco. 

9.40 " " Salt Lake. 

11.08 '* " New Orleans. 

11. 18 " " ..Chicago. 

11.52 " li Buffalo. 

12.00 " (noon) Lima (Peru.) 



NUMBER OF VOLUMES 

IN THE LARGEST PUBLIC LIBRARIES OF EUROPE. 



Place. 
Royal Library, Paris... 
Royal Central, Munich 

Bodlean, Oxford 

St. Petersburg 

Copenhagen 

Vienna .' 



Vols. 
700,000 
500,000 
420,000 
400,000 
400,000 
350,000 



MSS. 
80,000 
16,000 
30,000 
16,000 
20,000 
16,000 



Place. 
University, Gottingen 

Naples 

Dresden 

Berlin 

British Museum 

Vatican, Rome 



Vols. 


MSS. 


300,000 


5,000 


300,000 


6.000 


300,000 


2.700 


250,000 
208,000 


5,000 
20,000 


100,000 


40,000 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



917 



REMARKABLE DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, Etc. 



/Eolian harp invented, 1653. 

Air Gun invented, 1656. 

Air Pump invented, 1652. 

Algebra invented, 170. 

America discovered by Columbus, 1492. 

Anemometer invented. 1709. 

Animalculse discovered, 1677. 

Artillery invented, 1330. 

Australia discovered, 1601. 

Baloon first used in Paris, 1783. 

Bayonets invented, 1691. 

Bells introduced in Europe, 400. 

Brazil discovered, 1500. 

California discovered, 1535. 

Camera obscura invented, 1550. 

Canada discovered, 1499. 

Cape of Good Hope, disc, by B. Diaz, i486. 

Cape Horn discovered, 1616. 

Carbonic acid discovered by Lavoisier, 1776. 

Cedar brought to Europe, 1664. 

Chess invented, 680 B. c. 

Chloroform discov. by Scheele, 1774. 

Cotton first made at Kendal, 1390. 

Cotton spinning machine invented, 1767. 

Cotton spinning frame invented, 1769. 

Cotton spinning gin invented, 1793. 

Dice invented, 1183 B. c. 

Diving bell first used, 1509. 

Electricity discovered by Dr. Gilbert, 1600. 

Engraving on wood invented, 1400. 

Engraving on copper invented, 1450. 

Engraving on steel invented, 1819. 

F.psom Salts discovered, 1630. 

Flag signals invented, 1665. 

Florida discovered, 1497, 

Forbisher's Straits discovered, 1576, 

Galvanism discovered, 1789. 

Gas evolved from coal, 1739. 

Gravitation disc, by Sir Isaac Newton, 1687. 

Greenland discovered, 1378. 

Grenades invented, 1594. 

Guillotine invented, 1783. 

Gun cotton discovered by Schoebein, 1846. 

Gunpowder invented by Roger Bacon, 1270. 

Helena St., discovered, 1502. 

Heliometer invented, 1743. 

Hudson's Bay discovered, 1610. 

Hydrometer invented, 200 b. c 

Iceland discovered, 871. 

Iodine discovered, 1812. 

Jamaica discovered, 1495. 



Japan discovered, 1542. 

Kaleidoscope invented, 1814. 

Kamtschatka discovered, 1649. 

Life Boat (first) launched, 1790. 

Light, refraction of, discovered, 1621. 

Lightning conductor invented, 1757. 

Lithography invented by Senefelder, 1796. 

Locomotive invented by Watt, 1759. 

Loom (power) invented by Cartwnght, 17851 

Loom, invented by Jacquard, 1801. 

Loom, steam, introduced, 1807. 

Madagascar discovered, 1506. 

Madeira discovered, 1345. 

Mexico discovered, 1578. 

Microscope invented, 1590. 

Newfoundland discovered, 1000. 

Newspaper first published in England, 1663. 

New Zealand discovered, 1642. 

Nile source discovered, Feb., 1863. 

N. W. passage disc, by M'Clure, 1850. 

Paper made by Egyptians, 200 B. c. 

Paper made of cotten, A. D. 1000. 

Paper made of rags, 1300. 

Paper mill first erected at Dartford, 1590- 

Photography invented by Daguerre, 18^ 

Pianoforte invented by Schroder, 1717. 

Printing invented by Guttenburg, 1444. 

Printing press established in America, 1638. 

Railway first built by Stephenson, 1825. 

Sewing Machine invented by Howe, 1846. 

Steam Boat built by Robert Fulton 1803. 

Steam Engine invented by Marquis of Worce- 
ster, 1663. 

Stenography, or short-hand, invented, 1412. 

Stereotyping invented, Edinburgh, 1735. 

Stocking Frame invented, 1589. 

Suez Canal completed by Lessep, 1869. 

Sun spots discovered, 1611. 

Tar (mineral) discovered, 1779. 

Telegraph patented by Professor Wheat- 
stone, 1836. 

Telescope first made by Metius, Alpmaer, 
etc., 1590-1609. 

Thermometer (Fahrenheit) invented, 1726. 

Thimbles invented, 1695. 

Thrashing Machines invented, 1732. 

Twist-frame invented, 1769. 

Vaccination discovered by Dr. Jenner, 1780. 

Watches first made in Germany, 1777. 

World circumnavigated, Magellan, 1520. 

Zincography introduced, 1817. 



OUR PUBLIC LANDS. 

The public lands lying east of the Mississippi amount to about sixty millions of acres- 
Those lying between the Mississippi and the Pacific ocean amount to 998,683,562 acres, dis 
tributed as follows : acres. 

Iowa, Missouri and Arkansas 16,000,000 

Dakota and Wyoming .145,236,284 

Montana 86,904,605 

Kansas 48,148,876 

Nebraska 42,523,627 

Colorado and Idaho 117,800,000 

New Mexico and Utah 124,140,000 

Nevada and Arizona 136,000,000 

Minnesota 36,776,170 

California, Oregon and Washington 201,000,000 

Indiana .... 44,154,000 — 998,683,562 

Adding the 60,000,000 of acres east of the Mississippi and the 400,000,000 of acres in the 
Territory of Alaska, we have in round numbers over 1,400,000,000 acres of land owned by 
the government. 



918 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



THE LONGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD. 




Rivers. 


Locality. 


Rise. 


Discharge. 


Mis. 


Missouri ...'. 


North America 

North America 

Brazil 


Rocky Mountains 




4,5oo 
3,200. 
3,200 
3,000 
3,000 




Gulf of Mexico 




Andes 


Hoang-Ho 


China 


Koulkoun Mountains.. . 

Australian Alps 

Altaian Mountains 

Blue Nile, Abyssinia 

Thibet 

Heights of Irkutsk 

Baseof Mt. Loma 




Australasia 

Siberia 




Obi 




Nile 


Egypt, Nubia 

China 




2,750 
2,50c, 
2,500 
2,300 
1,960 
1,000 
1,700 
1,700 
1,630 


Yang-tse-Kiang .. 




















Volga 




Lake in Volhonsky 

Thibet 




Maykiang 




Chinese Gulf . 


Hindostan.. 


Little Thibet 








Black Sea 




North America 

Thibet 


River Athabosco 










North America... 
North America... 
North America... 
North America... 

North America 

North America 


Rocky Mountains 

San Iaba 




1,090 




Gulf of California 

Chesapeake Bay 

Chesapeake Bay... 

Chesapeake Bay 

Bay of New York 


Susquehanna 


400 
500 
400 
325 


Alleghany Mountains.. 
Gr. Black Bone Mount'n 
Marsh nr. L. Champlain 






i 



HEIGHT OF MONUMENTS, TOWERS, ETC. 



Names. 



Feet. 



Pyramid of Cheops 

Antwerp Cathedral ... 

Strasburg Cathedral 

St. Martin's Church at Landshut . 

Pyramid of Cephrenes 

St. Peter's Church 

St. Paul's Church, London 

Salisbury Cathedral 

Cathedral at Florence 

Cathedral at Cremona 

Church at Fribourg 

Cathedral of Seville 

Cathedral of Milan 

Cathedral of Utrecht 

Pyramid of Sakkarah 

Cathedral of Notre Dame, Munich 

St. Mark's Church 

Assinelli Tower, Bologna 

Trinity Church.. 

Column at Delhi 

Porcelain Tower, Nankin 

Church of Notre Dame 

Bunker Hill Monument 

Leaning Tower of Pisa 

Washington Monument 

Monument Place Vendome 

Trojan Pillar, Rome.... 

Obelisk of Luxor, now in 



Egypt 

Belgium 

France 

Bavaria 

Egypt 

Rome 

England 

England 

Italy 

Lombardy 

Germany 

Spain 

Lombardy 

Holland 

Egypt 

Bavaria 

Venice 

Italy.. 

New York 

Hindostan 

China 

Paris 

Massachusetts 

Italy 

Baltimore 

Paris 

Italy 

Paris 



543 
4/6 
474 
456 
456 
44S 
404 
400 
384 
372 
370 
360 
355 
356 
356 
348 
328 
3i4 
283 
262 
2 4 & 
232 
220 
202 
183 
*53 
151 
no 



ORIGIN OF PLANTS. 



Substance. Where Originated. 

Apples Europe 

Cucumbers East Indies 

Chestnuts Italy 

Citrons Greece 

Celery Germany 

Horse Radish Southern Europe 

Nettles Europe 

Oats North Africa 

Onions Egypt 

Pears Europe 



Substance. Where Originated. 

Pines Americai 

Pears Egypt 

Peaches Persia 

Parsley Sardinia 

Quince Isle of Crete 

Radish China 

Rye Siberia 

Spinach Arabia 

Tobacco Virginia 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 

OCEANS, SEAS, BAYS AND LAKES. 



919 



Oceans. Sg. Miles. 

Pacific, about 80,000,000 

Atlantic, lk 40,000,000 

Indian, " 20,000,000 

Southern, " 10,000,000 

Arctic, " 5,000,000 

Note — The seas, bays } gulfs, etc. , connect- 
ed with each ocean, are included in the fore- 
going estimate. It may be proper to remark, 
however, that the exact superficial extent of 
the several oceans is not known with certainty, 
nor the exact proportion of land and water. 

Seas. Vgth in Miles. 
Mediterranean , about 2,000 



Caribbean, 

China, 

Red, 

Japan, 

Black, 

Caspian, 

Baltic, 

Okhotsk, 

White, 

Aral, 



1,800 

1,700 

1,400 

1,000 

932 

640 

600 

600 

450 

250 



Bays. Ugth in Miles. 

Hudson's, about 1,200 

Baffin's, " 600 

Chesapeake," 250 



Lakes. ISgtk. 

Superior 380 

Baikal 360 

Michigan 330 

Great Slave 300 

Huron -250 

Winnipeg 240 

Erie 270 

Athabasca 200 

Ontario 180 

Maracaybo 150 

Great Bear 150 

Ladoga --125 

Champlain 123 

Nicaragua 120 

Lake of the Woods 70 

Geneva 50 

Constance 45 

Cayuga 36 

George . 36 



Wth. 
120 



HIGHEST MOUNTAINS OF THE WORLD. 



Names. 



Country, 



Feet. Miles 



Kunchainy unga (Himaly as) 

Sorata, the highest in America 

lllimani 

Chimborazo ' 

Hindoo-Koosh . 

Cotopaxi, highest volcano in the world 

Antisana _ - . 

St. Elias, highest in North America 

Popocotepetl. volcano . _ 

Mt. Roa, highest in Oceanica 

Mt. Brown, highest peak in the Rocky Mountains... 

Mont Blanc, highest in Europe, Alps 

Mt. Rosa, next highest peak of Alps 

Limit of perpetual snow.. 

Pinchinca 

Mt. Fairweather 

Mt. St. Helen's 

Demavend, highest of Elburz Mountains, volcano... 

Mt.Hood 

Mt. Ophir 

Fremont's Peak, Rocky Mountains 

Mt. Ararat ^. 

Long's Peak, Rocky Mountains 

Peak of Teneriffe 

Miltsin, highest of Atlas Mountains 

Mt. Perdu, highest of Pyrenees 

Mt . Lebanon 

Mt. iEtno, volcano 

City of Quito 

Ruska Poyana, highest in the Carpathian Mountains 

Monte Corno, highest of Appenines 

Orbelus, highest of Balkan Mountains 

Sneehattan, highest Dovrefield Mountains 

Mount Sinai . 

Pindus, highest in Greece , 

Black Mountain, highest in North Carolina 

Mt. Washington, highest in White Mountains 

Mt. Marcy, highest in New York , 

Mt. Hecla, volcano 



Ben Nevis, highest in Great Britain 

Mansfield, highest of Green Mountains 

Peaks of Otter 

Mt. Vesuvius 

Round Top, highest of Catskill Mountains. 
Peter Botte 



Thibet 

Bolivia 

Bolivia 

Ecuador 

Afghanistan 

Ecuador 

Ecuador 

British Possessions... 

Mexico 

Hawaii 

British America 

Sardinia 

Sardinia 

Equator.. 

Ecuador 

Russian Possessions. 

Oregon 

Persia 

Oregon 

Sumatra 

Nebraska 

Armenia. 

Nebraska 

Canaries 

Morocco 

France 

Syria 

Sicily^ 

Austria 

Ecuador 

Naples 

Turkey 

Norway 

Arabia , 

Greece , 

North Carolina 

New Hampshire 

New York 

Iceland 

Scotland . 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Naples 

New York.. 

Mauritius 



28,178 
25,380 
21,780 
21,144 
20,600 
19,408 
19^50 
18,000 
17,735 
16,000 

1 5, 9°° 
i5,7°6 
15,380 
15,207 
15,200 
14,796 
14,400 
14,000 
14,000 
13,800 

13,57° 

12,700 

12,500 

12,236 

12,000 

10,950 

11,000 

10,050 

9,912 

9,630 

9,523 

9,000 

8,115 
8,000 
7,677 
6,476 
6,234 
5,467 
5,000 

4,379 
4,280 
4,260 
3,932 
3,804 
3,764 



si 

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f l 

3 i 

3 ! 

3* 

3 
3 
3 

u 

2* 
2i 
2 2-5 

zi 
2* 

2* 

2* 

2± 
2i 
2i 

2 2-5 

2^ 
2i 
2 

ii 

ii 
1* 

1 3-5 
1 2-5 
1 2-5 
1 2-5 

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i 

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£20 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



THE LARGEST ROOMS IN THE WORLD. 

Estimating- a person to occupy an area of 19.9 inches square. 



Churches. 

Contain No. Persons. 

St. Peter's, Rome 54jOoo 

Cathedral, Milan 37,000 

St. Paul's, Rome 32,000 

St. Paul's, London ...25,600 

St. Petronio, Bologna 24,400 

Cathedral, Florence 24,300 

Cathedral, Antwerp __ _ 24,000 

St. Sophia's, Constantinople 23,000 

St. John's, Lateran 22,900 

Notre Dame, Paris 21,000 

Cathedral, Pisa 13,000 

St. Stephen's, Vienna 12,400 

St. Dominic's Bologna 12,000 

St. Peter's, Bologna 11,400 

Cathedral, Vienna 11,000 

St. Mark's, Venice 7,500 

Opera Houses and Theaters. 

Barnum's Hippodrome, New York 8,433 

Stadt Theater, New York 3,000 

Academy of Music, Philadelphia..- 2,865 

Carlo Felice, Genoa 2,560 

Academy of Music, Brooklyn 

Opera House, Munich. 2,307 

Alexander, St. Petersburg 2,332 



Contain No. Persons. 

San Carlos, Naples 2,240 

Adelphi Theater, Chicago 2,238 

Imperial, St. Petersburg 2,160 

LaScala, Milan 2,113 

Academy of Paris, Paris , 2,092 

Covent Garden, London 2,684 

Academy of Music, New York 2,526 

Boston Theater, Boston 2,972 

Music Hall, Boston ._ 2,585 

Grand Opera Hall, New Orleans 2,052 

St. Charles Theater, New Orleans 2,178 

Grand Opera House, New York 1,883 

Booth's Theater, New York 1,807 

Opera House, Detroit... i,79° 

McVicker's Theater, Chicago 1,786 

Grand Opera House, Chicago 1,786 

Ford's Opera House, Baltimore 1,720 

National Theater, Washington 1,709 

De Bar's Opera House, St. Louis 1,696 

California Theater, San Francisco 1,651 

Euclid Ave. Opera House, Cleveland . 1,650 

Opera House, Berlin 1,636 

Opera House, Albany 1,404 

Hooley's Theater, Chicago 1,373 

Coulter Opera House, Aurora, 111 1,004 

OperaHouse, Montreal 928 



TIME REQUIRED FOR THE DIGESTION OF FOOD. 



SUBSTANCE. Hrs. Min. 

Rice, Boiled ... 1 

Eggs, whipped, raw 1 30 

Trout, fresh, fried 1 30 

Soup, Barley, boiled 1 30 

Apples, sweet, mellow, raw 1 30 

Venison steak, broiled 1 45 

Sago, boiled 1 45 

Tapioca, boiled .2 

Barley, boiled 1 2 

Milk, boiled . 2 

Liver, beef, fresh, broiled 2 

Eggs, fresh, raw 2 

Apples, sour, mellow, raw 2 

Cabbage, with vinegar, raw 2 

Milk, raw 2 15 

Eggs, fresh, roasted , 2 15 

Turkey, domestic, roasted 2 30 

Goose, wild, roasted 2 30 

Cake, sponge, baked 2 30 

Hash, warmed 2 30 

Beans, pod, boiled 2 30 

Parsnips, boiled 2 30 

Potatoes, Irish, baked -i 2 30 

Cabbage, head, raw 2 30 

Custard, baked 2 45 

Apples, sour, hard, raw 2 50 

Oysters, fresh, raw 2 55 

Eggs, fresh, soft boiled 3 

Beefsteak, broiled 3 

Mutton, fresh broiled 3 

Mutton, fresh boiled 3 

Soup, bean, boiled 3 



SUBSTANCE. Hrs. Min. 

Chicken soup, boiled 3 

Dumpling, apple, boiled 3 

Oysters, fresh, roasted 3 15 

Pork, salted, broiled 3 15 

Porksteak, broiled 3 15 

Mutton, fresh, roasted 3 15 

Bread, corn, baked 3 15 

Carrot, orange, boiled 3 15 

Sausage, fresh, broiled 3 20 

Oysters, fresh, stewed.. 1 - 3 30 

Butter, melted 3 30 

Cheese, old, raw 1 3 30 

Oyster soup, boiled 3 30 

Bread, wheat, fresh, baked 3 30 

Turnips, flat, boiled 3 30 

Potatoes, Irish, boiled 3 30 

Eggs, fresh, hard boiled 3 30 

Eggs, fresh, fried. . 3 30 

Green corn and beans, boiled . 3 45 

Beets, boiled 3 45 

Salmon, salted, boiled 4 

Beef, fried 4 

Veal, fresh broiled 4 

Fowls, domestic, boiled.. 4 

Beef, old, salted, boiled 4 15 

Pork, salted, fried 4 15 

Pork, salted, boiled 4 30 

Veal, fresh, fried 4 30 

Cabbage, boiled 4 30 

Pork, roasted 5 15 

Suet, beef, boiled 5 3° 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



921 



TABLES OF LEGAL WEIGHTS. LAND MEASURES, Etc. 



Legal Weights of Bushel, in Pounds; 

VARYING IN DIFFERENT STATES, THUS : 



Articles. 



Apples, dried 

Barley 

Beans, white 

Buckwheat 

Broom Corn Seed 

Corn, shelled 

Corn, ear 

FlaxSeed 

Grass Seed, Blue 

" Clover 

" Hungarian 

Millet .... 

Red Top.. 

" Timothy . 

Hemp Seed 

Malt, Barley 

Oats 

Onions 

" Top 

Potatoes 

" Sweet 

Rve 

Wheat 



United States Land Measure t 

TOWNSHIP. SECTION. 



6 


5 


4 


3 


■ 


I 


7 


8 


• 


» 


n 


12 


18 


17 


16 


15 


14 


13 


19 


20 


« 


22 


23 


24 


30 


29 


28 


27 


26 


25 


3i 


32 


33 


34 


ss 


3, 



N. W. 


N. E. 


s. w. 


S. E. 



Each section has 
four quarter sec- 
tions, designated 
as above, each 
containing 160 
acres. 



t In Several States. 
The township is six miles square, divided into 36 
square miles or sections, numbered as above, each con- 
taining 640 acres. 

SMALLER LAND DIVISIONS. 

The following table will assist in making an estimatt 
of the amount of land in fields and lots : 

6 10 rods x 16 rods, ... 1 acre, 
f 5 yards x 968 yards - 1 " 

1220 feet x 198 feet ... 1 «« 
25 feet x 125 feet, - - - .0717" 

4356 sq. ft., .lOacre. 10890sq.ft., .25 " 
21780 " .50 " 32670 ' .76 

\ Or any two numbers whose product is 160. 

t Or any two numbers whose product is 4,840. 

% Or any two numbers whose product is 43,560. 



EXPORTS OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 

ARABIA — Coffee, aloes, myrrh, frankincense, gum arabic. 

ASIATIC ISLANDS — Pepper, cloves nutmegs, ginger, camph<"-- coffee, etc. 

BELGIUM — Grain, flax, hops, woolens, linens, laces, various manufactures. 

BRAZIL— Cotton, sugar, coffee, tobacco, -old, diamonds wheat, dye-woods. 
•CANADA; NOVA SCOTIA and NEW BRUNSWICK — Flour, furs, lumber, fish. 
GAPE COLONY — Brandy, wine, ostrich feathers, hides, tallow. 

CENTRAL AMERICA — Logwood, mahogany, indigo, cocoa. _ 
GHILI — Silver, gold, copper, wheat, hemp, hides, sugar, cotton, fruits. 

CHINA— Tea, silks, nankeens, porcelain, articles of ivory and pearl. 

DENMARK — Grain, horses, cattle, beef, pork, butter and cheese. 

EASTERN, WESTERN and SOUTHERN AFRICA — Gold, ivory, ostrich feathers, 

EGYPT — Rice, grain, linseed, fruits, indigo, cotton, sugar ; m 

ECUADOR and NEW GRENADA — Coffee, cotton, indigo, fruits, sugar, cocoa. 

FRANCE — Silks, woolens, linens, cottons, wine, brandy, porcelain, toys. 

GERMANY — Linen, grain, various manufactures of silver, copper, etc. 

GREAT BRITAIN — Wollens, cottons, linens, hardware, porcelain, etc 
-GREENLAND — Whale oil, whale bone, seal skins. m 

HINDOST AN — Cotton, silks, rice, sugar, coffee, opium, indigo. 

HOLLAND — Fine linens, woolens, butter, cheese, various manufactures. 

ITALY — Silks, wines, grain, oil, fruits. 

IRELAND — Linens, beef, butter, tallow, hides, potatoes, barley, etc. 

JAPAN — Silk and cotton goods, Japanware, porcelain. 
"MEXICO — Gold, silver, logwood, cochineal, fruits. 

PERSIA — Carpets, shawls, wine, silk, cotton, rice, rhubarb, guns, swords, etc. 

PERU —Silver, gold, Peruvian bark, mercury, sugar, cotton, fruits. 

RUSSIA — Hemp, iron, linen, grain, timber, furs, tallow, platina. 

SPAIN and PORTUGAL— Silks, wool, wine, oil, fruits, salt, etc. 

SWEDEN and NORWAY — Iron, steel, copper, timber, fish. 

SWITZERLAND — Watches, jewelry, paper, laces, linen, cotton and silk goods, etc. 

TURKEY — Grain, fruits, cotton, oil, wines, carpets, muslin swords. 

UNITED STATES — Eastern States— Lumber, beef, pork fish, cottons, woolens, etc. 
Middle States— Flour, wheat, salt, coal, cottons, woolens, etc. _ 
Southern States— Cotton, rice, tobacco, corn, lumber, pitch, fruits. 
Western States— Corn, wheat, lead, coal, iron, salt, lime, beef, pork. 

VENEZUELA — Sugar, coffee, cocoa, cotton, indigo, fruits. 

WEST INDIES — Sugar, rum, molasses, coffee, spice, cotton, indigo, traits. 



922 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



TABLES OF WOODS, WEIGHTS, MEASURES, ETC. 



METALS. 



GROCERIES. 



WOODS FOR FUEL. 



WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT. 



WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT. 



Substance. Lbs. i 

Platina 1,218 

Pure Gold* 1^203 

Mercury 848 12 

Lead 709 8 

Pure Silvert 625 13 

Steel 487 12 

Tin 455 n 

Cast Iron 450 7 

Copper 547 4 

Brass 543 I2 

Zinc 428 13 



Substance. Lbs. Oz. 

Sugar 100 5 

Beeswax _ 60 5 

Lard 59 3 

Butter 58 14 

Tallow 58 13 

Castile Soap 56 15 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



*The value of a ton of pure 
gold is $602,799.21. $1,000,000 
gold coin weighs 3,685.8 lbs. 
avordupois. 

tThe value of a ton of silver 
is $37,704.84. $1,000,000 silver 
coin weighs 58,929.9 lbs. avor- 
dupois. 



Substance. Lbs. Oz. 

India Rubber -.56 7 

Pressed Hay 25 

Pressed Cotton 25 



WOODS. 



EARTH, STONE, &C. 



Substance. Lbs. Oz. 

Italian Marble 169 4 

Vermont Marble 165 9 

Window Glass 165 2 

Common Stone ---157 8 

Moist Sand 128 2 

Clay 120 10 

Brick 118 12 

Mortar 109 6 

Mud 101 14 

LooseEarth 93 12 

Anthracite Coal 89 12 

Coke 62 8 



Substance. Lbs. Oz. 

Lignum Vitse 83 5 

Ebony, 83 5 

Mahogany 66 7 

White Oak 53 12 

Beech 53 4 

Ash 52 13 

Red Hickory 52 6 

Apple 49 9 

Maple 46 14 

Cherry 44 11 

Shellbark Hickory 43 2 

Pitch Pine 41 4 

Chestnut 38 2 

Birch 35 7 

Cedar .35 1 

White Poplar 33 1 

Spruce... 31 4 

Yellow Pine 28 13 

Butternut 23 8 

Cork 15 



LIQUIDS. 



Difference in Weight 
of Wood. 



Substance. Lbs. 

Honey 90 

Vinegar 67 

Blood 65 

Beer 64 

Milk 64 

Cider 63 

Tar ---63 

Rain Water 62 

Linseed Oil 58 

Brandy 57 

Ice 57 

Alcohol 49 



Oz 



GREEN. 

Substance. Lbs. Oz. 

English Oak 71 10 

Beech 60 

Ash. 58 3 

American Pine 44 12 

DRY. 

English Oak 43 8 

Beech. 53 4 

Ash - 52 6 

American Pine 30 11 



Taking shellbark hickory as 
the highest standard of our 
forest trees, and calling that 
one hundred, other trees wilJ 
compare with it in real value, 
for fuel, as follows : 

Shellbark Hickory 100 

Pignut Hickory 95. 

White Oak 84, 

White Ash 77 

Dogwood ... 75 

Scrub-Oak 73 

White Hazel 72 

Apple Tree 70 

Red Oak 69, 

White Beech 65 

Black Walnut 65 

Black Birch 62 

Yellow Oak 60 

Hard Maple 56 

White Elm.. 58 

Red Cedar 56 

Wild Cherry 55, 

Yellow Pine 54 

Chestnut 52- 

Yellow Poplar 51 

Butternut 43 

White Birch 43 

White Pine 30 



Number of Trees on an 
Acre. 

Various distances apart 
each way. 



At 4 ft. apart 2,720 



10 

12 " 
15 " 
18" 

20 " 

22" 



■i>749 
.1,200 
. 689 

- 430 

- 325 
. 200 

- 135 
. no 

- 70 

- 50 



NUMBER OF SEEDS 
In a Bushel. 



Timothy 41,823,360 

Clover 16.400,960 

Rye 888,390 

Wheat 556,29a 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 923 

TABLE OF HEAT AND GOLD, INTEREST, PAPER, ETC. 



HEAT AND COLD. 



Degrees of Heat above Zero at 
which Substances Melt. 



Substance. 



Deg. 



Wrought Iron 3^80 

Cast Iron 3^479 

Platinum 3,080 

Gold 2,590 

Copper 2,548 

Steel 2,500 

Glass 2,377 

Brass *,9oo 

Silver 1,250 

Antimony - 95 1 

Zinc 74° 

Lead 594 

Tin... 421 

Arsenic --365 

Sulphur 226 

Beeswax 15 1 

Gutta Percha 145 

Tallow 97 

Lard 95 

Pitch 91 

Ice 33 



Degrees of Cold above Zero at 
which Substances Freeze. 



Olive Oil 36 

Water ."32 

Milk 3° 

Sea Water 

Vinegar 28 

Wines 20 

Spirits of Turpentine 14 



Degrees below Zero at which 
the following Freeze: 



Brandy ...7 

Proof Spirit 7 

Mercury ..40 

Cold experienced by Arctic 

Navigators 70 

Greatest Artificial Cold 166 



AGES, OF ANIMALS. 



A nimal. Yrs. 

Whale, estimated 1,090 

Elephant 400 

Swan 300 

Tortoise 100 

Eagle 100 

Raven 100 

Camel 100 

Lion ._ 70 

Porpoise 30 

Horse 20 

Bear 20 

Cow . 20 

Deer 20 

Rhinoceros .... 20 

Swine .. .. 20 

Wolf. 20 

Cat 15 

Fox 15 

Dog ... .. . 10 

Sheep 10 

Rabbit 7 

Squirrel 7 



Rates of Speed at which 
Birds Fly, per Hour. 



Birds. Mis. 

Hawk . 150 

Sparrow 92 

Duck 90 

Falcon 75 

Crow ..... 25 

Fair winds make their flight 
three times greater. 



INTEREST. 



Degrees of Heat above Zero at 
which Substances Boil. 



Ether 98 

Alcohol ... ..... 173 

Water 212 

Petroleum 306 

Linseed Oil 640 

Blood Heat „ 98 

Eggs Hatch 104 



Money Doubles at Com-* 
pound Interest as follows : 

At 3 per cent, in 23 years 

11 4 " *' ....17 " 

" 5 " " ....14 " 

" 6 •» » ....12 " 

li 7 » ** ....10 " 

" 8 ** * 9 " 

" 9 M " .... 8 •' 

ii JO m n ____ ^ it 



PAPER. 
The Sizes in Inches. 



Flat Writing Papers. 

Flat Letter 10 x 16 

Flat Cap 14X 17 

Double Flat Letter 16 x 20 

Flat Foolscap 13x16 

Crown 15 x 19 

Folio Post 17 x 22 

Demy 16x21 

Medium 18x23 

Check Folio 17 x 24 

Bank Folio 19 x 24 

Double Cap ..17x28 

Royal 19 x 24 

Super Royal 20x28 

Imperial 23 x 31 

Of the different sizes there are 
also several different weights 
of each size, as Demy 20, 22, 
24, 26, and 28 lbs. per ream. 

Stationers usually rule, cut 
and fold the sizes required to 
make the various styles of let- 
ter and note papers — a flat 
sheet making one, two or four 
sheets of letter or note paper. 

Ledger Papers. 

Flat Cap 14X 17 

Crown 15 x 19 

Folio 17 x 22 

Demy 16 x 21 

Medium 18 x 23 

Royal 19 x 24 

Super Royal 20x28 

Imperial 23 x 31 

Elephant 23x28 

Book Papers. 

The usual sizes of these, 
from the different American 
and English manufacturers, 
differ but little from the above, 
except to fill special orders. 

Paper Counts. 

24. sheets 1 quire. 

io}£ quires 1 token. 

20 quires 1 ream. 

2 reams 1 bundle. 

5 bundles i bale. 

Units of Anything. 

12 pieces 1 dozen. 

12 dozen 1 gross. 

12 gross. 1 great gross. 

20 units 1 score. 



924 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

TABLES OF MEASURES, WEIGHTS, ETC. 



WEIGHTS. 



Troy. 

24 grains (gr.) 1 pennyweight— dwt. 

20 dwts 1 ounce — oz. 

3.2 grains, one carat, diamond wt. 
By this weight gold, silver, and jewels only 
are weighed. The ounce and pound in this 
are the same as in apothecaries' weight. 

Apothecaries'. 

20 grains -- 1 scruple. 

3 scruples r drachm. 

8 drs .- 1 ounce. 

12 ozs 1 pound. 

Avoirdupois. 

16 drams (drs) 1 ounce — oz. 

16 ounces 1 pound — lb. 

25 pounds 1 quarter — qr.* 

4 quarters 100 weight — cwt. 

20 hundred weight 1 ton. 

♦Formerly 28 lbs. were allowed to the quar- 
ter, but the practice is now nearly out of use, 
excepting in the coal mines in Pennsylvania, 
the Eastern fish markets, and the U. S. Cus- 
tom House. 

Grains are the same in each of the above 
weights. 

5,760 grains, apothecaries' or troy wt 1 lb. 

7,000 grains avoirdupois weight 1 lb. 

Therefore, 144 lbs. avoirdupois equal 175 lbs. 
apothecaries' or troy. 

Liquids. 
at gallon oil weighs 9.32 lbs. avordupois. 
1 gallon distilled water, 10 lbs. 
i gallon sea water, 10.32 lbs. 
1 gallon proof spirits, 9.08 lbs. 

Miscellaneous. 

IRON, LEAD, ETC. 

14 pounds.. i stone. 

2tJ^ stones 1 pig. 

8 pigs 1 fother. 

BEEF, PORK, ETC. 

200 lbs . 1 barrel. 

196 lbs. (flour) 1 barrel. 

aoo lbs. (fish) 1 quintal. 

MEASURES. 



Dry. 

2 pints 1 quart — qt. 

8 quarts 1 peck — pk 

4 pecks , 1 bushel — bu. 

36 bushels 1 chaldro 

1 U. S. standard (Winchester) bushel— 183^ 
inches in diameter, and 8 inches deep — con- 
tains 2150.42 cubic inches. 

Liquid or Wine. 

4 gills 1 pint— pt. 

2 pints.. 1 quart — qt. 

4 quarts 1 gallon— gal. 

31% gallons 1 barrel— bbl. 

2 barrels 1 hogshead— hhd. 

U. S. standard gallon 231 cubic inches. 

Beer gallon 282 " " 

36 beer gallons 1 barrel. 



Time. 

60 seconds 1 minute. 

60 minutes 1 hour. 

24 hours 1 day. 

7 days 1 week. 

4 weeks 1 lunar month. 

28, 29, 30, or 31 diys 1 calendar " 

30 days (in computing interest) 1 month. 

52 weeks and 1 day — 12 cal. months 1 year 

365 days, 5 h., 48 m. and 49 sec. 1 solar year # ' 

Circular. 

60 seconds 1 minute. 

60 minutes 1 degree. 

30 degrees 1 sign. 

90 degrees 1 quadrant. 

4 quadrants — 360 degrees 1 circle. 

A convenient method of finding the differ- 
ence in time between two places, is to notice 
their distance apart in degrees of longitude, 
and allow 4 minutes to each degree, based on 
the following calculation : 

1440 minutes.. 1 day, 

or revolution of the earth. 
1 revolution of the earth is 360 degrees. 
Therefore, 1 degree _*_ 4 minutes. 

Long. 

3 barleycorns 1 inch— in. 

12 inches 1 foot — ft. 

3 feet i yard— yd. 

5% yards 1 rod — rd. 

4° rods 1 furlong — fur. 

8 furlongs 1 mile. 

Cloth. 

2I inches 1 nail. 

4 nails 1 quarter. 

4 quarters 1 yard. 

Miscellaneous. 

3 inches ., ...1 palm. 

4 inches ^ 1 hand. 

6 inches 1 span. 

18 inches 1 cubic. 

21.8 inches 1 Bible cubic. 

2% feet 1 militarypace. 

3 feet 1 common " 

Square. 

144 sq. inches 1 sq. foot. 

9 sq. feet 1 sq. yard. 

3oi sq. yards 1 sq. rod. 

40 sq. rods 1 rood. 

4 roods 1 acre. 

Surveyors'. 

7.92 inches 1 link. 

25 links 1 rod. 

4 rods r chain. 

10 sq. chain — 160 sq. rods 1 acre. 

640 acres 1 sq. mile. 

Cubic. 

1728 cubic inches... 1 cubic foot. 

27 cubic feet . 1 " yard. 

128 cubic feet 1 cord wood. 

40 cubic feet 1 ton (shipping). 

2150.42 cubic inches 1 standard bu. 

268.8 cubic inches 1 standard gal. 

1 cubic foot four-fifths of a bushel. 
To find the number of bushels in a bin of any 
dimensions, find the number of cubic feet by- 
multiplying the 3 dimensions of the bin in feet; 
deduct 1-5 and the result is the number ot bus. 



OITR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 925 

RATES OF INTEREST. 



Showing How to Compute Interest on any Amount of Money at any Rate Per 
Cent. ; Giving Interest on Moneys for Days, Months and Years. 



On the following pages will be found several valuable Interest 
Tables, giving the principal legal rates of interest as adopted by 
the various States in the Union, and the means by which the 
interest, at any rate, on any amount of money, can be almost 
instantly computed. 

By reference to the table, the time or number of days, months, 
and years, will be found at the top of the columns ; and the 
amount of money upon which interest is computed, in the left 
hand column. Thus, if we wish to find the interest on $1,108 for 
one year, three months, and 29 days, at seven per cent., we trace 
from amounts towards the right, and from time, downwards; 
resulting as shown in the example below. 

To find the interest for more than one year, multiply by the 
number of years. For $20, $40, $60, etc., multiply the interest 
on $10 by 2, 4, and so on. The same rule applies for hundreds 
or thousands. The interest at five per cent, is one-half of ten 
per cent. ; hence, divide by 2. The interest at twelve per cent, 
is double six per cent. ; hence, multiply by 2. Other rates will 
be found thus by division and multiplication. 
• 

EXAMPLE. 

Interest on $1000 for 1 year, at 7 per cent ..$ 70 00 

44 4t 100 " 1 " •' 7 " " 7 00 

8 " 1 «• "7 " " 56 

44 * 4 1000 " 3 m'ths ,4 7 4 ' 4t 17 50 

44 100 " 3 4> "7 " ,4 175 

8 " 3 " "7 *• " 14 

44 " 1000 " 29 days, "7 4 ' 4 * 5 64 

44 *' 100 " 29 4 "7 " 4 ' ., 56 

11 4< 8 " 29 " "7 " " 05 

Interest on the amount $103 20 



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OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



929 



PRACTICAL RULES FOR EVERY DAY USE. 



How to find the gain or loss per cent, when 
the cost and selling price are given. 

Rule. — Find the difference between the 
cost and selling price, which will be the gain 
or loss. 

Annex two ciphers to the gain or loss^ and 
divide it by the cost, price; the result will be 
the gain or loss per cent. 

How to change gold into currency. 
Rule. — Multiply the given sum of gold bY 
the price of gold. 

How to change currency into gold. 
Divide the amount in currency by the pric e 
of gold. 

How to find each partner^ 's share of th 
gain or loss in a copartnership business. 

Rule. — Divide the whole gain or loss by the 
entire stock, the quotient will be the gain or 
loss per cent. 

Multiply each partner's stock by this per 
cent., the result will be each one's share of the 
gain or loss. 

How to find gross and net weight and 
price of hogs. 

A short and simple method for finding 
the net weighty or price of hogs \ when the 
gross weight or price is given, and vice versa. 
Note. — It is generally assumed that the gross weight 
of Hogs diminished by 1-5 or 20 per cent, of itself gives 
the net weight, and the net weight incrensed by % or 25 
per cent, of itself, equals the gross weight. 

To find the net weight or gross price. 
Multiply the given number by .8 (tenths). 
To find the gross weight or net price. 
Divide the given number by .8 (tenths). 

How to find the capacity of a granary, 
bin or wagon-bed. 

Rule.— Multiply (by short method) the 
number of cubic feet by 6308, and point off one 
decimal place — the result will be the correct 
answer in bushels and tenths of a bushel. 

For only an approximate answer, multiply 
the cubic feet by 8, and point off one decimal 
place. 

How to find the contents of a corn-crib. 

Rule. — Multiply the number of cubic feet 
by 54, short method, or by 4^ ordinary meth- 
od, and point off one decimal place — the re- 
sult will be the answer in bushels. 

Note.— In estimating corn in the ear, the quality and 
the time it has been cribbed must be taken into consid- 
eration, since corn will shrink considerably during the 
winter and spring. This rule generally holds good for 
corn measured at the time it is cribbed, provided it is 
sound and clean. 

How to find the contents of a cistern or tank 

Rule.— Multiply the square of the mean 

diameter by the depth, (all in feet) and this 

product by 5681 (short method), and point off 

one decimal place— the result will be the con- 

ents in barrels of 31^ gallons. 

59 



How to find the contents of a barrel or cask. 

Rule. — Under the square of the mean di~ 
ameter, write the length (all in inches) in re" 
versed order so that its units will fall unde r 
the tens ; multiply by short method, and 
this product again by 430 ; point off one dec- 
imal place, and the result will be the answer 
in wine gallons. % 

How to measure boards. 

Rule.— -Multiply the length (in feet) by the 
width (in inches) and divide the product by 
12 — the result will be the contents in square 
feet. 

How to measure scantlings foists, planks> 
sills, etc. 

Rule.— Multiply the width, the thickness, 
and the length together (the width and thick- 
ness in inches, and the length in feet), and 
divide the product by 12— the result will be 
s quare feet. 

How to find the number of acres in a 
body of land. 

Rule.— Multiply the length by the width 
(in rods), and divide the product by 160 (carry- 
ing the division to 2 decimal places if there is 
a. remainder) ; the result will be the answer 
in acres and hundredths. 

When the opposite sides of a piece of land 
are of unequal length, add them together and 
take one-half for the mean length or width. 

How to find the number of square yards 
in a floor or Wall. 

Rule.— Multiply the length by the width 
or height (in feet), and divide the product by 
9, the result will be square yards. 

How to find the number of bricks requi- 
red in a building. 

Rule. — Multiply the number of cubic feet 
by 22^. 

The number of cubic feet is found by mul- 
tiplying the length, height and thickness (in 
feet) together. 

Bricks are usually made 8 inches long, 4 
inches wide and 2 inches thick ; hence, it re- 
quires 27 bricks to make a cubic foot without 
mortar, but it is generally assumed that the 
mortar fills 1-6 of the space. 

How to find the number of shingles re- 
quired in a roof. 

Rule. — Multiply the number of square fee' 
in the roof by 8, if the shingles are exposed 
4% inches, or by 7 1-5 if exposed 5 inches. 

To find the number of square feet, multiply 
the length of the roof by twice the length oi 
the rafters. 

To find the length of the rafters, at one- 
fourth pitch, multiply the width of the build- 
ing by .56 (hundredths) ; at one-third pitch, 
by .6 (tenths) ; at two-fifths pitch, by .64 
(hundredths) ; at one-half pitch, by .71 
(hundredths). This gives the length of the 
rafters from the apex to the end of the wall, 
and whatever they are to project must be ta- 
ken into consideration. 

Note.— By %, or % pitch is meant that the apes or 
comb of the roof is to be U or % the width of the build- 
ing higher than the walls or base of the rafters. 



930 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

PRACTICAL RULES-Contmued. 



Farmers and others by adopting tke fol- 
lowing simple and ingenious contrivance, 
may always carry with them the scale to 
construct a correct yard measure. 

Take a foot rule, and commencing at the 
base of the little finger of the left hand, mark 
the quarters of the foot on the outer borders 
of the left arm, pricking in the marks with 
indelible ink. 

To find how many rods in lentgk will 
make an acre, the width being given. 

Rule.— Divide 160 by the width, and the 
quotient will be the answer. 

How to find the number of acres in any 
plot of land, the number of rods being given. 

Rule. — Divide the number of rods by 8, 
multiply the quotient by 5, and remove the 
decimal point two places to the left. 



The diameter being given, to find the 
circumference. 
Rule. — Multiply the diameter by 3 1-7. 

How to find the diameter when the cir- 
cumference is given. 

Rule. — Divide the circumference by 3 1-7 

To find how many .solid feet a round 
stick of timber of the same thickness 
throughout, will contain when squared. 

Rule. — Square half the diameter in inchesi 
multiply by 2, multiply by the length in feet» 
and divide the product by 144. 

General rule for measuring timber, to 
find the solid contents in feet. 

Rule.— Multiply the depth in inches by the 
breadth in inches, and then multiply by the 
length in feet, and divide by 144. 

To find the number of feet of timber in 
rees with the bark on. 

Rule. — Multiply the square of one-fifth of 
the circumfereHce, in inches, by twice the 
length, in feet, and divide by 144. Deduct 
1-10 to 1-15 according to the thickness of the 
bark. 

Howard's new rule for computing interest. 

Rule. — The reciprocal of the rate is the 
time for which the interest on any sum of 
money will be shown by simply removing the 
decimal point two places to the left ; for ten 
times that time, remove the point one place 
to the left ; for 1-10 of the same time, remove 
the point three places to the left. 

Increase or diminish the results to suit the 
time given. 

Note.— The reciprocal of the rate is found by invert- 
ing the rate ; thus 3 percent, per month, inverted, be- 
oomes % of a month, or 10 days. 

When the rate is expressed by one figure, 
always write it thus: 3-1, three ones. 



Rule for converting English into Ameri- 
can currency. 

Multiply the pounds, with the shillings and 
pence stated in decimals, by 400 plus the 
premium in fourths, and divide the product 
by 90. 

GENERAL RULES. 



The circumference of a circle equals the 
diameter multiplied by 3.1416, the ratio of the 
circumference to the diameter. 

The area of a circle equals the square of 
the radius multiplied by 3.1416. 

The area of a circle equals one-quarter of 
the diameter multiplied by the circumference. 

The radius of a circle equals the circum- 
ference multiplied by 0.159155. 

The radius of a circle equals the square roo 
of the area multiplied by 0.56419. 

The diameter of a circle equals the circum- 
ference multiplied by 0.31831. 

The diameter of a circle equals the square 
root of the area multiplied by 1. 12838. 

The side of an inscribed equilateral triangle 
equals the diameter of the circle multiplied 
by 0.86. 

The side of an inscribed square equals the 
diameter of a circle multiplied by 0.7071. 

The side of an inscribed square equals the 
circumference of the circle multiplied by 0.225. 

The circumference of a circle multiplied by 
0.282 equals one side of a square of the same 
area. 

The side of a square equals the diameter o 
a circle of the same area multiplied by 0.8862, 

The area of a triangle equals the base 
multiplied by one-half its altitude. 

The area of an ellipse equals the product 
of both diameters and .7854. 

The solidity of a sphere equals its surface 
multiplied by one-sixth of its diameter. 

The surface equals the product of the diam- 
eter and circumference. 

The surface of a sphere equals the square 
of the diameter multiplied by 3.1416. 

The surface equals the square of the cir- 
cumference multiplied by 0.3183. 

The solidity of a sphere equals the cube of 
the diameter multiplied by 0.5236. 

The diameter of a sphere equals the square 
root of the surface multiplied by 0.56419. 

The square root of the surface of a sphere 
multiplied by i.772454equalsthecircumference. 

The diameter of a sphere equals the cube 
root of its solidity multiplied by 1.2407. 

The eircumference of a sphere equals the 
cube root of its solidity multiplied by 3.8978. 

The side of an inscribed cube equals the 
radius multiplied by 1.1547. 

The solidity of a cone or pyramid equals 
the area of its base multiplied by one-third 
of its altitude. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 

PRACTICAL RULES-Conhnued. 



931 



How to keep accounts. 

Every farmer and mechanic, whether he does much or little business, should keep a record 
of his transactions in a clear and systematic manner. For the benefit of those who have not 
had the opportunity of acquiring a primary knowledge of the principles of book-keeping, we 
here present a simple form of keeping accounts which is easily comprehended, and well adapt- 
ed to record the business transactions of farmers, mechanics and laborers. 



1875. 



JOHN SMITH. 



»r. 



Cr. 



January 10 

11 17 

February 4 

March 



April 
May 

July 



To 7 bushels Wheat . at $1.25 

By Shoeing span of Horses 

To 14 bushels Oats at % .45 

To 5 lbs. Butter at $ .25 

By new Harrow ............. 

By sharpening 2 Plows .. 

By new Double-Tree ....... 

To Cow and Calf 

To half ton of Hay 

By Cash 

By repairing Corn-Planter... 

To one Sow with Pigs 

By Cash, to balance account .... 



75 



$88 05 $88 05 



SO 



1875. 



HENRY JONES. 



»r, 



Cr. 



March 21 



May 
June 
July 

August 



23 



19 
26 
10 
29 
12 
12 
September 1 



By 3 days' Labor ... 

To2Shoats 

To 18 bushels Corn 

By 1 month's Labor... 

To Cash . 

By 8 days' Mowing 

To 50 lbs. Flour 

To 27 lbs. Meat.... 

By 9 days' Harvesting .. 

By 6 days' Labor 

To Cash 

To Cash to balance account. 



.at $1.25 
.at 3.00 
.at .45 



.at $1.50 



.at $ .10 
.at 2.00 
.at 1.50 



75 
2 70 



§t>7 75 



$67 



75 



How to reckon the cost of hay. 

Rule. — Multiply the number of pounds by 
half the price per ton, and remove the deci- 
mal point three places to the left. 

How to measure grain. 

Rule. — Level the grain ; acertain the space 
it occupies in cubic feet ; multiply the number 
of cubic feet by 8, and point off one place to 
the left. 

Note.— Exactness requires the addition to every three 
hundred bushels of one extra bushel. 

The foregoing rule may be used for finding 
the number of gallons, by multiplying the 
number of bushels by 8. _ 

If the corn in the box is in the ear, divide 
the answer by 2, to find the number of bush- 
els of shelled corn, because it requires 2 basli- 
els of ear corn to make 1 of shelled corn. 



Rapid rules for -measuring land without 
instruments* 

In measuring land, the first thing to ascer- 
tain is the contents of any given plot in 
square yards ; then, given, the number of 
yards, find out the number of rods and acres. 

The most ancient and simplest measure of 
distance is a step. Now, an ordinary-sized 
man can train himself to cover one yard at a 
stride, on the average, with sufficient accuracy 
for ordinary purposes. 

To make use of this means of measuring 
distances, it is essential to walk in a straight 
line ; to do this, fix the eye on two objects in 
a line straight ahead, one comparatively near, 
the other remote ; and 5 in walking, keep 
these objects constantly inline. 



932 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

PRACTICAL RULES-Continued. 



U. S. GOVERNMENT LAND MEASURE 

A township — 36 sections, each a mile square. 

A section — 640 acres. 

A quarter section, half a mile square — 
160 acres. 

An eighth section, half a mile long, north and 
south, and a quarter of a mile wide — 80 acres. 

A sixteenth section, a quarter of a mile 
square — 40 acres. 

The sections are all numbered 1 to 36, com- 
mencing at the north-east corner. 

The sections are divided into quarters, 
which are named by the cardinal points. The 
quarters are divided in the same way. The 
description of a forty acre lot would read : 
The south half of the west half of the south- 
west quarter of section 1 in township 24, 
north of range 7 west, or as the case might be ; 
and sometimes will fall short and sometimes 
overrun the number of acres it is supposed to 
contain. 

The nautical mile is 795 4-5 feet longer than 
the common mile. 

The table of greatest tension load for safety, 
a bar, one inch square, is stated as follows : 

Best Swede's Iron 76,400 

Brass 19,600 

Hemp Rope 19,600 

Ivory .' 15,700 

Oak 7,850 

Elm or Ash 6,070 



SURVEYORS' MEASURE. 

7 92-100 inches make 1 link. 

25 links " 1 rod. 

4 rods " 1 chain. 

80 chains lt 1 mile. 

Note. — A chain is 100 links, equal to 4 
rods or 66 feet. 

Shoemakers formerly used a subdivision of 
the inch called a barleycorn ; three of which 
made an inch. 

Horses are measured directly over the fore 
feet, and the standard of measure is four 
inches — called a hand. 

In Biblical and other old measurements, 
the term span is sometimes used, which is a 
length of nine inches. 

The sacred cubit of the Jews was 24.024 
inches in length. 

The common cubit of the Jews was 21.704 
inches in length. 

A pace is equal to a yard or 36 inches. 

A fathom is equal to 6 feet. 

A league is three miles, but its length is 
variable for it is strictly speaking a nautical 
term, and should be three geographical miles, 
equal to 3.45 statute miles, but when used on 
land, three statute miles are said to be a league. 

In cloth measure an aunze is equal to 1% 
yards, or 45 inches. 

An Amsterdam ell is equal to 26.796 in. 

A Trieste ell is equal to 25.284 inches. 

A Brabant ell is equal to 27.116 inches. 



GREAT FIRES OF THE WORLD. 



Cities. 



Rome - city nearly destroyed 

Moscow - 

London 2-3 of the city destroyed 

New York 

New York 

Pittsburg 

Charleston 

Nantucket 

Albany 

St. Louis 

Philadelphia 

San Francisco 

San Francisco 

Stockton, Cal. i 

Nevada, Cal 

Montreal, Canada 

Syracuse 

Chicago 

Chicago 

Chicago 

Chicago 

Chicago 

Wisconsin - 

Great Chicago Fire 

Great Fire in Quebec 

Boston 9, 10, 11, 18 and 20 

Virginia City, Nev nearly destroyed 



Date. 



A. D. 

September, 

September, 

December, 

July, 

April, 

April, 

July, 

August, 

May, 

May, 

fey,' 

March, 

July, 

November, 

September, 

October, 

August, 

November, 

January, 

October, 

October, 



64 
1812 
1606 
1835 
1845 
1845 
1838 
1846 
1848 
1849 
1850 
1851 
1851 
1851 
1851 
1852 
1856 
1857 
1859 
1866 
1866 
1868 
1871 
1871 



$150,000,000- 



November, 
October, 



1872 
1875 



Loss. 



3: 

6. 
206, 



000,000 
000,000 
000,000 
000,000 
800,000 
,000,000 
,000,000 
000,000 
,500,000 
,000,000 
500,000 
,300,000 
,000,000 
,000,000 
500,000 
500,000 
500,000 
500,000 
,000,000 
,000,000 
,000,000 
,500,000 

,000,000 

.000,000 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 933 

THE ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH CABLES. 



There are now five cables connecting Europe and America ; three running from Newfound- 
Sand to Ireland, one from Brest, France, to Duxbury, Mass., by way of St. Pierre, and the 
direct cable from Ireland to Rye Beach, New Hampshire. The cables from Newfoundland 
are about 1,900 miles long, the direct cable 3,060 miles, and the French cable 3,330 miles in 
length. 

DEAD LETTERS. 



The statistics of the Dead Letter service are of quite romantic interest. The number of 
dead letters handled during the year 1875 was about 4,500,000. Of these, 31,750 contained 
money aggregating $61,000; 14,225 letters contained drafts, notes, and bills of exchange of 
the value of $2,997,847 ; 135,027 letters contained samples of merchandise, postage stamps and 
miscellaneous articles ; 3,740,000 contained nothing of value. 

THE RAILROADS OF INDIA. 



In 1875 there were in operation in India, 6,273 miles of railroad. Of these 727 are double 
and 5,546 single ; 5,686 are constructed five feet, 6 inches gauge, and 587 on the metre guage. 
A. further length of 2,158 miles is in course of construction. 

The largest and most expensive railway bridges in the world have been erected in India 
They are chiefly constructed with iron girders on piers and vary 1,000 feet to 9,000 feet in length 
and from $16,000 to $460,000 in cost. 

THE SUEZ CANAL. 

The Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean with the Red Pea, shortening the route to 
India from England and America more than 5,000 miles. It was commenced in 1859 and com- 
pleted in 1869. Length, 100 miles ; average breadth, 329 feet ; depth, 26 feet. Cost in gold, 
$65,000,000. Distances : English Channel to Calcutta, via Cape Good Hope, 13,000, via canal, 
8,000. New York to Calcutta, via Cape Good Hope, 14,560 miles, via canal, 9,500. 

The English government purchased the interest of the Khedive of Egypt in the canal in 
1875, for $20,000,000. 

GOLD AND SILVER COINAGE. 



The report of Dr. Linderman, ©irector of the Mint, shows that the amount of gold and 
silver deposits and purchases for the year ending June 30, 1875, was, gold deposits, $43,152,584.50; 
silver deposits and purchases, $18,304,406.07; total, $61,456,990.57. The total gold coinage 
was, 1,739,062 pieces, of tbe value of $33,553,965 ; total silver coinage was, 22,823,216 pieces, 
of the value of $10,070,368 ; coinage of minor pieces was, 14,629,500, value $230,375. The to- 
tal coinage was, 34,191,778 pieces, of the value of $43,854,708. 

CHILDREN IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 



There are enrolled in the public schools of the United States, 8,000,000 children. In the 
last fiscal year, 1875, the average daily cttendance was, 4,500,000. Thirty-seven States and 
eleven Territories report an increase in the public school income of $1,232,000, and in attend- 
ance of children, 164,000. The total sum raised during the year by taxation was, $82,000,000 
and the cost of public education was about, $74,000,000. ' 

CONVERSATION OF MEN OF GENIUS. 



Tasso's conversation was neither gay nor brilliant. Dante was either taciturn or satiri- 
cal. Butler was either sullen or biting. Gray seldom talked or smiled. Hogarth and 
Swift were very absent-minded in company. Milton was very unsociable, and even irritable, 
when pressed into conversation. Kirwan, though copious and eloquent in public addresses, 
was meagre and dull in colloquial discourse. Virgil was heavy in conversation. La Fon- 
taine appeared -heavy, coarse and stupid — he could not speak and describe what he had just 
seen ; but then he was the model of poetry. Chaucer's silence was more agreeable than his 
conversation. Dryden's conversation was slow and dull ; his humor saturnine and reserved. 
Corneille, in conversation, was so insipid that he never failed in wearying ; he did not even 
speak correctly that language of which he was such a master. Ben Jonson used to sit silent 
in company, and suck his wine and their humors. Southey was stiff, sedate and wrapped 
up in asceticism. Addison was good company with his intimate friends, but in mixed company 
he preserved his dignity by a stiff and reserved silence. Fox, in conversation, never flaggedy 
his animation and variety were inexhaustible. Dr. Bentley was loquacious, as was also 
Grotius. Goldsmith "wrote like an angel, and talked like poor Poll." Burke was enter- 
taining, enthusiastic, and interesting in conversation, Curran was a convivial deity. Leigh 
Hunt was " like a pleasant stream" in conversation. Carlyle doubts, objects and constantly 
demurs. In our own country Margaret Fuller was a fluent, inspiring talker, discoursing 
always to a group of admiring friends. Emerson has the charm of a good listener, and is 
quite as willing to be talked to as to talk. Dr. Holmes is quick, vivacious and sparkling. 
Lowell is famous for the rarest wit and good fellowship not often found even among poets. 
Whittier talks in his own quiet, gentle way, and is rather a companion for quiet hours, than 
the dinner table or the drawing-room. And we may add. in conclusion, great talkers are 
very seldom good conversationalists. 



934 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

WONDERFUL GOLD AND SILVER MINES. 



The Consolidated Virginia Mine of Nevada yields between $1,700,000 and $1,800,000 in 
gold and silver per, month, of which is distributed to the stockholders a monthly dividend! 
of $1,080,000. There would be no difficulty in increasing the product to $2,000,000 monthly, 
but it is deemed prudent to work the mine to the capacity of ten dollars per 
share monthly, in order that this magnificent return to the share holders may continue for 
years to come. The people of Nevada have become so accustomed to immense yields in the 
mines of the Comstock — the dividend in the aggregate almost equaling the entire market 
value of the mine from which they are disbursed in one or two years — that even the gigantic 
achievements of the Consolidated Virginia excite in them but little wonder. Nevertheless, 
the monthly yield of the mine is the most wonderful of all the world's history of gold and 
silver mining. When it is considered that a single mine is producing bullion at the rate of 
about $20,000,000 yearly, and dividing among its stockholders nearly $13,000,000 per annum, 
the wealth and magnitude of the deposit may be better realized. When it is remembered that 
a single mine is turning out gold and silver at the rate of $60,000 daily, the mind becomes 
almost bewildered in contemplating the possible product of the Comstock, when a dozen other 
mines shall be added to the list of dividend-paying companies. 

HISTORY OF LETTER-PRESS PRINTING. 



John Guttenberg invented letter-press printing about 1455. William Caxton carried the 
new art to England in 1474, and printed "The Game of Chess," the first book in London. 
The introduction of printing at other important points was as follows: Paris, 1470 ; Florence, 
1471 ; Antwerp, 1476 ; Geneva, 1478 ; Vienna, 1482 ; Stockholm, 1483 ; Copenhagen, 1493 
Cracow, Munich and Amsterdam, 1500; Edinburg, 1507 ; Dublin, 1551 ; and Mexico, 1669. 
Seventy years later, in 1739, the first printing press in the American colonies was set up at 
Cambridge, Massachusetts. It was procured by subscription from Amsterdam, and was given 
to the college, with a fount of type of forty-nine pounds ; so that it may be assumed to be the 
beginning of the present "University Press." William Penn brought William Bradford, 
printer, to Pennsylvania in 1686, and established a press in Philadelphia. In 1692, Mr. Bradford 
was invited to establish a printing press in New York, with the inducement of forty pounds a 
year and privilege of printing on his own account, which he accepted, and the first printed 
issue in that province is a proclamation, bearing date of that year. The first printing west of 
the Mississippi was done in 1808, by Jacob Hindle. Michigan had a press in 1809, and 
Mississippi in 1810. 

THE WHISKY TRAFFIC. 



The whisky traffic amounts to $1,583,491,815 annually. This is twice as much as the 
flour, and the meal, and the cotton goods, and the woolen goods, and the boots, and the shoes, 
and the clothing, and the newspapers of the country cost. Or, to put it in another form, we 
could, by dispensing with whisky, board and clothe very decently another nation as big as 
ours, and have just as much for ourselves as we now do, and have none of the evil effects of 
whisky to combat. Men might see the magnitude of this whisky leak better if they were to 
remember that one-half of the tax they pay is on account of the whisky traffic. If, therefore, 
as you walk up to the clerk's desk and count out $200 to pay a year's tax, could you do away 
with whisky, the clerk would count out $100 and hand it back to you. If the money that is 
expended on account of whisky were appled to the payment ef our immense National Debt, 
it would be entirely liquidated in less than three years. 

WHISKY'S WORK IN NEW YORK. 



Eight thousand places are licensed for the sale of liquors in this city. Most of them 
dispense the vilest poisons. Many are music-halls, worse than the old Broadway concert- 
saloons, and frequented by the same class of scapegraces who were ruined in those dens. To> 
some are attached small gambling-rooms, where scores of habitual criminals and vagrants 
gather nightly to prey upon one another, and concoct all manner of deviltries. At night the 
windows of these places have the fascination of basilisks' eyes to thousands upon thousands 
of the restless, thirsty, discontented poor. Some have money to buy a pint or a glass of the 
stuff in bottles labelled before him, but can illy afford it. Others have not enough to pay for 
a night's lodging. Upon this multitude descends the terrible temptation to steal that they 
may drink — that they may buy an hour or two of blind forgetfulness. Every day's arrests 
show part of the direct result of this temptation. If Mayhew's estimate be correct, that in- 
toxicating liquors are an agent in three-fourths of thecrimes committed in large cities, then 
the effects of bad liquor and of longing forbad liquor in New York city, are, according to the 



more or loss addicted to drink 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 935 

MODES OF SALUTATION. 



In the United States, one friend meeting another asks, " How do you do" ana then 
passes on instanter to some other topic, being careful not to pause a moment for an answer to 
his inquiry as to his friend's health. A pump-handle shake of the hand generally precedes 
the inquiry. 

In England, the usual mode of greeting is a hearty shake of the hand, with a "Good 
morning, sir ; how do you do ?" 

The usual salutation at Cairo is, "How do you sweat ?" a dry, hot skin being a sure indi- 
cation of a destructive ephermal fever. 

Greenlanders have none, and laugh at the idea of one person being superior to another. 

Islanders, near the Philippines, take a person's hand or foot and rub it over their faces. 

Laplanders apply their noses against the person they salute very strongly. 

In the Sraits of the Sound they raise the left foot of the person addressed, pass it gently 
overthe right leg, and thence to the face. 

The inhabitants of the Philippines bend very low, placing their hands on their cheeks, 
and raise one foot in the air, with the knee bent. 

The Dutch, who are considered polite, have a morning salutation, common among all 
classes, " Smaakelykeeten," " May you eat a hearty dinner. Another is, "Hoe waartuwe ?" 
"How do you sail?" adopted, no doubt, in the earlier periods of the Republic, when they 
were all navigators and fisherman. 

Some author has observed, in contrasting the haughty Spaniard with the frivolous French- 
man, that the proud, steady gait and inflexible solemnity of the former were expressed in his 
mode of salutation, "Comic esta ?" "How do you stand?" While the "Comment vous 
portez-vous?" " How do you carry yourself ?" was equally expressive of the gay motion and 
incessant action of the latter. 

In some parts of Africa a young woman, an intended bride, brings a little water in a cal- 
abash, and, kneeling down before her lover, desires him to wash his hands. When he has done 
this the girl, with a tear of joy sparkling in her eye, drinks the water. This is considered the 
greatest proof she can give him of her fidelity and attachment. 

The Japanese take off a slipper, and the people of Arraeun their sandals, in the street, 
and their stockings in the house, when they salute. 

The Negro kings on the coast of Africa salute each other by snapping the middle finger 
three times. 

The inhabitants of Carmine, when they show particular attachment, open a rein, and 
present their blood to the friend, as a beverage. 

In Otaheite they rub their noses together 

THE PENSION BUREAU. 
Thirty Millions of Dollars Paid Annually to 234,821 Pensioners. 



Commissioner of Pensions, in his annual report for 1875, sa Y s tnat tne number of pension- 
ers added to the rolls during the last fiscal year was 11,557, and the number dropped, by reason 
of death, reenlistment, remarriage, expiration of minors' pensions, or the discovery of fraud, 
was 12,977, making a net decrease of 1,420. The number of pensions increased was 15,561. 
The total number of pensioners borne on the rolls on June 30, 1875, was 234,821. 

Thirteen widows of Revolutionary soldiers who were married prior to the year 1,800, and 
366 married subsequent to that date, are still borne on the rolls. In 1871 the average rate of 

eision paid to the army invalid pensioners annually was $89.18; in 1872, $90.26: in 1873, 
.46 ; in 1874, $98.14 ; and in 1875, $103.91, or $8.65 per month. The rates vary from $1 to 
i per month. 
The total disbursements of the Pension Bureau during the last fiscal year were $29,683,116.63 
leaving a balance from the appropriations of $371,883.31, which has been covered into the 
Treasuary. The appropriations for the current fiscal year were : for army pensions, $29,500,000, 
and for navy pensions, $500,000. The Commissioner is of opinion that unless there is some 
further liberalizing legislation by Congress, an appropriation of $29,000,000 will be sufficient 
for the payment of pensions for the next fiscal year. 

BIBLE CURIOSITIES. 



The Bible contains 3,586,489 letters, 773,692 words, 31,173 verses, 1,189 chapters, and 66 
books. The word " and " occurs 46,277 times. The word " Lord " occurs 1,855 times. The 
word " Reverend " occurs but once, which is in the 9th verse of the 111th Psalm. The middle 
verse is the 8th verse of the n8th Psalm. The 21st verse of the 7th chapter of Ezra contains 
all the letters in the alphabet except the letter J. The finest chapter to read is the 26th chap- 
ter of _ the Acts of the Apostles. The 19th chapter of II. Kings and the 37th chapter of Isaiah 
are alike. The longest verse is the 9th verse of the 8th chapter of Esther. The shortest verse 
is the 35th verse of the nth chapter of St. John. The 8th, 15th, 21st and 31st verses of the 
107th Psalm are alike. Each verse of the 136th Psalm end alike. There are no words or 
names of more than six syllables. 



93^ 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 
THE WOMEN OF EUROPE AND AMERICA. 



The French women, in face and physique, are deficient as models of female form and 
beauty. The average height is about two inches below that of our women. They have 
short arms and legs, with rather long bodies, not remarkable for symmetry ; are generally 
brunettes, with high cheeks, low foreheads, heads thick at the base of the brain, heavy lower 
jaws, large mouths, black hair and burning black eyes. The French woman considers her life 
one of chance or fate, aud her bearing impresses you with an idea that she is peculiarly a 
child of romance and destiny. 

In all that pertains to the most profound depths of woman's art, she has no equal. In el- 
egant simplicity of apparel she is without a rival. In action and gesture she is graceful and 
eloquent. An artist born, she does everything she undertakes with more grace and skill than 
any other woman in the world. She wears her love and changes it as easily and with as 
charming elegance as she does her silks and laces. Her knowledge of men and her tact in 
fooling them " to the top of their bent," are remarkable, and only a man of ice and iron can 
keep her out of his pocket. 

Of all the nationalities that meet in the gay capital, her favorite is the Russian, because 
she regards him as the most easily duped and the most lavish of his money. The American 
stands next in her favor, and the Englishman third. The women are certainly superior to the 
men of France, and seem to admire all foreigners, except Germans, more than they do French- 
men. They shrug their shoulders when asked theiropinion of the German and intimate that 
he is a hard master. 

In the dance they are wonderfully graceful, and as active as cats, though they do not al- 
ways light on their feet when they fall. They are perfect mistresses of light, frothy, gossip- 
ing conversation, being always gay, playful, vivacious, and very often brilliant and witty, 
They are not distinguished for domestic virtues. The French home, especially in cities, is 
seldom cheered with the light of children's joy and love. 

As to the peasant women of Germany, it is hard to contemplate them as a class, and be- 
lieve they are descendants from a mother who once shared the delightful fruits and beautiful 
flowers of Paradise with man. All trace and memory of such a lot seems to have been lost in 
a bitter inheritance of unwomanly toil. Time out of mind, Germany has been the battle 
ground of Europe in time of war, and a vast camp even in time of peace. Her army is now 
on a peace footing, yet 1,500,000 of her young men are soldiers constantly employed in drilling 
and fighting sham battles. 

The land is poor, and yields the necessaries of life with reluctance. To arm, support, and 
clothe a vast army, maintain an idle aristocracy in luxury, and feed a dense population, the 
women are forced to work in the fields like dumb animals. The best products of their toil go 
to maintain the army and the aristocracy. Compelled to do the work of men, and live on 
coarse, scanty food, they become coarse and clownish, and dejected in appearance — objects of 
pity rather than admiration. Their condition is a shocking example of the inhumanity and 
cruelty of unrestrained power in arbitrary governments. 

Elegance of attire, grace in motion, social culture and tact, love, romance, and poetry, 
are as foreign to the life of many a German woman, as if she was a beast of burden. 

In rugged, homely virtues they command our profoundest veneration. As wives, they are 
faithful, patient, obedient. As mothers, they are kind and devoted to their children, and more 
assiduous than any other mothers in training their offspring in the practical labors and duties 
Of life. 

German children do credit to the natural beauty of the race, and it is saddening to look upon 
a bevy of pretty German maidens, and think how soon their gayety and their robust charms 
must be blighted by drudgery. But the sons of these hard-worked Germen mothers develop 
into the finest and most stalwart specimens of physical manhood you will see anywhere in 
Europe. That the German women are* not eminent for good looks and social attractions is 
because they are crushed and almost unsexed by the cold and iron hand of oppression, which 
in all governments falls heaviest on the weakest and those who are least qualified by nature to 
bear it. 

The women of England are the life and light of those happy homes which are the great 
social feature of English life. The English women are loyal and obedient, and never doubt 
for a moment that the Englishman is, and of right ought to be, the veritable lord of creation. 
They like their own countrymen better than they do the men of any other race or country. To 
them they look for chivalry, support, and protection. And an Englishman's home with his 
wife and children, is his castle, which he will protect and defend with the last drop of his 
blood. 

Consequently the English woman's life is in her home and children, and she generally 
thinks that the more she has of them the greater blessing she is toher lord and to the na- 
tion. He is proud to be the father of a numerous progeny, and points to his sturdy, well- 
bred youngsters as the best indication of his manhood and patriotism. Statesmen, historians, 
philosophers, novelists, and poets have loved to indicate the.English home, adorned with wo- 
men and children, as the chief source of the power and glory of the British Empire. One 
of her poets says : 

" Without your hopes, without your fears, 
Without the home that plighted love endears, 
Without th° smile from partial beauty won, 
O, what were man ? a world without a sun. 



GUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 937 

The English woman's features are apt to be interesting as indications of strength of char- 
acter rather than as models of harmony and beauty. She has a high forehead, with the vol- 
ume of the brain above the base, which is not very heavy, limbs rather long and big- 
boned, a substantial body, and almost perfect bust. In action and gesture she is not remarka- 
ble for elegance and grace. In conversation she is earnest and sympathetic, but there, as in 
dress, she has infinitely less of womanly art, and tact than the French woman. 

In her relations with Government she has such faith in the men and the wisdom of Par- 
liament, that she yields a cheerful obedience to the laws of primogeniture, and appears to 
glory in the thought that her legal existance is merged in that of her husband. 

The girl who is reared under the kindly influence of an average British home has developed 
to a high degree the best and most lovely traits and qualities of woman's nature. She is 
modest and timid to a fault with strangers, but when by manly courtesy you have gained her 
confidence, she is as natural and kind as a child. Generally she has a soft and rather plain- 
tive voice, with soft blue eyes, and when the light of her pure life beams upon you, she in- 
spires you, if not with " the grand passion," at least with sentiments of the sweetest and 
purest friendship that can animate the heart of man. It is from this domestic life of the 
English woman that novelists have drawn their most beautiful characters, and poets their 
most inspiring themes. 

The people of the United States are now so heterogenous and inhabit so vast a country that it 
is difficult to find any prevailing type of American women for a comparison with those of other 
lands. In the descendants ot the old colonial stock, the national type of the American woman 
was as distinctly marked as that of the wives and daughters of the English squire, especially 
in the agricultural States of the West and South. The New Englanders were always so com- 
mercial and migratory that with them home and family traditions were less appreciated than 
in the agricultural states. It is in the domestic relations of hospitable, rural homes that woman's 
influence is chiefly felt and best developed. 

In our early history as a people, the American home was the abode of honor and manly 
courage in the men, and virtue and womanly dignity were the invariable traits of the wo- 
men. Old men sigh now and say that the State is corrupt because the family has been cor- 
rupted ; that life in hotels and city boarding houses has to a great extent destroyed the influ- 
ence of the family altar. But the traveler abroad soon finds thatin spite of the degeneracy 
of our social life the women of America are still the most virtuous in the world. 

He will also find that from the agricultural and planting regions have sprung a numerous 
type of women superior to any that ever existed in any other age or country in the world. 
From a mixture of the noblest Caucasian races they have derived a symmetry of form, a grace 
of action, and a beauty of feature which are now the wonder and the envy of Europe. 

An earlier and higher social culture renders the American girl in good circumstances the 
brightest and happiest human being on the face of the earth. From the nature of our political insti- 
tutions and social customs, self-reliance, individualism and social tact are developed, to excess, 
perhaps, in our daughters. An American girl of 12 years knows more of social life than an 
English girl of 20— is better versed in the ways of the world, the art of entertaining, and all 
that can assist her in achieving social triumphs. 

The great trouble is, that the American women are becoming too much women of the 
world ; that social triumphs are turning their heads ; that home life is too much neglected, to 
the great danger of domestic virtue, and the great detriment of that* corner-stone of free gov- 
ernment, a happy, well-ordered family circle. 

RULES OF CONDUCT. 

We cannot do better than quote the valuable injunctions of that excellent woman, Mrs* 
Fry, who {combined in her character and conduct all that is truly excellent in woman : 1. I 
never lose any time, — I do not think that time lost which is spent in amusement or recreation 
some part of each day; but always be in the habit of being employed. 2. Never err the 
least in truth. 3. Never say an ill thing of a person when thou canst say a good thing of him ; 
not only speak charitably, hut feel so. 4. Never be irritable or unkind to anybody. 5. Never 
'indulge thyself in luxuries that are not necessary. 6, Do all things with consideration, and 
when thy path to act right is most difficult, feel confidence in that Power which alone is able to 
assist thee, and exert thy own powers as far as they go. 

SURVEYORS' SQUARE MEASURE. 

625 square links make 1 square pole. 

16 square poles " 1 square chain. 

10 square chains " 1 acre. 

640 acres ll 1 square mile. 

Note.— In most of the Western States where all land was laid out by the Government, 
all titles except in city lots are passed by description as under the Government survey, and 
there a square of six miles or 36 square miles make one township. 

IN CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE. 

1,728 cubic inches make 1 cubic foot. 

27 cubic feet " 1 cubic yard. 

In measuring wood, 128 cubic feet make one cord. A cord foot is one foot in length of a 
•pile of wood cut four feet in length and piled four feet high, being 16 cubic feet ; 8 cord feet 
make 1 cord. 



93« 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



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OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



939 



THE GREAT BATTLES AND SIEGES OF THE WORLD. 



Battles. 



Actium 

Adrianople 

Agincourt 

Alexandria 

Alma 

Antietam 

Arbela * 

Ascalon 

Austerlitz „.. 

Balaclava . 

Baltimore 

Bannockburn .. 

Bayonne 

Blenheim * 

Borodino 

Bosworth Field 

Boyne 

Breslau 

Bridgwater 

Bull's Run 

Bunker Hill.... 

Cannae 

Carthage. 

Cawnpore 

Chalons * 

Charleston 

Chillanwallah .. 

Corrunna 

Crecy 

Culloden 

Dresden 

Edgehill 

Flodden Field.. 
Fort Sumpter .. 

Germantown 

Gettysburg 

Gravelotte 

Hampton Roads 

Hastings * 

Inkerman 

Issus 

Jena. 

Lake Champlain 

Lake Erie 

Leipzig 

Lexington 

Lodi 

Lucknow 

Lutzen 

" 2nd 

Magenta . 

Marathon * 

Marengo 

Marston Moor.. 

Metaurus * 

Monterey 

Montmorency .. 

Naseby 

Navarino 

New Orleans . . . 

Oporto 

Orleans * 

Otterburn 

Pharsalia 

Philippi 

Plassy 

Poictiers 

Prague 

Pultowa * 



Sep. 

Jul 

Oc 

Ma 

Sep, 

Sep. 

Aug. 
Dec. 
Oct. 
Sep. 



J 

M 

Aug 

Sep. 

Aug. 

July 

Nov. 



Date. 



:t. 25, 

ar. 2X, 
20, 

s.c. 



ne 24, 

!ar. 19, 

3* 

7* 



22 



uly 

22 
fuly 25 
'une 21, 

une 17, 

B.C. 
B.C. 

Dec. 6, 

A.D. 

May 12, 
Jan. 13, 
Jan. 16, 
Aug. 26, 
April 16, 
Aug. 27, 
Oct. 23, 
Sep. 9, 
April 12, 
Oct. 4, 
July 1-3, 
Aug. 16, 
Mar. 9, 
Oct. 14, 
Nov. " 5, 
Oct. 2, 
Oct. 14, 
Sep. 11, 
Sep. 10, 
Oct. 16, 
April 19, 
May 10, 
Mar. 25, 
Nov. 6, 
May 2, 
June 4, 
Sep. 28 b. 
June 14, 
July 2, 
c. 

Sep 24, 
Au?. 10, 
June 14, 
Oct. 20, 
Jan. 8. 
May 11. 
May 8, 
Oct. 10, 

;.c. 

;.c. 
June 23, 
Sep. 19, 
May 6, 
July 8, 



c.31 
323 
1415 
1 801 
1854 
1862 
33i 
1099 
1805 
1854 
1814 
13 

1794 
1704 
1812 
1485 
1690 

1757 
1814 
1861 

1775 
216 
146 

1847 
451 

1780 



1346 
1746 
1813 
1642 

1513 

1861 
1777 
1863 
1870 
1862 
1066 
1854 
333 
1806 
1814 
1813 
1813 
1775 
1796 
1858 
1632 
1813 
1859 
c.490 
1800 
1644 
207 
1846 
i"59 
1654 
1827 
1815 
1809 
1429 
1388 
48 
42 
1757 
1356 
1757 
1709 



Victors. 



Augustus. 

Constantine. 

English. 

English. 

Allies. 

Federals. 

Greeks. 

Christians. 

French. 

Eng., Turks. 

English. 

Scotch. 

French. 

Marlboro'. 

French. 

Henry VII. 

William III. 

Austrians. 

Americans. 

Beauregard. 

English. 

Hannibal. 

Scipio. 

English. 

Aetius. 

English. 

Sir J. Moore. 
English. 

French. 

Parliament. 

English. 

Beauregard. 

English. 

Federals. 

Prussians. 

"■Monitor." 

Wm. the Con. 

Eng., French. 

Alex. Great. 

French. 

Americans. 

Allies. 

Americans. 

Napoleon. 

English. 

Swedes. 

Napoleon. 

French. 

Greeks. 

Napoleon. 

Cromwell. 

C. Nero. 

Americans. 

French. 

Parliament. 

Eng.,F.,R's. 

Americans. 

English. 

Joan of Arc. 

Scots. 

J. Caesar. 

Antonius. 

English. 

Prussians. 
Russians. 



Battles. 




Saratoga 1 

Savannah 

Sedan * 

Seringapatam .. 

Silistria 

Sinope 

Skalitz 

Smolensko 

Solferino 

Span. Armada * 

Syracuse* 

Talavera 

Tchernaya 

Thermoplyae ... 

Toplitz 

Toulouse 

Tours * 

Trafalgar 

Ulm 

Valmy* 

Vera Cruz 

Vionvills 

Vittoria 

Wagram 

Warsaw .... 

Washington 

Waterloo* 

Wilna 

Woerth 

Worcester 

Yorktown ... 

Zama 

Zela 

Zurich 

Zutphen 

Sieges. 

Acre 

Badajoz 

Constantinople . 

Delhi 

Gibralter 

Jerusalem 

Kars 

Londonderry or 
Derry 

Metz 

Naples 

Ostend 

Paris 

Rome 

Saragossa . 

Sebastopol 

Toulon 

Vicksburg. 

Vienna 

Warsaw ... 



Date. 



Tune 16 

Sep. 13 

Dec 31 

May 23 

A.D. 

July 3 
July 22 
.c 

Aug. 14 
Feb. 20 
Oct. 17 
Dec. 29 
Sep. 2 
Feb. 6 
June 15 
Nov. 30 
July 27 
Aug. 1 
June 24 
July, 

B.C 

July27-i 
Aug. 16 

B.C 

Aug. 2 
April 10 
Oct. 10 
Oct. 21 
Oct. 20 
Sep. 20 
Mar. 29 
Aug. 18 
'June 21 
uly 5-6 
lov. 4 
Aug. 25 
June 18, 
June 18 
Aug. 6 
Sept. 3 
Oct. 19 

B.C 
B.C 

June 5 

Sep. 22 



1815 

1759 
1775 
1706 
9 
1866 
1812 



1777 
1788 
1870 
1792 
185 
1853 
1866 
8, 1812 
1859 
1588 

413 
,1809 
1855 

480 
1762 
1814 

732 
1805 
1805 
1792 

1847 
1870 
1813 
1809 

1794 
1814 
1815 
1831 
1870 
1651 
1781 
202 
47 
1799 
1586 



July 12 
April 7, 
April 6, 
Sep. 20, 
July 24, 
July 23, 
Nov. 28, 

July 30, 

Oct. 27, 

Feb. 8, 
July, 

— Sep., 

1870— 
July 3, 
Feb. 26, 
Sep. 26, 
Sep. 9, 
Dec. 19, 
July 4 , 
July 14, 
Sep. 12, 
Nov. 4, 



1191 
1812 
-493 
1857 
1704 
1099 
1855 



1870 
1806 
1601 
1604 
■1871 
1849 
18C9 
1854 
1855 
1793 
1863 

1683 
1794 



Victors. 



Allies. 
English. 



Arminius. 

Prussians. 

Wellington. 

Greeks. 

Spanish. 

French. 

Americans. 

English. 

Germans. 

English. 

Turks. 

Russians. 

Prussians. 

French. 

Fr. & Sard. 

Defeat of 

Gylippus. 

Wellington. 

Fr. & Sard. 

Persians. 

Austrians. 

English. 

C. Martel. 

English. 

French. 

Americans. 

Germans, 

Wellington. 

French. 

Russians. 

English. 

Russians. 

Prussians. 

Cromwell. 

Americans. 

Scipio. 

J. Caesar. 

Allies. 

Eng., Dutch. 



Crusaders. 
English. 
Turks. 
English. 

Crusaders. 
Russians. 

Inhabitants. 

Germans. 
French. 

Spaniards. 

Prussians. 
French. 



Allies. 

Napoleon. 
Gen. Grant. 

King of 
Poland. 
Prussians. 



* The 16 decisive battles of the world. 



94© FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

FACTS ABOUT THE PECULIARITIES OF THE EARTH, AIR, WATER, WIND, 
VOLCANOES, EARTHQUAKES ; THE HUMAN SPECIES AND ANIMALS. 

The powers of nature may be concentrated into two primitive forces, namely : Attraction 
and Repulsion. Relate nature, and you include all the facts environing on, and enveloped in, 
the material. Newton watched the apple fall, and by that fact guaged his theory as applied 
to the gravitation of greater bodies. Then Repulsion was set down as the cause of elasticity, and 
declared as the opposing element of Attraction. Apply Attraction, wholly, leave out the grand 
figure of Repulsion, and as a result you would have the earth accompanied with its millions of 
neighbor planets and earths, one solid mass/ 

Light cannot be said to consist of the same matter as elementary heat. It may be 
reflected as well as projected, and the light from the moon is only as from a mirror, while the 
great sun projects its light from a distance of 95,000,000 miles from our earth in the space of 
only eight minutes. Evolution of Calorific bodies is probably a greater source of converging 
heat, than by the solar rays. 

Oxygen and Nitrogen composes the air we breathe, in the ratio of 21 to 79. One could 
not support combustion without the aid of the other. The flame is not the hottest part of the 
fire, but is a " burning smoke." Air is perceptable to the touch, and also has weight— to 
evacuate a bottle of its air, lightens the bottle. Air is capable of elasticity or expansion — a 
bladder when filled with air and indented or pressed together, recovers its former shape when 
the weight becomes removed. 

At the height of ten miles the atmosphere is only about one-eight of its density at the 
height of one mile. 

A light breeze traveling at the rate of three and a quarter miles per hour, exerts a pressure 
three-quarters of an ounce to the square foot . 

A moderate breeze traveling 6% miles exerts 3% oz. pressure. 
A fresh breeze * l 16^4' " " 1 lb. 5 " u 

A stiff breeze 4t 32^ ll " 5 " 3 " " 

A strong gale " 56X " " 15 " 9 " " 

A hurricane u 79X u " 31 " 4 " " 

A violent hurricane " 97}? " " 46 " 12 " vl 

Sound travels through the air about 1,100 feet per second, varying in speed with the con- 
dition and temperature of the air. 

The lowest audible tone is 32 vibrations per second. 

The highest audible tone is 16,384 vibrations per second, although 24,000 is said to be 
appreciable, but rather by feeling than hearing. 

Air increases in elasticity 1-480 of its volume for every degree of Fahrenheit scale increase 
of temperature. 

The elasticity of steam is doubled by every 30 degrees increase of temperature above 
aia degrees. 

The highest mountains are not capped with snow. The extreme limit of snow is little 
over 16,000 feet above the sea level, and above that limit there is no moisture in the atmosphere. 

The speed of a steamboat through salt water is about three-sevenths of the speed of the 
circumference of its paddles. 

The initial velocity of a 24 pounder cannon ball is about 16,000 feet per second. 

Sound travels through air about 1,100 feet per second, through a densermedium, faster, and 
through one more attenuated, slower. Sound travels through water about 5,000 feet per second; 
through iron or steel, about 17,000 feet per second. 

Light travels through space about 200,000 miles per second. Roemer, in 1676, calculated 
the speed of light at 192,500 miles per second, but the best authorities now agree on 186,000 
miles. 

The speed of electricity varies with the conductor and the conditions surrounding the 
conductor ; the lowest measurement making speed of 2,300 miles per second, and the highest 
200,000 miles per second. 

A horse-power is calculated to be just sufficient to raise 33,000 pounds to the height of one 
foot in a minute. 

Water is formed of Oxygen and Hydrogen, as 89 is to n. Ice, is the natural state of 
water. The force of vapor is, in many instances, thirty times greater than that of gunpowder. 
It constitutes a great portion of the food of vegetables. As Oxygen is a constituent of air, 
as well as water, water contains air. Between the freezing point (32 degrees Fahrenheit) 
and the boiling point (212 degrees Fahrenheit) of water, the water will expand as follows: 



Brass 1-532 

Gold 1-682 

Tempered Steel 1-807 

Forged Iron 1-819 

Plate Glass 1-1122 



Mercury 1-54 

Lead - 1-351 

Copper 1-522 

Silver i"6 2 4 

Untempered Steel 1-927 

Platina 1-1167 

At the level of the sea, water boils at 212 degrees Fahrenheit; alcohol boils at 173 degrees 
Fahrenheit; sulphuric ether boils at 97 degrees Fahrenheit; oil turpentine boils at 314 degrees 
Fahrenheit; chloroform boils at 142 degrees Fahrenheit. 

To reduce the scale of one thermometer to that of another, use the following rules: 

From 5-9 of the degrees Fahrenheit, subtract 32 degrees to find degrees Centigrade. 

To 9-5 of the degrees Centigrade, add 32 degrees to find degrees Fahrenheit. 

To 9-4 of the degrees Reaumur, add 32 degrees to find degrees Fahrenheit. 

From 4-9 of the degrees Fahrenheit, subtract 32 degrees to find degrees Reaumur. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



941 



Mercury freezes at 39 degrees below zero, Fahrenheit. 

Winds are regular and irregular; trade winds; monsoons; hurricanes ; whirlwinds ; and 
water-spouts. 

Regular winds belong to the class which blow constantly in one uniform directioa. 
Irregular winds follow no uniform course, but are interrupted, as in this country, where, for 
instance, at two different points within ten miles apart, they flow from different directions at 
the same time. 

Trade winds belong to the coasts. The tropics sometimes have two opposite periodic 
winds alternating toward the north and south, and are called monsoons. A current of air, like 
a current of water, increases its velocity when its passage is straightened or narrowed. These 
gusts are called hurricanes, and their direction is either to the north or south, northeast or 
southwest. Their origin is generally in a small, black cloud, when the rest of the sky is 
serene, or on the sea, when its surroundings are calm. Other hurricanes, much more violent 
than these, seem to proceed from the coast, having a swift, whirling motion which no human 
power can resist. 

A sudden rarefaction, or any other contrary meeting of air currents, in the same spot, and 
at the same time, are called whirlwinds. The_ water-spout means a whirlwind at sea, 
where the vacum produced by two or more meeting currents, causes the water to rise up in 
cylindric form, or in the shape of a cone. 

The trite theory that the earth is a shell, carrying within its great centre the ready 
lighted fires and stores of fuel for its final destruction, as well as its present warmth, is illus- 
trated, and perhaps in a measure substantiated, by the fact that within the bowels of the 
mountain is harbored the smouldering sulphur and bitumen, the elements which, if ignited by 
subterraneous fires, causes volcanic eruptions. The volcanoes' mouth, often more than half 
a league in circumference, vomit6 forth torrents of smoke and flame, streams of lava, and 
showers of stones and cinders, which sometimes bury beneath its awful depths, entire cities, 
with their teeming numbers of human souls. 

Where great ships, freighted with a nations commeroe, now plough the bosom of our oceans ; 
where toilers and terrors of the sea now make their homes; and where the mighty cables of 
ingenuity link together sister continents, and with their transportation of fresh intelligence 
waKe the caverns of the deep, this basin, so deep as to prevent this mighty water from running 
over, once was the site of volcanoes. Islands, now fairly groaning beneath the weight of 
humanity, animals and commerce, doubtless sometime ranked as low as other ocean bottoms, 
where sea-kings and monarchs made their beds. Valleys were once sea bottoms, mountains, 
sea valleys, where the screeching er.gine now carries with it an air of progress and civilization, 
once rocked and lashed a mighty sea, which only volcanic forces could have heaved back, 
raising the earth to its present level. 

Earthquakes are of two kinds; one caused by subterraneous fires, and the explosion of 
volcances. The other kind of earthquake is produced by the explosion of inflammable 
matters; sulphurous materials; fermentation produced by Alteration of water; these matters 
follow the (always) perpendicular strata, as though searching for a place of escape, and, meet- 
ing in these caverns, subterraneous air or vapor, produces in its passage a noise and motion, 
proportioned in its force to-the resistance it is compelled to meet. 

The Human Species means man in all the subHmity of the term, and created in the image 
of his Maker ! It combines that grand combination of soul and body, which, divided again, 
results in two separate natures, — the God-like and the mortal man. The basis of divine man is 
ths soul; the beginning of mortal, the infant, or the spring of life- Youth-hood is life's 
beautiful summer. Middle-age is the Indian summer of life — the sublimest period of man's 
existence, while the crowing sheaf is the pure white winter or old age. The human species is 
the perfection of the Master's handiwork! 

Man is a cosmopolite; that is to say, his organization is fitted for all climates. He lives 
under the equator, and in the temperate zones, as well as in the vigorous climes of the north and 
the south. He does not appear, however, to dwell beyond the 55th degree of southern latitude, 
and the 65th of northern. 

In the human species we may establish three principal races, each of which contains 
varieties more or less strongly marked. These are the white or Caucasian; the yellow or 
Mongolian ; and the black or Melanix* ; 

Animals. Without the animal, God's creation would be incomplete, and for our several 
uses, and in some cases seemingly to supply us with the curious, He has created the following 
species of quadrupeds; The Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Camel, Dromedary, 
Cameleopard, Lion, Tiger, Panther, Leopard, Ounce, Zebra, Horse, Ass, Ox, Buffalo, Sheep, 
Goat, Hog, Guinea Hog, Dog, Hyena, Jackal, Porcupine, Genet, Civets, Cat, Antelope, 
Guinea Stag, Chamois, Ibex, Musk. Rabbit, Ferret. Rat, Mouse, Fat Squirrel, Garden 
Squirrel, Ichneumon, Badger, Sable, Ermine Jerboa, Maki, Monkey. Pangolin and Phatagin, 
Rein-deer, Stinkards, Sloth, Kangaroo, Stag, Bear, Roebuck, Hone, Hedghog, Otter, 
Marmot, Mexican Shrew, Mole, Bison, Tapir, Alco, Gaschis, Conanda, Racoon, Cabiai, . 
Tajacon, Conandon, Agonti, Coati,' Opossum, Pacos, Indian Hog, Cavy, Armadillo, Beaver, 
Wolf, Fox, Weasel, Polecat, Lynx, Seal, Walrus, Elk, Glutton, Dormouse, Pouch and 
Desman. 

Of the two hundred species of quadrupeds which Buffon supposes to exist, he calculates, 
that about ninety are original inhabitants of the old continent, and about seventy of the new, 
and that forty are common to both. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 
WHAT THE NATIONS OWE. 



943 



The aggregate of all national debts is not far from $23,750,000,000. Of this aggregate, 
between 96 and 97 per cent, is owed by twenty countries, and more than one-half by four 
countries, namely, France, England, United States, and Italy. The following table will 
exhibit the debts and asnual interest charge in millions of dollars, and the rate per cent, paid 
of the twenty countries owing the largest debts : 



COUNTRIES. 



Debts, I Interest 

millions ofmillions of 

dollars. dollars, 



Rate. 



Erance 

England 

United States. 

Italy 

Spain 

Austria 

Russia 

Germany 

Turkey 

India 

Brazil 

Holland 

Egypt 

Portugal 

Mexico 

Australasia . . . 

Peru 

Belgium 

Hungary 

Canada 



4.500 


l6s ,. 


3 2 A 


3.900 


133^ 


2% 


2,200 


I03 o, 


4% 


J >9So 


76% 


4 


^835 


55 


3 


i,75o 


75 


4% 


1,700 


6 7 3€ 


4 


1,000 


45 


4# 


675 


47*r 


7 


650 


29X 


4# 


410 


15% 


4 


400 


txM 


*x 


375 


37X 


xo 


345 


10% 


3 


317 


20 


6 


230 


i3# 


6 


i8 S 


x 3„ 


7 


180 


m 


5 


150 


.7* 


5 


150 


7H 


5 



Totals 22,950 



taH 



Adding around $800,000,000 for the smaller debts, gives the grand total of $23,750,000,000 
as above stated. It will lie seen that the annual interest "charges upon the twenty countries 
enumerated is $912,750,000. To this should be added about $57,250,000 for unenumerated 
debts, making a total annual charge of a round thousand million dollars on the taxpayers of 
the world on account of interest on public indebtedness. 



THE RATES AT WHICH SOME LEADING COUNTRIES ARE ABLE TO 
BORROW MONEY. 



"England, 3^ percent.; India, 4 per cent. ; Holland, 4^.percent. ; Canada, 4^ per 
cent. ; Australasia, 4% per cent. ; United States, 5 per cent. ; Russia, 5 per cent.; Brazil, 5 
per cent.; Italy, 6 per cent. ; Portugal, 6 per cent; Hungary, 7% percent.; Egypt 8 per 
cent. ; Turkey 10 per cent. ; Peru, 10 per cent; Spain, 15 per cent.; Mexico, 18 per cent." 

This country, it will be seen, stands the same as France, Russia, and Brazil, and better 
than Italy, Portugal, Hungary, Spain, and Turkey, in Europe, and still further above Peru 
and Mexico. 

During the past two years Great Britain has reduced her debt $50,000,000 ; Russia, 
$75,000,000; Germany, $40,000,000; and this country about $30,000,000. Italy has increased 
hers by $150,000,000 ; Spain by $570,000,000 ; Austria by $220,000,000 ; Turkey by $55,000,000; 
and India by $110,000,000. 

Some small portion of the grand aggregate of national debts has been incurred for the 
purpose of 'more or less productive investment in the construction of railroads, canals and 
other public works. But by far the greater part has been incurred for the purpose of 
carrying on war, or meeting deficits in ordinary budgets. It is within bounds to say that 
national securities to the amount of twenty thousand millions — an amount equal to more 
than two-thirds of the value of all the property in the United States — represents wealth 
that has been utterly destroyed in the prosecution of wars of ambition, conquest, or revenge, 
or in the maintenance of vast military and naval establishments, or in the support of splendid 
and useless courts. 

GREAT INVENTIONS. 

In 1812, the streets of London were for the first time lighted with gas. 
In 1813, there was built at Waltham, Mass., a mill, believed to have been the first in the 
world, which combined all the requirements for making finished cloth out of raw cotton. 
In 1836, the first patent for the invention of matches was granted. 
In 1845, the first telegram was sent. 
In 1877, tne Telephone was invented by Edison. 



944 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

THE GREATNESS OF LONDON. 

In few cities are there more than half a dozen railway stations. In London there are at 
least one hundred and fifty. Some of the railways never pass beyond its limits, and of one. the 
Tottenham & Hampstead, Punch says : " No one ever travels by it, as no one knows where 
it begins or where it ends." The Metropolitan and other intramural railways run trains every 
three or five minutes, and convey from twenty to fifty millions of passengers annually. 
Claphamis the great south-western junction, and through it seven hundred trains pass every 
day. Its platforms are so numerous, and its underground passages and overground bridges so 
perplexing, that to find the right train on changing, is one of those things "that no fellow can 
understand.'' As a proof of the expansive nature of London traffic, it was supposed that when 
the Metropolitan Railway was opened, all the city to Paddington omnibusses would be run off 
the ground; but, although it carried forty-three millions of passengers last year, it has been 
found necessary to increase the number of omnibusses on the southern route, and they yield 
one per cent, more revenue than before the opening of the railway. 

Besides the railways, there are some fourteen or fifteen thousand tramcars, omnibusses and 
cabs traversing the streets. There are lines of omnibusses known only to the inhabitants of 
their own localities, such as those across the Isle of Dogs from Poplar to Milwall; from 
London bridge, along Tooley street, to Dockhead, &c. The London Omnibus Company h2ve 
five hundred and sixty-three omnibusses, which carry fifty millions of passengers annually. 

It is more dangerous to walk the streets of London than to travel by railway or to cross 
the Atlantic. Last year one hundred and twenty-five persons were killed, and two thousand 
five hundred and thirteen injured by vehicles in the streets. Supposing every individual man, 
woman and child made one journey on foot per diem, which is considerably above the average, 
the deaths would be one in eleven millions, while the railways only killed about one in fifty 
millions of passengers, and the Cunard Company of Atlantic steamers boasts of having never 
lost a passenger. 

Other instances of the immensity of the population of London are that three-quarters of a 
million of business men enter the city in the morning and leave it in the evening for their 
suburban residences. There are ten thousand policemen, as many cab-drivers, and the same 
number of persons connected with the post office, each of which classes, with their families, 
would make a large town. When London makes a holiday, there are several places of resort, 
such as the Crystal Palace, the Zoological Garden. Kew Garden, &c, which absorb from thirty 
to fifty thousand each. The cost of gas for lighting is two million five hundred thousand 
pounds annually ; the water supply is one hundred millions of gallons per diem. In the year 
1873 there were five hundred and seventy-three fires ; and for the purpose of supplying informa- 
tion on the passing events of the day, three hundred and fourteen daily and weekly newspapers 
are required. 

What London will eventually become it is idle to predict. It already stands in four 
counties, and is striding onward to a fifth (Herts). The probability is, that by the end of the 
century, the population will exceed five millions, and will thus have quintupled itself in the 
century. Should it progress at an equal rate in the next, it will in the year 2000 amount to 
the enormous aggregate of twenty-five millions; and the question that naturally arises is, how- 
could such a multitude be supplied with food ? But the fact is, that the more its population 
increases, the better they are fed. In the Plantagenet days, when the population was not a 
third of a million, famines were of frequent occurrence. But now, with the command of the 
pastures, the harvests and the fisheries of the world, starvation becomes impossible. 

ENGLAND'S RULERS. 

The following is a correct table of the reigning sovereigns of England, together with the 
date of the beginning of their reign : 

DANES AND SAXONS. 



Egbert 827 

Ethelwolf 837 

Ethebald II 857 

Ethelbert 860 

Ethelred 1 866 

Alfred the Great 871 

Edward 1 901 

Athelstan 925 

Edmund I 940 

Edred = 946 

Edwy 955 

Edgar , 957 

NORMANS. 

William I 1066 I Henry I noo 

Willliam II 1087 I Stephen .. "35 

PLANTAGENETS. 

Edward I "72 

Edward II . ....1307 

Edward III 1327 



Edward II 975 

Ethelred II 979. 

S weyn 1013. 

Canute 1014 

Ethelred II, again. . . 1014 

Edmund II 1016. 

Canute, again , , 1017- 

Harold 1 1035 

Hardicanute 1040 

Edward (Confessor) 1049 

Harold II 1063 



Henry II 1154 

Richard 1 1189 

John iiqq 

Henry III 1216 



Richard II "77 




iir h mw 



60 



946 



Henry IV. 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 
LANCASTER. 



H^^::::v::::::;::;:::::;.;.:;;;: gg I Hen,yVI *- 

YOBK. 

Id:sn v :::::::::::::::::;::::::::: $ | Eicha ' dIU «* 



Mary --„ 

Elizabeth , ^558 



TUDOR. 

Henry Vn. J4 8r 

Henry VIIL £4 

Edward VI ^ 

STUARTS. 
J amesI 1603 | Charles I l62$ 

Interregnum— Commonwealth. 

STUARTS (RESTORED). 

£ harles T T n 1660 I William and Mary .. l6 8g 

James H 1685 I Anne ....1702 

•HANOVER. 

£ eor 2 e * 1714 I GeorgelV... l82a 

^"^Ui *7*7 William IV l830 

Georgelll , I7 6o | Victoria. ..1837 

EMIGRATION. 

We give the following table which embraces the statistics for ten years. The arrival of 
afiens were as follows : 

S?' No - 

™* 213,686. 

25 258,989. 

XS J° 2I2,I 7 0. 

fjl 294 , 58l . 

x *73 .-..-&.. 266,818. 

l8 74 140,041. 



countries 1 the balance. Of the" 84,560 1 aliens,|arrmng during the past" year*, 37,537' we're mile 
adalts, 28,905 female adults, 18,128 children'under 12 years of age. 

, IMPORTANT LAND DECISIONS. 

Decisions of the Secretary of the Interior has established the following principles : 

HOMESTEADS. 
The possession of an executor or administrator is, under the Homestead law, the posses- 
sion of the heirs or divisee, subject to the right of administration vested in the officer, and the 
time allowed by the Court for said settlement of the estate must be counted for the heir or 
devisee in making final proof. The provisions of Sec. 2,291 of" the Revised Statutes are sub- 
stantially complied with by continual cultivation for the period of five years by the heirs or 
devisee, personal residence not being required in their case. At a hearing to determine the 
abandonment in the case of the deceased homestead claimants, a certified copy of the will and 
and other matters connected therewith may be introduced. 

PRE-EMPTION. 

A mortgage unsatisfied at the date of proof and entry, defeats a pre-emption claim ; also 
decisions of the Commissioner of the General Land Office, to the effect that soldiers now in the 
regular army, under Sec. 2,293 °f tne Revised Statutes, perform the preliminary acts relating 
to homestead entries therein mentioned. 

TIMBER CULTURE. 

The planting of seeds or cuttings is not a compliance with the Timber Culture act, but 
the General Land Office does not inquire how the required trees are produced. If seeds or 
cuttings produce healthy-growing trees, the law is complied with. A timber-culture settler may 
relinquish a portion of the land embraced in his entry, and hold the remainder. 

MINERAL LANDS AND RAILROAD GRANTS. 

The question, "Can lands containing valuable deposits of mica, inuring, if agricultural, 
to the Union Pacific Railroad, be patented under the mining laws? " was answered: First — 
iands containing valuable deposits of mica may be patented under the Mining law of May 10, 
187a. Second— All minerals, except coal and iron, are excepted from the grants to railroads. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 947 

CONSUMPTION OF COTTON. 



The number of cotton mills in operation in the United States is 875, of which 181 are in the 
southern, and 694 in the northern states. Massachusetts has the largest number in the north, 
and Georgia in the south. The former has 206 and the latter 47. In 1875 the north used 
1,097,000^ bales against 1,094,387 bales in 1874. The southern mills during 1875 used 145,079 
bales against 128,526 bales in 1874. The kinds of good manufactured are given in round figures, 
as follows: 

1875. 1874- 

Threads, yarns, twines, lbs 83,000,006 79,000,000 

Plain sheetings, etc , yards 726,000,000 707 ,000,000 

Fancy goods, yards 247,000,000 306,000,000 

Print cloths, " 749,000,000 588,000,000 

Ginghams, " 35,000,000 33,000,000 

Ducks, " 28,000,000 30,000,000 

Bags, number 10,000,000 6,000,000 

In comparing the cost of production between the American and English manuacturers, it 
is stated that the American cotton costs the Manchester spinners one cent per pound more 
than the Lowell, which is more than the difference in the cost of wages, and therefore we can 
compete with England in markets where the cost of transportation is the same. 

OCEAN TELEGRAPH CABLES. 



Up to 1847, no substance suitable for the insulation of a submarine wire was known. In 
1846, Mr. James Reynolds, of New York, invented a machine for covering wire with India 
rubber, and during the year 1847 covered a large amount of wire with this substance; but in 
consequence of drying it (vulcanization of rubber being then unknown), it proved a failure. 
Early in the spring of 1848, Mr. Craven brought a piece of wire covered with gutta percha to 
Mr. Reynolds, and asked if he could cover wire with gutta percha with his machine. Mr. Rey- 
nolds undertook to do so, and immediately poceeded to manufacture gutta percha covered wire. 
He covered the cable which was laid across the Hudson river between NewYork and Jersey City, 
which was the first gutta percha cable ever made and the first submarine wire ever constructed 
and successfully operated for the transmission of intelligence over a distance of half a mile. 
The first submarine cable ever laid in the sea, was laid between Dover and Calais, in 1850. 
It was a single strand of gutta percha, unprotected by any outside coating, and worked only 
one day. The next cable was also laid between Dover and Calais, in 1851. This cable con- 
tained four conducting wires, was twenty -seven miles in length, and weighed six tons per mile. 
This cable is still working, after having been down twenty-three years. The next long cable 
was laid in 1853, between Dover and Ostend, a distance of eighty miles, and contained six 
conducting wires, and weighed 5% tons per mile. It is still in working order. In 1853 a cable of 
one conducting wire was laid between England and Holland, 120 miles, weighing 1% tons per 
mile. This cable worked for twelve years. From 1853 to 1858 thirty-seven cables were laid 
down, having a total length of 3,700 miles, of which sixteen are still working. Thirteen 
worked for periods varying from a week to five years, and the remaining eight were total 
failures. 

On the 6th of August, 1858. the first Atlantic cable was laid between Ireland and New- 
foundland. The weight of this cable was one ton per mile, and its cost was as follows: Price 
of deep sea wire per mile, $200; price of spun yarn and iron wire per mile, $265 ; prioe of out- 
side tar per mile, $20; total cost per mile, $485. Price, as above, for 2,500 miles, $1,212,500; 
price of twenty-five miles shore end at $1,450 per mile, $36,250 ; total cost, 1,249,235. This 
cable worked from August 10 to September 1, during which time 129 messages were sent from 
Valentia to Newfoundland, and 271 from Newfoundland to Valentia. 

The next long cable which was laid, was from Suez to India, a distance of 3,500 miles, in 
1859, This cable was laid in five sections, which worked from six to nine months each, but 
was never in working order from end to end. 

The total length of all the cables which have been laid is about $70,000 miles, of which over 
50,000 miles are now in successful operation. The 20,000 miles of cables which has thus far 
failed, represent fifty-eight in number. 

Including the original 1858 cable, five cables have been laid down between Ireland an 
Newfoundland, of which only three are now in working order. These three were laid in 186S, 
1873, an< i l8 74- The cable of 1865, of a similar type as the above, has not been working for 
ver two years. 

The maximum speed of signaling through 2000 miles of the Atlantic telegraph of 1858 was 
two and a half words a minute. The conductor of the Atlantic cable of 1858 consisted of a 
strand of seven copper wires of No. 22)^ guage, weighing 93 pounds per mile, while those oi 
1865, 1866, 1873, and 1874, have each 300 pounds per mile. The highest rate of speed obtained 
through the 1858 cable was 2% words per minute, while through the 1865, 1866, 1873 and 1874. 
tables, they have obtained a speed of 17 words per minute in regular working., and 24 words 
per minute upon an experimental test. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 949 

THE SALT TRADE. 



The following table taken for the compendium of the ninth census, gives me production of 
salt in the several states as follows: 

1870. bu. i860, bu. 

California 1741855 44,050 

Colorado 7,800 

Florida. 25,130 40,000 

Idaho 13,400 

Illinois 54,000 35,000 

Indiana 1,020 

Kansas 10,000 169,665 

Kentucky 64,000 

Louisiana 120,000 

Massachusetts 26,846 3^,555 

Michigan 3,981,313 2,300 

New York 4,977,720 7,521,335 

Ohio 2,898,649 1,743,290 

Oregon 12,000 

Pennsylvania 579<97° 1,016,800 

Texas 29,986 20,800 

Utah i>95o 

Virginia and West Virginia 4,635,813 2,076,513 

Total 17,606,105 12,717,198 

The above shows an increase of production during the ten years of 4,888,907 bushels. 
The increase during the last five years has been much greater. The production in Michigan 
or 1875 was 4,408,324 bushels, an increase over the production of 1870 of 1,428,000 bushels. 
In the other principal producing states the increase on the average is fully up to this ratio. 
Assuming the above to be true, we are warranted in placing the total production of the 
country for 1875 at fully 30,000,000 bushels, an increase of more than 12,000,000 bushels over 
the production of 187*. In spite of this enormous increase in production, the importations for 
the past five years have steadily increased, as shown by the following table: 
Years. bu. 

1875 15.450,045 

1874 13,897,883 

1873 14,150,484 

1872 11,282,840 

1871 10,415,307 

The importations for 1870 nearly equalled the home production, being 17,436,083 bushels, 
an increase over that for 1869 by more than 6,000,000 bushels. With the steady increase of 
home manufacture and improving the quality of the product, it is quite probable that within 
a few years the United States will be enabled to supply the domestic trade, and have a surplus 
for export. 

DRUGGING LIQUOR. 

In 1866 four houses in New York city palmed off two millions of gallons of these deadly com- 
pounds. They buy the meanest whisky or spoiled cider, and " drug" it into the rarest wines 
in a few hours. It not unfrequently happens that a country seller drives in a few barrels of his 
spoiled slop, sells it to a manufacturer, does his shopping, and in a few hours drives back with a 
part of the same stuff lt drugged" into wine or brandy, for which he paid an advance of four 
or five gallons. A Frenchman pointing to a barrel said, "Tell me what kind of wine or brandy 
you want and give me three hours, and I will draw it out of that barrell." 

The more costly the liquor, the more certain the fraud. The whole champaign district is 
only twenty thousand acres, and produces only about 800,000 baskets per annum. Of this 
Russia consumes 160,000 baskets, France 162,000, England 220,000, Germany 146,000; leaving 
for America and the rest of the world only 112,000. Yet Yankees consume more than 
1,000,000 baskets yearly. How dull it is in England, and Germany, and France, and Russia to 
imagine that they get any champaign when they consume twenty-five per cent, more than is 
produced. 

Only 30,000 barrels of wine are produced on the Island of Maderia. America buys 50,000 
barrels, and the rest of the world has a full share. 

Port wine is manufactured in Douro Valley in Portugal. The valley is narrow and only 
sixty miles long. Yet all the world drinks from these vineyards. London alone drinks more 
than twice as much port wine as is produced, both good and bad. There is consumed annually 
more than one hundred times as much as is produced. # Follow a gallon of pure juice from the 
press on the banks of the Douro. In the warehouse in Oporto, by the aid of beet whisky, 
elderberry juice, and water, it is made into five gallons.^ In the London Dock warehouse by 
the aid of potato -whisky, red saunders, and the like, it swells up into twenty gallons. la 
New York it takes a dose of strychnine, balladonna, and spoiled cider, and puffs up into thirty 
gallons. In the wholesale house in Chicago bad whisky, stramonium, and drugs, enlarge it to 
forty gallons. In the retailer's back room it gets another dose and comes out eighty gallons. 
We receive one drop in eighty, and that is twenty-five per cent, better than the average, 



95° FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES- 

A BEER-DRINKING COUNTRY. 

This country is getting to be emphatically a beer-drinking country. For the year ending 
July i, 1875, the internal revenue reports show that there were 8,880.629 barrels of that 
beverage produced here. The number of breweries now in operation in the principal brewing 
States is as follows : New York 203 ; Pennsylvania, 235 ; Wisconsin, 232 ; Ohio, 210 ; 
California, 202 ; Illinois, 165 ; Michigan, 149. Massachusetts does not make much beer, but 
she dranK last year 609,923 barrels, or more than any one of the fifty-one other States and 
Territories. 

THE METALS. 



Bronze is a compound of copper and tin. 

Pewter is a compound of lead and tin. 

Brass is a compound of copper and zinc, 

German silver is a compound of copper, zinc and nickel. 

Britannia is a compound of tin, antimony and copper. 

STRENGTH OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 

With fifty-four inches between supports, a rod of cast iron, one inch square, will break 
under a load of 550 pounds. 

A cube of cast iron, one inch each way, will be crushed under a pressure of ninety tons. 

A bar of cast iron, one inch square, will break under a tensile strain of gM tons. 

These figures show the capacity of best material. Very inferior iron would probably have 
not over one-half the above resisting power. 

The actual cohesive force of different substances is as below. The size of the rod tested 
being in each case, one inch square, and the number of pounds show the actual breaking 
strain: 

lbs. 

Hard Steel 150,000 

Soft Steel 120,000 

Best Swedes Iron 84,000 

Ordinary Bar Iron 70,000 

Silver 41,000 

Copper 35,°°° 

Gold 22,000 

Whalebone . 7i5°o 

Bone 5i75° 

Tin 5>5°o 

Zinc 2,600 

There are 3,064 known languages on the earth, and nearly 1,000 different forms of 
religion. 

BRIDGES. 



lbs. 

Locust Wood 20,000 

Cast Iron 19,000 

Oakwood : 17,000 

Ivory t6,ooo 

Elm Wood 13,000 

Ash Wood 12,000 

Horn 8,750 

Pitch Pine Wood 7,500 

Poplar Wood 5,500 

Cedar Wood 4,8oo 

Lead 860 



Bridges are of unknown antiquity. The Chinese invented suspension bridges, and one 
built in A. D. 65, is still in use. The Persians built the first stone bridges. 

Caissons were first used in bridge building on the Westminister bridge, London, which is 
1,250 feet in length, and has 15 arches or spans. 

The first iron bridge ever erected, was over the Severn at Coalbridgedale, in Shropshire v 
England. It has a span of 100 feet, the arch being nearly semi-circular. 

Among the most noted bridges are the Southwark bridge, London. It is of iron, having 
one span of 240 feet, and two of 210 feet each. There were 5,780 tons iron used in its con- 
struction. 

The new London bridge which was finished in 1831, is of stone, 928 feet long, on five 
elliptical arches, the center one having a span of 152 feet. 

High Bridge, of New York, is of stone, 1,460 feet long, on 15 arches, those over the river 
being 80 feet open, and 100 feet above the water, The parapet is 114 feet above high water. 

The bridge across Menai Straits (Wales) is of wrought iron, 103 feet above high water, has- 
two spans of 230 feet each, and two of 459 feet each. 

The Victoria Bridgeat Montreal, is 10,284 feet from bank to bank, and rests on 24 piers. 
The roadway over the river is a tube of iron 6,660 feet long, 16 feet wide, and 22 feet high. 

The St. Louis bridge is of chrome steel, on three arches, the center one having a span of 
520 feet, and being at the greatest 55 feet above high water, the side spans being each 502 feet, 
50 feet above high water. The total length of the bridge proper is 2,045 feet, and of the 
approaches, 4,175 feet. The tunnel leading to the bridge on the St. Louis side, is 4,900 feefe 
in length. 

The Schuylkill bridge, Philadelphia (suspension,) has a span of 340 feet. 

The suspension bridge at Fribourg, Switzerland, has a span of 870 feet, 175 feet above tho 
river. 

The railway suspension bridge at Niagara Falls, has a span of 821 feet, 245 feet above the 
river. 

The suspension bridge at Cincinnati, has a span of 1,057 f eet i io 3 f eet above low water 
mark. 

The proposed suspension bridge between Brooklyn and New York, is to have a clear spar, 
of 1,595 f eet > an d be 135 feet above the water. 



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95 2 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ASTRONOMICAL FACTS. 



Jupiter has four moons; Saturn has eight moons and a ring; Uranus has six moons; 
Neptune has one moon. 

Our moon is 2,160 miles in diameter, and is distant 238,650 miles from our earth. 

The sun is about 875,000 miles in diameter. 

The planets known to the ancients were Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. 

The nearest fixed star to our solar system is Cygni No. 61, and this is 210,000,000 times 
more distant from the sun than we are, or about 20,000,000,000,000,000 miles. 

NICKNAMES. 

The United States are called Brother Jonathan and Uncle Sam. 

Great Britain, more especially England, is personified as Johnny Bull. 

France as Johnny Crapaud, and Germany is "der Faderland." 

Fanueil Hall, in Boston, is called the Cradle of Liberty. 

Maine is known as the Lumber, or Pine Tree State, and its inhabitants are called Foxes. 

New Hampshire, the Granite State, is peopled by the Granite Boys. 

Vermont is nearly translated when called the Green Mountain State. 

Massachusetts is the Bay State, from the bay of the same name. 

The pet name for Rhode Island, is Little Rhody. 

Connecticut rejoices in several nicknames, being known as the Land of Steady Habits, the 
Nutmeg State, and the Freestone State'. 

The Knickerbockers who dwell therein, call New York the Empire State. 

New Jersey is known to all the world as the State of Camden and Amboy, and her sons 
are known as the Jersey Blues. 

Pennsylvania is the Keystone State, and its inhabitants are profanely called Leatberheads. 

Delaware is the Blue Hen, and Muskrats inhabit it. 

Maryland is the Mason and Dixon State, and its inhabitants were formerly called Craw- 
thumpers. 

Virginia is the old Dominion. 

North Carolina is the Old North, or Turpentine State, while its people are called 
indifferently Tuckors or Tarboilers. 

South Carolina is the Palmetto State. 

Florida, the Peninsular State. 

Mississippi, the Bayou State. 

Louisiana, the Creole State. 

Arkansas, the Bear State. 

Kentucky the Dark and Bloody Ground, and its inha bitants are Corn Crackers. 

Tennessee is the Big Bend State. 

Ohio, the Buckeye State. 

Indiana, the Hoosier State. 

Illinois, the Sucker State, but the Suckers endeavor to give it the more poetical name of 
the Prairie State, or the Garden of the West. 

Michigan is the Wolverine State. 

Wisconsin, the Badger State. 

Iowa, the Hawkeye State. 

Minnesota, the North Star State; for its motto, "L'etoile du nord." Its inhabitants are 
Gophers. 

Texas is the Lone Star State. 

California, the Golden State. 

The inhabitants of Missouri are called Pukes; of Georgia, Buzzards; of Alabama, 
Lizards; of Nebraska, Bug Eaters; of Kansas, Jay Hawkers, of Texas, Beetheads; of 
Oregon, Web Feet j of Nevada, Sage Hens ; of Colorado, Rovers. 

Of American cities, the following are common nicknames: 

Atlanta, Ga., and Keokuk, Iowa— Gate City. 

Baltimore, Md.— Monumental City. 

Boston, Mass. — Hub, City of Notions, and Modern Athens. 

Brooklyn, N. Y.— City of Churches. 

Buffalo, N. Y.— Queen City of the Lakes. 

Cairo, 111.— Eden. 

Chicago, 111. — Garden City. 

Cincinnati, Ohio— Porkopolis, the Queen City of the West. 

Cleveland, Ohio— Forest City. 

Dubuque, Iowa — Key City. 

Detroit, Mich.— City of the Straits. 

Hannibal, Mo— Bluff City. 

Indianapolis, Ind. — Railroad City. 

Louisville, Ky— Falls City. 

Lowell, Mass. — City of Spindles. 

Nashville, Tenn.— City of Rocks. 

New Haven, Conn.— Elm City. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 953 

New Orleans— Crescent City. 

"New York— Gotham, Empire City, New Amsterdam. 

Philadelphia — Quaker City, Quakerdelphy, City of Brotherly Love. 

Pittsburg, Pa. — Smoky City, Iron City. 

Portland, Me.— Forest City. 

Rochester, N. Y.— Flour City. 

Springfield, 111.— Flower City. 

St. Louis, Mo.— Mound City. 

Washington, D. C. — City of Magnificent Distances. 

RULES OF COMMON LaW. 



Law, as defined by Blackstone, is "a rule of action." It is usually treated ot, as statute 
'(or written.) common (or unwritten,) and civil (or Roman) law. 

The following rules of common law are so general, and so little modified by statute, as to 
practically prevail in all parts of the country, and may be of use to all to know: 

No man may profit by his own wrong ; that is, no one can by law enforce a claim arising 
from his own wrongful acts. 

A contract is an agreement between two or more persons competent to contract, by which, 
for a valuable consideration, some lawful thing is or is not to be done within a specified time. 

Verbal contracts, with but few exceptions, are good in law, but are of course more difficult 
of proof than written ones. 

Contracts about real estate (except leases for a less term than one year), or a contract to 
answer the debt, default, or miscarriage of another, or if the subject of the contract is not to 
lie performed within a year, must be in writing. 

Guarantors of contracts are released by the alteration of the terms of the contract without 
their consent. 

__ A note obtained by fraud, under duress, or from one intoxicated, is voidable, except as to 
an innocent purchaser for value. 

The, loss, destruction or theft of a note, does not release the maker or endorser, if proper 
notice is given them within a reasonable time. 

Endorsers are released, if not notified of the dishonor of a note, within a reasonable time. 

A note bears interest before maturity only when so expressed on its face. 

All notes or contracts made by minors are voidable, except given for necessaries. 

A contract obtained by fraud, can not be Avoided by the perpetrator of the fraud. 

A contract to work for a specified time, for a specified sum, is an entire contract, and the 
whole work must be performed before payment can be enforced. 

An agent is one authorized to act for his principal, who will be bound by all acts of his 
agent, done within the scope of the authority given him, or that the public may be induced by 
acts of the principal to believe come within such authority. 

The authority conferring upon an agent power to act, must be of as high order as the 
■thing to be done ; thus, the authority of an agent to execute an instrument under seal, must 
be under seal. 

Common carriers are bound to take all who offer themselves to be carried, unless there is 
some sufficient reason for refusing. 

Carriers have the right to make and enforce reasonable rules for their own protection and 
convenience. 

Carriers are liable for injuries to passengers resulting from negligence or carelessness of 
their servants, unless the person injured is guilty of contributory negligence; of carelessness 
gross enough to excuse them. 

The value of baggage lost by a carrier (when such as passengers are authorized to take) 
can_be_ recovered of such carrier, and the contents of a trunk may be proved by the oath of the 
plaintiff. 

" Good for this day only," printed on a ticket, will not invalidate the ticket or prevent its 
-use on another day, unless it was a special contract or round trip ticket sold at less than 
regular rates. 

Ordinary railroad tickets are good until used, but a ticket from one place to another is an 
entire contract, and the holder cannot stop at an intermediate place, and claim the right to be 
carried the remainder of the distance on that ticket. 

The legal holidays of this country are: all Sundays, New Year's Day (January 1st), 
Washington's Birthday (February 22d), Independence Day (July 4th), Christmas Day 
{December 25th), and Thanksgiving Day, which is annually appointed either by the president 
or by the governors of the several states, or both, and is usually appointed for the last Thurs- 
day in November. 

OLDEST NEWSPAPERS. 



The oldest newspaper now in existence is the London Times, which was started in 1785. 
The first newspaper published in America was in Boston, in 1690, but it soon failed. 
The first daily paper in New York was the Journal and Register, which started in 1788. 
The New York Sun was started in 1833, the Herald in 1835, and the Tribune in 1851. 
From 1820 to 1850, there were 32 daily newspapers started in New York City which failed. 



954 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES- 

DIAMONDS. 

The most celebrated diamonds of the world are : 

That belonging to the French crown, which is said to be the most perfect stone in the 
world ; it weights 136% carats. 

That belonging to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, weighs 139% carats. 

That belonging to the Emperor of Russia weighs 195 carats, and is rose cut. 

The Kohinoor is also rose cut, and weighs 186 carats. It now belongs to the English 
crown. 

_ That belonging to the King of Portugal is the largest known. It is still uncut, and 
weighs 1,680 carats, but some doubts are expressed as to the genuineness of the stone. 

The largest diamond in America is the Jaccard diamond, owned by Eugene Jaccard, of 
St. Louis, which weighs 32% carats. 

WATER LEVELS. 

Lake Itasca, the headwaters of the Mississippi River, is 1,575 feet above the level of the 
sea. 

The headwaters of the Missouri are 6,800 feet above the sea level. 

The headwaters of the Illinois, 596 feet above the sea level. 

The Ohio, at Pittsburgh, is 704 feet above sea level. 

The average fall of the Mississippi River is 42-100 of a foot to the mile from St. Paul to 
the mouth of the Ohio, and 32-100 of a foot to the mile below the Ohio. 

At the Rock Island Rapids, the fall is 24 feet in 14 miles, and at the Des Moines Rapids, 
33 feet in 12 miles. 

The average fall of the Missouri River, from Fort Union to its junction with the Missis- 
sippi, is 95-100 of a foot to the mile. 

The average for the Ohio is 43-100 of a foot to the mile, and of the Illinois about the same. 

The height of the various cities above the sea level, is : 

St. Paul, Minn 820 feet. 

Peoria, 111 ; 548 " 

Fort Laramie 896 " 



New York 23 feet. 

Albany 130 " 

New Orleans 10 ki 

St. Louis 450 " 

Cincinnati 550 " 

Chicago '. 591 " 

Denver 5*267 " 



Fort Benton 2,663 

Salt Lake 4i35i 

Virginia City, Nev 6,505 

Omaha, Neb 968 



THE CALENDER. 



In the year 46 B. G. x Julius Caesar instituted and decreed the Calendar called, in his 
honor, the Julian Calendar. Under this decree the year was of exactly 365 days and 6 hours, 
and for three years 365 days was the true and legal year, but the fourth year was composed of 
366 days. This extra day was inserted between the 6th and 5th days before the Calends, or 
incoming of March, which corresponds with the 24th and 25th days of February of our year. 
As the 24th of February was called " sexto Calendas Martii," the interposed day was called 
" bis sexto Calendas Martii," or the double sixth day before the Calends of March, and from 
this we derive the term ''bis sextile," to designate leap year. 

As the true year, however, is somewhat short of the estimate then made, being only 365 
days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 49 7-10 seconds in length, it was found that in the year 1582, a. 
d., the error in time from the date of the institution of the Julian Calendar, amounted to 
nearly 12 whole days. Accordingly, Pope Gregory decreed that 10 entire days should be 
stricken from the Calendar, and that the day following the 3d of October, 1582, should be the 
14th of October, 1582. Ten days were stricken out instead of the entire 12, in order to bring 
the Vernal Equinox forward to the same date at which it occurred in a. d. 325, at the sitting of 
the Council of Nice, which was on March 21st. The Pope also decreed the future succession 
of leap years, as explained in the preceding section under the proper table. 

The period between 46 b. c.,andA. d. 1582, is called the Julian Period, as the Julian 
Calendar was then used. The Calendar now in use is called the Gregorian Calendar, in honor 
of Pope Gregory, its founder. 

Roman Catholic countries generally adopted the Gregorian Calendar immediately on the 
promulgation of the decree. Great Britain did not legally correct the Calendar according to 
this system until A. d. 1752, when the difference or error amounted to 11 days, (since the 
sitting of the Council of Nice,) and it was therefore enacted that n days should be stricken 
from the Calendar, and the day following the 2d of September, 1752, should be the 14th of 
September. 

Under the old Julian Calendar, or system of notation, the year began on March 25th. 
Under the new, it begins on January 1st. 

Russia still uses the Julian Calendar, and in eonsequence their dates are now 12 days, 
bchiod ours. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 955 

RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. 



The Baptists claim that their peculiar doctrines have been preached since the third 

Congregationalism received its present form and discipline from John Robinson, in 
England, in 1602. .',«,,-• 

The Dutch Reformed Church was organized in the Netherlands in 1561. 

Episcopalians claim direct and unbroken apostolic succession from St. Paul, on his mission 
to England about A. D. 60. .... 

The Greek Church is a portion of the Church of Rome, from which it withdrew in A. D. 
853, as a protest against the assumption of superiority by the Bishops of Rome. 

Methodism originated with John Wesley in 1729, in England, but class meetings were not 
instituted and the society as such really organized until 1739.. 

The Moravians, or United Brethren, organized as a distinct branch of the church and 
adopted rules of discipline in 1457, in Bohemia. 

Mohammedanism dates from the hegira or flight of the prophet from Mecca to Medina, in 
September, 622, although this Mohammed claimed to be prophetically inspired, and had 
preached his doctrines for several years before. He was born in August, 570, and first 
announced his mission in 611. 

Mormonism was founded by Joe Smith in New York, in September 22, 1837, when he 
claimed to have found the Book of Mormons. He claimed to have had his first vision in 1820. 
The settlement at Nauvoo, 111., was the first considerable congregation of his disciples, and 
the temple there was completed in 1841. Joe Smith was shot and killed, June 27, 1844. 

Presbyterianism is the same as the Church of Scotland, and has been recognized ever 
since the principles of the Reformation were introduced into that country in 1527. 

Roman Catholicism claims direct and unbroken apostolic succession from St. Peter, to 
whose care they claim, Christ specially delivered his church. 

The Shakers originated in England, under the prophetess, Ann Lee, in 1770. This 
denomination is now confined to this country. 

Swedenborg, the founder of the sect bearing his name, commenced his instructions, 
writings and ministrations in 1743. 

Unitarianism was first preached towards the close of the second century. 

Universalism claims to have been continuously preached since A. D. 150, when the 
so-called Sibylline oracles, which teach the doctrine of the final restoration of the lost, were 
written for the purpose of converting Pagans to Christianity. 

There have been in all, 223 popes or bishops of Rome, of whom the following noticeable 
facts outside their religious histories, may prove interesting: 

John X died in prison, A. D. 927. 

Benedict IX was deposed, 1044. 

Benedict X abdicated, 1058. 

Adrian IV was the only English pope, and occupied the pontificate, 1154-1x59.^ 

Celestinus V abdicated, 1294. 

Gregory XII abdicated, 1406. 

John XXIII was deposed 1416. 

Pius IX, the present pope, ascended the papal throne, 1846. 

In the Roman Church, absolution is declared as absolute to the individual. In the Greek 
Church it is prayed for to those who are penitent, and in the English Church it is declared to 
all who are penitent. 

ESTIMATES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



In calculating capacity of cisterns and tanks, 32 gallons are allowed to the barrel. 

A barrel of flour contains 196 lbs. (or 7 English quarters) of flour. 

A barrel of pork, beef or fish contains 200 lbs. of meat besides the brine. 

A quintal of fish is one hundred weight of dried fish that is, in America, 100 lbs. In 
England, 112. 

A barrel of salt contains 10 English quarters, or 280 lbs. salt. A bushel of salt is 70 lbs., 
or one quarter of a barrel. 

A keg of powder contains 25 lbs. of powder. 

A firkin of butter should contain one English cwt. (112 lbs.) of butter; but any keg of 
butter that approximates to that weight is now called a firkin. 

Forty feet of round, or 50 feet of hewn timber is called a ton or load. 

One pubic yard of earth is called a load. 

Glaziers and stone cutters calculate their work by the square foot. 

Painter, plasterers, pavers, ceilers and paper hangers calculate by the square yard. 

Flooring, roofing, partitioning, slating, tiling, and some kindred kinds of work are calcu- 
lated by the ' 'square,' which is 10 feet square, or 100 square feet. 

Twenty -four and three-fourths cubic feet make 1 perch of stone or masonry, when strictly 
speaking ; but the custom is so general as to be legal for masons to charge for 16% cubic feet 
to the perch, unless the true perch of 24% cubic feet is distinctly stated, as in the case in all 
government advertisements for contracts of such work. 



956 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES- 



One thousand shingles are estimated to •' the square," when exposed 5 inches to the 
weather. 

Bricklayers calculate every wall as 12 inches thick when estimating by square or square 
yard. 

Joiners, bricklayers, plasterers, and kindred trades, calculating their work, allow only one- 
half of the actual openings for doors, windows, and vacant places. 

In calculating stone or brick work, the outside line is taken as the length, and no allowance 
is made for corners. 

When grain is sold by measure, struck measure is meant and used. Old laws define this 
to mean that after the measure is heaped full, the excess is struck off with a round stick or 
roller, straight, and of the same diameter from end to end. This process would leave the 
vessel just evenly full. 

Corn in the ear, fruit and feed are usually sold by heaped measure, which would make a 
Winchester bushel hold a little more than 5 pecks. 

Fifty-seven and one-quarter cubic feet make one chaldron. 

Four hundred and twenty-one and seven-eighths cubic feet, or a cube of 7}^ feet, make 1 
Jon (English, 2240 lbs.) hay in the mow. 

Hay, as usually delivered, weighs 5 lbs. to the cubic foot. 

Hay well pressed weighs 8 lbs. to the cubic foot. 

Straw, loose, weighs 3^ lbs.; well pressed, 5% lbs, to the cubic foot. 

A gallon of water weighs 8}^ lbs. 

A gallon of oil weighs 7^ lbs. 

A gallon of molasses weighs 11% lbs. 

A gallon of alcohol weighs 6 19-20 lbs. 

A gallon of spirits turpentine weighs^ 5-16 lbs. 

The United States government, which, under the Constitution alone has the power to 
regulate the matter, has made no provision for the weights per bushel of any articles, and as 
almost all grains, seeds and roots are now sold by the weighed bushel, and the customs of each 
State being different, much misunderstanding has arisen when buyers and sellers are resident 
of different States. In the following table, the most useful weight of the article is given, and 
some of the principal variations from it are noted ; 

Barley 48 lbs. . . ,. California, 50 lbs. Vermont and Mass., 46 lbs. 

Pennsylvania, 47 lbs. 

Beans 60" ..... New Jersey, 63 lbs. New York, 62 lbs. 

Blue Grass Seed ....14 " 

Buckwheat .....52" California and Illinois, 40 lbs. Connecticut, 45 

lbs. Indiana and New Jersey, 50 lbs. Massa- 
chusetts and Vermont, 46 lbs. Minnesota, 
Wisconsin and Oregon, 42 lbs. New York 
and Pennsylvania, 48 lbs. 

Castor Beans. 46" 

Clover Seed. 60" New Jersev. 64 lbs. Ohio, 62 lbs. 

Flaxseed . 56 " . New Jersey and New York, 55 lbs. 

Hempseed .44 " New Jersey and New York, 48 lbs. 

Corn 56" 

Ear Corn.... 70 ** Indiana, Iowa and Missouri, 68 lbs. 

Oats ......32 "■ Iowa, Missouri and Wisconsin, 35 lbs. Ken- 

tucky, 33^ lbs. Maine, Mass., New Hamp- 
shire and New Jersey, 30 lbs. Oregon, 34 lbs. 
Connecticut, 28 lbs. 

Onions.. 57" Indiana, 48 lbs. Rhode Island 50 lbs. Massa- 
chusetts, 52 lbs. Ohio, 56 lbs. 

Peas 60" New Jersey, 64 lbs. 

Potatoes 60 " 

Rye 56" ........... 

Salt 70" 

Timothy Seed. 45" New York, 44 lbs. Wisconsin, 46 lbs. 

Wheat Co" Connecticut, 56 lbs. 

Bran 20 ll 

Coal 80 " Bituminous; 70 lbs. Cannel. 

Many of the weights, it will be observed, are based on the English ton; for instance: rye 

and corn are 2 quarters, or 56 pounds to the bushel. 

A book is described as a folio, quarto, etc., according to the number of folds it takes to 

reduee the paper on which it is printed to the size of a page of the book. 

A sheet folded once, or in 2 leaves, makes a folio. 



twice " 4 


" " " quarto. 


four times 8 


' " " octavo. 


six " 12 


' " " duodecimo. 


eight " 16 


11 " 16 mo. 


twelve *4 


4 *' l, 24mo. 


sixteen 32 ' 


44 44 32ino. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 



957 



TABLES. 



ENGLISH. 



4 farthings make i penny. 



12 pence. 

20 shillings 

2i shillings 

6s 8d , 



AMERICAN. 

io mills ..make i cent. 

io cents " i dime. 

io dimes ll i dollar. 

io dollars. '. " i Eagle. 

FRENCH. 

io millimes make i centime. 

ioo centimes " i franc. 

According to the table of mortality, the reasonable expectation, or rather the average 
duration of life, would make probabk that at any certain age there was still unexpired of a 
man's life as below : 



12s 

13s 4dor % L. 
5S 



1 shilling. 
1 pound. 
1 guinea. 
1 noble, 
x angel. 
1 merk. 
1 crown. 



At birth 14.25 years. 

" 5 years 31,05 " 

" 10 " 30.00 

a J 5 " 



26.75 
23-75 
21.40 
19.50 
I7i50 



At 40 years 15.60 years. 



13.75 
11.95 
10.30 
8-75 
7-40 
5.80 



The River Jordan is 180 yards wide, and 3 feet deep at its mouth. 

The Sea of Galilee is 13 miles long, and 6 miles broad at its greatest with. 

Palestine is about 200 miles long and about 60 miles wide on the average. 

From Dan to Beersheba, by an air line, is 125 miles. 

From Jerusalem to Jericho, is 15 miles. 

The great pyramid at El Guzeh, in Egypt, is 746 feet square at the base ; and 450 feet 9 
inches high. 

The second pyramid is 690 feet 9 inches square, and 447 feet 6 inches high. 

The third is 354 feet 6 inches square, and 203 feet high. 

At some distance from these are six smaller pyramids. 

The Sphinx is the figure of a human headed, recumbent lion, hewn out of solid roek. 

The defects, and portions of the legs, are supplied with stone casings. It is 188 feet 9% 
inches long. 

A slow river runs as the rate of 2 miles per hour, 

A rapid river runs at the rate of 6 miles per hour, 

A man is supposid to walK 4 miles per hour, 

A clipper ship sails 10 miles per hour. 

A horse trots when on the road, 12 miles per hour. 

A horse runs wh«n on the road, 20 miles per hour. 

A steamboat runs 22 miles per hour. 

A hawk, it»is said, can fly 150 miles per hour. 

A three-penny nail is 1 inch long. 
A four-penny nail is i^'inch long. 
A five-penny nail is if£ inch long. 
A six-penny nail is 2 inches long. 
An eight-penny nail is 2% inches long. 
A ten-penny nail is 2% inches long. 
A twelve-penny nail is 3 inches long. 
A twenty-penny nail is ■$% inches long. 

The number of kernels in one pound of different articles, will average as follows : Wheat, 
10,500; rye, 23,000; barley, 15,400; oats, 20,000; clover seed, 250,000. 

BALLOONING. 

June 5, 1783, the first balloon on record was sent up from near Lyons, France, by Stephen 
Joseph Montgolifer. This was inflated with hot air. 

August 27, 1783, a balloon inflated with hydrogen was sent up from Paris by the brothers 
Robert. 

Towards the close of the same year, a young man by the name of Pilate de Rozier, made 
an ascent in a hot air balloon, but only to the height of 300 feet, the balloon being held down 
with ropes. 

November 21st, 1783, the same Rozier with the Marquis d'Arlandes, made the first balloon 
ascension properly so-called. They ascended to the height of 3,000 feet, traveled about six 
miles, and descended safely in about twenty-five minutes. This was in a hot air balloon. 

December 1st, 1783, Messrs. Charles and Robert ascended from Paris in a balloon inflated 
with hydrogen, were up nearly two hours, and landed near Nesles, twenty-five miles distant. 

June 28th, 1784. The first lady who ever made a balloon ascension was Madame Thible, 
who went up on this date with M. Fleurant, They started from Lyons and attained the 
height of 13,500 feet. 









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OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 959 

■ January 7th, 1785, Mr. Blanchard and an American named Dr. Jeffries, crossed the 
English Channel, from Dover to Calais, in a balloon. 

August 23d, 1 804, the first fatal balloon accident happened. In an endeavor to cross the 
English Channel, from Calais to Dover, the balloon took fire from some unexplained cause, 
an J Rozier, its occupant, was precipitated some 3,000 feet to the ground. 

September 15th, 1804, the first ascension for scientific purposes was made, and a height of 
23,040 feet was attained. 

In 1862, it is said that a height of 37,000 feet, or seven miles was attained. 

April 15th, 1875, Messrs. Sirel, Tissandier and Croce Spinelli, then French scientists and 
■aeronauts, made an ascension from Paris in the balloon Zenith, and attained the height of over 
8,000 metres, or five miles. The air at that height was so attenuated as to be incapable of 
supporting life, and they had provided themselves with reservoirs of oxygen 'to breathe from 
occasionally. After reaching the height of 7,000 metres, M. Tissandier became paralyzed and 
unconscious. On their descent he was found still unconscious and his two companions dead in 
the car. It is presumed that they were suffocated by the escaping gas. 

MONEY. 
Values of several coins in American gold : 

ANCIENT. 

Jewish Shekel of Silver..... I00.44 75-100 

Talent of Gold « 27.37 50-100 

Obolus • > o.oe 75-100 

Grecian Obolus 0.03 23-100 

Drachma 0.19 

Roman Sestertius 0.04 20-100 

MODERN. 
Dollar. Argentine Republic, Canada, United States, Egypt, Hayti, Liberia, 

and Sandwich Island, $1.00 00-000 

41 Bolivia, Central America, Peru and Ecuador, 0.96 50-100 

" Mexico 1.04 75-100 

Peso. Chili 0.91 23-100 

41 Cuba and Porto Rico 0.9258-100 

'* Paraguay .. . 1.00 00-000 

** United States of Columbia 0.96 50-100 

Venezuela 0.77 73-100 

Patacor. Uruguay 0.9498-100 

Yen. Japan 0.99 70-100 

Mibreis (or 1000 Reis.) Brazil 0.54 56-100 

" " " Portugal . 1.08 47-100 

Pound Sterling. Great Britain and Jamaica 4.86 65-100 

Crown. Denmark, Norway and Sweden 0,26 80-100 

Drachm. Greece 0.19 30-100 

Marc. German Empire 0.23 82-100 

Rouble. Russia ... 0.77 i7-oo« 

Florin. Austria 0.4760-100 

" Netherlands , 0.40 50-100 

Franc. France, Belgium and Switzerland = „ 0.19 30-100 

Lira. Italy 0.19 30-100 

Peseta. Spain = 0.19 30-100 

Rupee. India 0.45 84-100 

Mahbut. Tripoli 0.87 09-100 

Piastu. Turkey 0.0439-100 

*' Tunis 0.12 50-100 

Values of different coins frequently mentioned but not in active circulation: 

Ducat Austria $ 2.28 30-100 

Real. Spanish Countries 0.12 20-100 

Doubloon. South America 15-50 30-100 

" Mexico 15.5930-100 

Thaler. Germany „ 0.71 40-100 

Guilder. " , 0.39 97-100 

Ricksthaler. " 0.2730-100 

Dollar, as minted by the English for the China trade 1.04 00-000 

Trade Dollar. United States 1.04 75-100 

The present law makes both the gold and silver coin to be of 9 parts pure metal» 
and 1 part of alloy. In the gold coin, the alloy consists of equal parts of silver and copper. 
In the silver coin the alloy is of pure copper. 

In the minor coins, the silver 3 cent piece is of 3 parts silver and 1 part copper; the nickel 
coins are of 88 parts copper and 12 parts nickel. 

The English gold coin are n parts pure gold and 1 part alloy. The silver coin are 222 
parts «ilver, 18 parts alloy. 



960 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 
FREE TRADE vs. PROTECTION. 



Ques. What is free trade? Ans. It is the exemption of foreigners from all taxes on the 
business they do in our country in competition with our own people. Ques. How much is it. 
worth to the foreigner? Ans. It is a bounty to him equal to our average rate of taxation, 
which is twenty per cent, of our total earnings of our national industry, besides our higher 
cost of labor, which is at least twenty per cent. more. Free trade is, therefore, a bounty of 
forty per cent, to foreigners competing in our markets. Ques. What is protection ? Ans. It 
is the sole object of all government. Everything else we manufacture for ourselves, but pro- 
tection is the only thing for which we must look to government. Ques. What is protectfon to 
American industry ? Ans. It is levying such a tax on foreigners trading in our markets as 
makes them pay a considerable share of the cost of supporting our government, at the same 
time that it prevents American producers from being slaughtered by foreign competition. 
Ques. What is the effect of free trade? Ans. It keeps every American Workingman under 
perpetual competition with all the lowest paid workingrnen on the globe. If he attempts to 
weave cloth, he is not permitted to do so at a profit so long as the poorest Manchester weaver 
can do it for less, and undersell him. If he tries to raise wool, he is broken, provided a 
Buenos Ayrean or Australian grower can undersell him. Whatever he does he must do 
cheaper than the whole world besides; and, of all the world's paupers he must be the poorest, 
or else the national industry must fail in the fierce competition. Ques. What is the effect of 
protection? Ans. It is to guarantee to the workingman the highest rates of wages anywhere 
paid ; to his children, the best clothes and schools ; to his wife, the greatest freedom and 
virtue; and to society, the most perfect local and national independence, in peace and in war. 

Illustrations in Defence of Protection. — The Turkish Empiie possesses in abund- 
ance almost every natural advantage. Nevertheless, having been forced to submit to British 
free trade policy, her domestic commerce has disappeared, and she herself has become so 
utterly ruined that foreign governments are now preparing to administer on her estate, to the 
end that their own subjects may be enabled to obtain some portion of their claims. 

India, forced to submit to a free trade policy, is now for means with which to pay the 
mere interest on her debts, wholly dependent on her ability to extend the destructive and in- 
famous opium trade. 

Peru, the states of the La Plata, and other of the Spanish American states that have been 
mainly dependent upon Britain, are in a state of financial ruin. 

Australia, self-governing and determined on the establishment of a domestic commerce, is 
now, on the contrary, so prosperous that immigration is rapidly taking the place of the emi- 
gration that had commenced. 

Prussia, having after many years of effort established for Germany a perfectly free domestic 
commerce, finds herself now in the lead of one of the most powerful empires of the world. 

France, always intelligently protective, is to-day, commercially, more independent than 
any other country of the world. 

Prior to i860, these United States, with two brief and brilliant exceptions, were subjected 
to an almost free trade system, as a consequence of which exchanges between the North and 
South were effected through the port of Liverpool, which thus was constituted the great hub 
of American commerce. Asa further eonsequence, all the main lines of road ran from west 
to east, the absence of domestic commerce making it quite impossible that north and south 
roads could profitably be made. The warp was there but the filling was not, and the more 
the former grew in size and strength, the greater became the tendency toward separation of 
those parts of the Union which believed in the freedom of man from those whose belief in the 
morality of human slavery became more and more confirmed as the necessity for abandoning 
their exhausted lands, and for transferring their slaves to those of newer States, became more 
imperative. Of all this the late rebellion was a necessary consequence, the offering thereby 
made on the free trade altar counting in lives by hundreds of thousands, and in treasures by 
thousands of millions. Since 1S60, the policy of the country has looked in a contrary direc- 
tion, toward the establishment of domestic intercourse; as a consequence of which northern 
and southern roads, by means of which the various parts of the Union are to be tied together, 
have now been made, with a growth of internal commerce that places the country fully on a 
par with any other nation of the world. 

Rights of Railroad Passengers. — In regard to the laws governing railroad passen- 
ger travel, the extra charges for failure to buy tickets are universally sustained by the 
courts, but there must be a full opportunity to buy afforded by the ticket-seller. Passen- 
gers must show tickets when asked for. As to " stopping-off," there is only one decision, 
which is that a passenger cannot "stop off" and resume his journey without the previous 
assent of the company. As to the obligation of the road to furnish a seat to a passenger, a 
decision says: "A passenger who exhibits his ticket need not surrender it until he has been 
furnished with a seat." A railroad is not liable for things stolen out of a passenger's seat, 
there being no previous delivery to the company's servants; for the same reason the company 
is not liable for baggage in the passenger's own care. Passengers who neglect to look after 
their own baggage on arrival at their destination, cannot recover it if it is lost without fault of 
the carrier. Baggage left in station-houses for the passenger's convenience, after it has 
reached its destination, comes under a new class of rights and duties, the baggage-master 
assuming the position of '"gratuitous bailee," who only becomes liable in case of gross negli- 
gence. The obligation of the railroad as carriers ceases when it has delivered to its owner, at 
the place of destination, or when he has reasonable opportunity of receiving it. It will interest 
sportsmen to know that they may recover for the value of dogs when they entrust them to 
baggage-masters for care, because of their exclusion from the passenger cars. 



SUPPLEMENT. 



THE MOUND BUILDERS AND RED MEN OF AMERICA. 

There are some pretty good reasons for believing that a race 
of men occupied this Western Continent before the appearance 
of the Red Men, or Indians. To this race has been given the 
name of " Mound Builders," because all the traces of their occu- 
pation are now confined to the existence of huge mounds of 
earth, generally in the shape of embankments or fortifications. 
The construction of these works show considerable engineering 
skill. The square, the circle, the ellipse and the octagon are all 
used, and the proportions of each are quite perfect. Many imple- 
ments of copper, such as axes, chisels, and knives ; also many 
ornaments of copper and silver, such as bracelets and beads* 
besides pieces of thread and cloth, and well-shaped vases of pot- 
tery, have all been found in these mounds. More than this, in. 
the region of Lake Superior are found old copper mines worked 
by this people. In one mine, near Eagle Harbor, an immense 
block of copper weighing nearly forty-six tons was discovered in 
the process of removal to the top of the mine. It was supported 
on logs of wood which were partly petrified. The stone and 
copper tools used by the miners were lying about just as they 
had been left by their owners ages before. At the mouth of this 
mine are piles of earth thrown out in digging, out of which trees 
are now growing nearly four hundred years old. 

At Marietta, Ohio, there is a mound, bearing trees eight 
hundred years old. The age of the mound is necessarily equal 
to that of the trees, but how much older they are, can only be 
conjectured. 

Sixteen miles east of Little Rock, Arkansas, are two of these 
elevations, the larger of which is over two hundred and fifty 
feet in height. Its summit is crowned with a magnificent elm, 
which has stood four hundred years. Near by it is a sheet of 
water known as Mound Lake, the result evidently of excavation 
tor the mound material. The two mounds are encircled by a ditch 
which encloses an area of over ninety acres. Elsewhere are seen 
extensive earthworks constructed with considerable skill. They 
crown a steep bluff, or are carried accross the neck of a 
peninsula formed by the bend of a river. If there is no access to 

6 1 961 



962 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

springs or streams, they contain artificial reservoirs for holding 
water. 

Fort Hill, on the Little Miami River, Ohio, consists of an 
embankment nearly four miles in extent, and from ten to twenty 
feet high, varying according to the natural advantages of the 
ground. In Adams County, Ohio, is a curious earthwork repre- 
senting an immense serpent, one thousand feet long, holding in 
its mouth an egg-shaped mound one hundred and sixty feet in 
length, and having its tail turned into a triple coil. These 
mounds rarely contain more than one skeleton. Near Nashville, 
in Tennessee, an idol made of clay and gypsum was exhumed. 
Roman and Persian coins have been discovered ; and in western 
New York a silver piece with the date A. D. 600 was found far 
below the surface. 

We have no means of arriving at any definite or satisfactory 
conclusion concerning the origin or destiny of this lost race. It 
is natural to suppose, however, that they came from Asia, the 
birthplace of man. The Indians themselves had no recollection 
of any previous race in this country. We only know of their 
existence from the structures of earth and stone, which attest 
their presence in the remote past. When Columbus discovered 
the country, the Indians were the sole human occupants of the 
continent. 

Most curious of all the remains found on this continent, are 
those of Arizona. Here are Spanish cathedrals dating back of 
the revolutionary struggle, and ruins of Spanish towns indicating 
an early and extensive colonization, now disappeared. Recent 
explorations have revealed other prehistoric remains, belonging 
to a race which has left behind no tradition even of its name or 
origin. The Gila Valley alone, it is estimated, must once have 
been occupied by one hundred thousand inhabitants. In the 
great Tonto Basin, bounded by the rivers Gila, Verde and Black 
Shesa, and the White Mountains, nearly every hill within a range 
of ten thousand square miles is covered with broken pottery, so 
perfectly glazed that its bright coloring is still preserved. Here 
are ruins of pueblos four stories high and with walls two 
feet thick, aqueducts, reservoirs, irrigating canals, and regular 
fortifications. 

Along the cliffs in many places are multitude of caves dug into 
the solid rock, where the inhabitants seem to have taken refuge 
against an invading foe. These caves are often twenty feet deep, 
and closed by mason work of stone and cement, still well pre- 
served. In the larger caves, the front wall is bastioned and loop- 
holed. While in the ceiling of the principal room is a man- 
hole enabling one to enter a series* of chambers with which the 
whole mountain is honeycombed. The timbers used in the var- 
ious rooms were evidently cut with stone hatchets. The cham- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 963 

bers are dark, and the walls are yet black with the smoke from 
the fires of the ancient cave dwellers. 

THE RED MEN. 

The name Indian was conferred upon the primitive inhabitants 
of the New World, on account of their fancied resemblance to 
the people of India, and because Columbus and his followers at 
first supposed that they had only discovered the Indies. 

The origin of the red men of America is involved in com- 
plete obscurity. At what date, or by what route they came to 
the Western Continent, is an unsolved problem. All theories 
propounded have been vague and unsatisfactory. And until fur- 
ther research shall throw additional light on the history and migra- 
tions of the primitive races of mankind, the origin of the Indians 
will remain shrouded in mystery. 

These red men belong to the bow-and-arrow family of man- 
kind. Some races cultivate the soil ; others have herds and 
flocks ; others build cities and ships. But to smite with swift 
arrow the deer and bear was the great delight and sole profit of 
these primitive Americans. Such a race could live only in a 
country of woods and wild animals. 

Although the Indians were really one great family in appear- 
ance, manners, customs and religion, yet the difference in dialects 
divided them into tribes and nations. The principal of these 
were the following : 

1. The Algonquins who occupied nearly all the northern part 
of the continent, and who extended themselves from Maine to 
Minnesota. This family embraced twenty different tribes, and at 
the beginning of the seventeenth century numbered fully a 
quarter of a million. Prominent among these local tribes were 
the Ottawas, Chippewas, Sacs and Foxes, Illinois, Shawnees, 
Powhatans, Delawares, Mohegans. Narragansetts and Pequods. 
The tribes of this great family were little given to agriculture, 
but roamed from one place to another in search of game. When . 
the white man came, this race had already begun to decline in 
numbers and influence, and before his fiery rum and destructive 
weapons the race has since withered to a mere remnant. 

2. The Iroquois, who filled up the middle part of the conti- 
nent. This family embraced the Hurons, Eries, Tuscaroras, 
Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Oneidas and Mohawks, making 
what was sometimes called the "The Five Nations." The 
warriors of this great confederation presented the Indian cha- 
racter in its most favorable aspect. They were brave, patriotic, 
eloquent, not wholly averse to useful industry, living in repect- 
able villages, and tilling the soil with considerable success. 

3. In the southern part of the country were the Nobilian nations, 
prominent among which were the Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, 



964 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGESv 

Choctaws and Chickasaws. Their territory was next in extent 
to the Algonquins, and extended along the Gulf of Mexico from 
the Atlantic to the Mississippi. 

4. West of the Mississippi was the wide-spread race of the 
Dakoias, which included the Winnebagoes, Sioux, Crows, Paw- 
nees, Comanches, Apaches, Utahs, Black Feet, Snakes, and Flat- 
heads. There language and customs differed so much among 
themselves, that they are not so well known as those of some 
other nation. There were besides these, various other tribes which 
cannot be separately classified. Each tribe was distinguished from 
others by different dialects and customs, and also by marks 
tattooed on the breast, consisting generally of representations of 
animals or birds. 

These various nations or confederacies, sometimes acted 
together and sometimes not, according to local causes which 
might determine their action. In general, however, each race 
hated and fought every other race. Thus between the Algon- 
quins and Iroquois there existed a most powerful and bitter 
enmity. At the head of each tribe was a chief or sachem, but 
they had no written laws. They relied simply upon customs and 
traditions for articles of agreement and motives of policy. The 
confederations were likely at any time to be broken up by the 
barbarous passion and insubordination of the several tribes. 
No general Indian Congress was known, although national and 
tribal councils were often held to debate questions of policy and 
right. If the sachem had sufficient ability and strength of will 
to influence his own and other tribes he did so ; otherwise they 
acted from custom or necessity. 

The Indian character was marked by strong peculiarities. He 
was a being of great personal independence and willfulness of 
action. He never knew what it was to be curbed or controlled 
by the will of another, or by settled and established laws. His 
obedience to authority was always voluntary, never enforced. 

He had a great passion for hunting and for war. Before the 
introduction of fire-arms, he acquired great dexterity in the use 
of the bow and the spear. And against the wild animals by 
which he was surrounded, or against some hostile tribe these weap- 
ons were constantly used. Among the Indians the forgiveness 
of injuries was reckoned a weakness and a shame, and revenge 
was considered among the nobler virtues. An open battle-field 
was unknown among them. Fighting was carried on by ambus- 
cade, surprise and massacre. Quarter was rarely asked and never 
granted, while those captured in battle were put to death outright, 
or by slow and barbarous torture. 

At his best estate the red man was an unsocial, solitary, 
gloomy spirit. He was a man of the woods. He sat apart. 
The forest was better than the wigwam, and the wigwam better 






OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 965 

than the village. The Indian woman was a degraded creature, a 
drudge, a beast of burden, and the whole family relation was 
correspondingly low. The religious belief of the Indians was 
simple. They adored a great spirit, and believed in a future 
state. Paradise to them was an unlimited hunting-ground where 
game always abounded, and where fatigue, hunger and thirst were 
unknown. 

The Indian utensils were few, rude, and primitive. Some 
earthern pots, bags, and pouches, stone hammers for pounding 
corn, were all his stock and store. A copper kettle was consid- 
ered very precious. As the Indian went about he always carried 
with him his hatchet of stone or copper, and his bow and arrow. 
His clothing consisted of a blanket thrown over his shoulders, 
and bound about him with a thong of leather ; while the rest of 
the dress was made from skins prepared by smoking. He was 
fond of hanging about him fangs of rattlesnakes, claws of hawks, 
feathers of eagles, bones of animals, and scalps of enemies. 
Sometimes he painted his face and body with all manner of glar- 
ing and fantastic colors. The Indians had no written language, 
but used quaint figures and signs scratched upon rocks or bark 
for writing. The different dialects spoken among them resem- 
bled each other somewhat, but had no analogy to those of any 
other nation. 

In person the Indian was straight, lean, and swift of foot. It 
was a common thing for a good runner to make seventy miles in 
a day. Eyes jet black and sunken; hair black and straight; 
beard scanty ; skin copper-colored ; with high cheek bones ; hands 
and feet small; body lithe and supple, but not strong; general 
stature below the average of Europeans. When not hunting or 
fighting, the Indians gave themselves up to dances and amuse- 
ments, such as running, leaping, shooting at a mark, racing in 
canoes, and wrestling. The use of tobacco among them was 
universal and excessive. 

At present the Red Men are slowly fading and dying out. A 
few of them have been civilized, particularly the Choctaws, 
Cherokees, Creeks and Chickasaws inhabiting the Indian Terri- 
tory. But the majority of them prefer their old ways to any 
improvements. They seem destined to general and speedy ex- 
tinction. Very soon the already feeble sons of the bow-and- 
arrow will be seen in the solitary woods and by the rivers no 
more. But the names given by them to mountain and stream 
still remain, and will be spoken when they themselves have de- 
parted. Year by year one tribe after another says to the prairies 
and forests which were the hunting-grounds of their ancestors, 
farewell ! And from the present feelings towards the race, when 
the last one has gone, the cypress and hemlock will alone sing 
their requiem. 



966 . FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

THE NORSEMEN IN AMERICA. 

Up to within a comparatively recent period, it had been gen- 
erally supposed that Columbus was the first European white man 
who ever landed upon American soil. But now it seems to be 
pretty well established that some Icelanders and Norwegians 
discovered the continent prior to its discovery by the Genoese 
navigator. The proofs of this are the documents found by the- 
efforts of the Royal Society of Copenhagen, regarding the expedi- 
tions of the Norsemen to Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Vin- 
land, and the Norse remains which have been found at Newport, 
Garnet Point, and several other places. 

The Icelandic historians also give a uniform and tolerably con- 
sistent account of the early exploits of their own countrymen in 
this direction. It is said that when the word America is men- 
tioned in the hearing of an Icelandic shool-boy, he will at once 
answer, " Oh yes ; Lief Erickson discovered that country in the 
year 1001." As great a scholar as Humboldt, considers the 
evidence sufficient to establish the fact of this discovery. 

It is claimed that this western continent was first seen by white 
men A. D. 986. A certain Norse navigator by the name of Her- 
julfson, sailing from Norseland to Greenland, was caught in a 
storm and driven westward to Newfoundland or Labrador. At 
this time however no landing was attempted. On reaching Green- 
land Herjulfson told wonderful stories of the new lands seen in 
the west. Fourteen years later, Lief Erickson, resolving to know 
the truth of these stories, sailed westward from Greenland and 
reached Labrador in 1001. He landed and explored the coast 
for a considerable distance. Southward he went as far as Mass- 
achusetts and Rhode Island, and it is alleged that he even found 
his way into New York harbor. In the years that followed, others 
came to the shores of America. One of Lief's brothers, Thor- 
wald, made a voyage. to Maine and Massachusetts, and is said to 
have died at Fall River in the latter State. 

Another mariner, in 1007, is said to have penetrated as far south: 
as the capes of Virginia. Colonies were planted in Newfound- 
land and Nova Scotia under the supposition that the country was 
the western part of Greenland. But the settlements were feeble 
and were soon broken up. The spirit of adventure was appeased 
and the restless Norsemen returned to their own country. To 
all the coast they saw, they gave the name of Vinland. There is 
nothing improbable in this fact when we consider that these same 
Norsemen, or Sea-kings as they were called, penetrated to almost 
every clime in the day of their active power. They were sea- 
rovers and pirates, and at one time the better parts of England 
and France fell under their dominion. Even William the Con- 
queror was the grandson of a sea-king. But Europe never 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 967 

heard of this discovery and practically it amounted to nothing. 
Whether they came to America or not, the world was not bene- 
fited by their voyages, and so it is a matter of little moment to 
any one. 

THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 

Although the kingdom of Spain is reduced to such a pitiable 
plight now, yet in the 15th century Spain was one of the fore- 
most nations in maritime enterprise in the world. At least 
Columbus found it so ; for after ten years of wandering and plead- 
ing from court to court, explaining the figure of the earth and 
entreating help, at last he found in Isabella, queen of Castile, his 
first appreciative listener and faithful friend. In the progress 
of time it was reserved for Spain to have the honor of adding 
a new world to the old, and reserved for a woman to have the 
honor of aiding in the carrying out of the enterprise. Although 
others had concluded before Columbus that the world was round, 
yet no one before Columbus gave his life to the realization of the 
idea. The honor, therefore, of America's discovery is divided 
between Spain and Italy — Spain furnishing the means and Italy 
the man. For Columbus, although sailing under the Spanish 
flag, was himself a native of Genoa, in northwestern Italy. He 
was born 1435 A.D., was carefully educated, and devoted himself 
to the sea. After following a seafaring life for about twenty 
years upon the Mediterranean and those parts of the Atlantic 
adjacent to the coasts of Europe, he conceived the project of 
crossing the Atlantic and arriving at the East Indies. After many 
trials and delays, he set sail on the 3rd of August, 1492, and 
reached San Salvador after a voyage of seventy-one days. This 
voyage led to others, and in the course of a few years America, as 
an object of exploration, was the principal thought of Europe. 

In Spain, particularly, there was great zeal and enthusiasm 
over the New World. Within ten years after the death of 
Columbus, the principal islands of the West Indies had been 
explored and colonized; and making these islands a starting- 
point, expeditions were constantly sent out to the mainland. 
One of the earliest of these was that under Vasco Numez de 
Balboa, in 15 13. A colony was established on the Isthmus of 
Darien, with Balboa as Governor. While searching for gold, he 
accidentally discovered the Pacific Ocean. After viewing the 
great water at a distance, he went down to its shore, waded in, 
drew his sword, and took possession of it in the name of the 
King of Spain. 

The same year Juan Ponce de Leon fitted out three ships for 
discovery at his own expense, and started for the New World. 
Ponce de Leon had been a companion of Columbus on his second 



968 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

voyage, had also been Governor of Porto Rict^ and had grown 
rich and old. About that time there started a story that some- 
where in the newly-discovered country a fountain existed, the 
waters of which would confer perpetual youth upon him who 
bathed therein. Leon longed to be young again, and so started 
to find this fountain. Sailing away from San Salvador, he soon 
came in sight of a shore which was covered with waving forests, 
green leaves, singing birds and fragrant blossoms, and to it he 
gave the name of Florida, which means the land of flowers. With 
some difficulty he landed, took possession of the country, planted 
a town and then continued his search. Not finding it, he came 
back to the coast, but the Indians fell upon him ; a furious battle 
ensued, in which De Leon received a mortal wound and died. 
He came forth in search of youth and life, he found only death 
and a grave. 

Among the many Spanish adventurers whose exploits fill up the 
pages of history, none are more remarkable than those of Fer- 
nando Cortez in the conquest of Mexico. Cortez was a bold, 
reckless, unprincipled invader, whose highest motive was love of 
money, but w.ithal a brave, skillful general. He landed at 
Tabasco in 15 19, cleared the coast of all opponents, and then set 
out for Vera Cruz. In the interior of Mexico was quite a large, 
and wealthy empire, governed at this time by the famous Monte- 
zuma. When the Mexicans heard of the approach of Cortez, 
Montezuma sent messengers with large presents, entreating him 
to stop ; but Cortez assured the ambassadors that he intended to 
see the emperor in person. A second embassy was despatched 
with still larger presents; but the sight of the gold inflamed the 
cupidity of the Spaniards to its highest pitch, and, burning their 
ships behind them, they started for the Mexican capital. Instead 
of righting Cortez as he went along, the tributary nations deserted 
Montezuma, made peace with the Spaniard, and in some cases 
joined his standard. Hence, without much opposition, Cortez 
marched straight into the great central square of the city, and 
quartered his troops near the temple of the Aztec god of war. 
For a month or more the people of the city and the army dwelt 
together in harmony — each party examining the other, and get- 
ting ready for the coming fight. As matters grew serious, and 
hostilities began to assume a dangerous aspect, Cortez adopted 
the bold expedient of capturing the king, and holding him as a 
hostage. As soon as Montezuma was in his power, Cortez made 
him acknowledge himself a vassal of Spain, and agree to pay the 
sum of $6,300,000 and an annual tribute besides. 

While affairs were in this condition at the Mexican capital, 
Cortez learned that the Spanish governor of Cuba, moved by 
jealousy, had despatched another force to intercept his progress, 
and take from him the command of the expedition. Leaving only 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 969 

340 men behind him to watch the Mexicans, Cortez took the 
Temainder of his army, made a forced march, fell upon his rival 
while asleep in camp, and compelled the whole force to surrender. 
Then, inducing the conquered force to join his own standard, he 
started back to the capital with a greatly increased army. 

He arrived just in time. While he had been absent, the 
Mexicans had risen in rebellion, and a fierce conflict was raging. 
The little garrison was hard pressed ; but the Spaniards entered 
the city without great opposition, relieved the garrison and tried 
to bring the Mexicans into subjection. But it could not be done. 
In a few days the conflict began in earnest, and the streets were 
deluged with the blood of thousands. For months the fighting 
went on, and it became evident that the Spaniards would soon 
be overwhelmed by the mere force of numbers. To save himself, 
Cortez compelled Montezuma to go upon the top of the palace, 
in front of the great square, where the people were gathered, and 
to counsel them to make peace. For a moment the fighting 
stopped, and there was silence ; but in another moment Monte- 
zuma was struck down by javelins from his own subjects. The 
poor monarch, in. despair and wretchedness, lingered a few days 
and then died. When the people heard of his death they were 
stricken with remorse, and for a few days abandoned the conflict. 
But matters could not rest here, and so the conflict was renewed 
again, and Cortez was obliged to get out of the city. The 
desperate Mexicans followed him, whereupon a great battle was 
. fought, in which Spanish arms and valor conquered. In the 
crisis of the struggle the sacred Mexican banner was struck down 
and captured. Dismay seized upon the warriors, and they fled 
in all directions. Cortez marched again upon the capital, laid 
siege to it, and after many months of conflict the famous city 
yielded. And so the empire of the Montezumas was overthrown, 
and Mexico became a Spanish province. 

The Spaniards, as a nation, seemed to think that America mmst 
abound in untold wealth of every kind, and that all they had to 
do in order to obtain it was to march into the country and search 
out its hidden treasures. Accordingly, one expedition after 
another was fitted out to find these splendid cities in the interior, 
and secure their priceless treasures. The most renowned of 
these was that of Ferdinand de Soto, the discoverer of the 
Mississippi. De Soto had served with Pizarro in the conquest of 
Peru, and was a man of means and influence. When he an- 
nounced his intention of exploring the new country, hundreds of 
young men, some of them nobles and wealthy, made haste to join 
the expedition. De Soto picked out six hundred of the most 
gallant and daring, and made up his company. The most ex- 
travagant preparations were made, and the greatest enthusiasm 
^prevailed, The young knights were clad in costly suits of armo^ 



970 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ornamented with scarfs and silk embroidery. The fleet consisted 
of ten vessels, laden with everything which could be needed. They 
sailed away and touched at Cuba, where De Soto left his wife, a 
high-born lady, and where he was joined by more men from the 
island. The wife was to govern Cuba, while her husband found 
and conquered new empires. The ships cast anchor in Tampa 
Bay, and the young men saw nothing before them but silent 
forests and gloomy morasses. Some thereupon turned back, but 
the majority kept on. De Soto and his party plunged boldly 
into the woods and marched northward, wading through swamps, 
swimming rivers, and fighting Indians for three months. Arriv- 
ing at the country of the Apalachians, on the left bank of the 
Flint River, they determined to winter. For four months they 
stayed here and sent out exploring parties in every direction. 

Early next spring the Spaniards began their march to the 
north and east. They encountered an Indian guide, who told 
them of a populous empire farther on, where the land was full of 
gold. A Spanish soldier who had been over the ground before 
denied this story, but De Soto would not believe the denial, and 
said that he would find gold or see poverty with his own eyes. 
On the party went through swamps and woods. The Indian 
guide became crazy, and lost the whole company in the forest. 

By May they had reached South Carolina, and thence turned' 
westward. Wandering on, they came to the Indian town of 
Mobile, where a terrible battle was fought with the savages, in 
which De Soto killed or burned to death about two thousand five 
hundred Indians, and lost himself eighteen killed, one hundred 
and fifty wounded, eighty horses, and all his baggage. Nothing 
daunted, they turned again northward. The country grew 
poorer, and when winter again set in, the party was on the point 
of starvation. They found some ungathered maize and an Indian 
village, and there they encamped. Here they were again attacked 
by the Indians and driven away. Turning westward they came 
up to the Mississippi, built barges and crossed it, into the land of 
the Dakotas. It was the first time this noble river had been seen 
by white men ; but De Soto and his company seemed to care 
but little for it, only as an obstacle to be overcome in their crazy 
and useless search. The party went on and on — first north, then 
west, then south, and finally growing desperate, turned again 
toward the Mississippi, which they reached in the vicinity of 
Natchez. By this time the proud and haughty spirit of the old 
Spanisk cavalier was thoroughly subdued and broken. How pride 
and obstinancy and a desire for success had kept him up so long 
will always remain a great wonder. Several times he might have 
received assistance from Cuba, but he spurned it and pressed on 
in his mad, wild chase after imaginary riches. 

But now De Soto's head was bowed, and he saw that his expe- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 97 1 

dition had been a failure. He became a prey to melancholy, a 
violent fever set in and he died. His followers took the body in 
the night, rowed out to the middle of the river, and let it sink in 
the waters, which will always be associated with his name. 

The remainder of the company, after making one more effort to 
find their empire, came back to the Mississippi, built seven brig- 
antines out of their remaining materials, launched them and 
set sail for the Gulf of Mexico. After fifty-five days of buffetings 
and perils by land and sea, and from hostile Indians, three hun- 
dred and eleven famished and heart-broken fugitives, out of all 
that magnificent company that had sailed from Spain, reached the 
settlement at the mouth of the river of Palms, and brought one of 
the most marvelous and foolhardy expeditions of history to an end. 

Several other expeditions, similar in character and purpose to 
this one of De Soto, were made by the Spaniards, notwithstanding 
the fact that none had been successful but those of Cortez and 
Pizarro. One under Pamphilo de Navarez started out with two 
hundred and sixty soldiers and forty horsemen, wandered through 
woods and swamps, came back to the sea, built ships and em- 
barked, were overtaken in a storm, and only four men were left 
to tell the tale of suffering and hardship. A similar fate overtook 
Lucas de Ayllon and his party, who came to kidnap the Indians 
and carry them back to Spain as slaves. Ferdinand Magellan, on 
the other hand, who was a Portuguese by birth, but in the service 
of the Spanish king, determined to find a southwest passage to 
Asia, struck boldly across the sea, came to the coasts of South 
America, sailed down them, exploring as he went, at last came 
to the straits which still bear his name, went through them and 
out into the broad Pacific, and actually reached China and Japan ; 
thus for the first time circumnavigating the globe. 

But, with all their exploration, the only real and permanent 
colony established by the Spaniards in America was at St. 
Augustine, in Florida, in 1565 — forty-two years before the settle- 
ment at Jamestown by the English. 

THE FRENCH IN AMERICA. 

The particular object of the early French explorations of the 
New World seems to have been the discovery of a north-west 
passage to Asia. Before this, however, attention was drawn to the 
fisheries on the banks of Newfoundland, and as early as 1504, the 
fishermen of Normandy and Brittany, began to ply their vocation 
in those waters. But it was not until 1524 that the first French 
expedition left Europe under the command of John Verrazzani, 
a native of Florence. In a single ship called the Dolphin, he 
held on his course for fifty days through tempestuous weather, 
and at length reached land in the vicinity of Wilmington. After 



972 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

sailing a hundred and fifty miles south in the hope of finding a 
harbor, he turned north, explored the whole coast of New Jersey, 
entered the harbor of New York, and finally anchored for fifteen 
days at Newport, R. I. Continuing his voyage north, he exam- 
ined the long and broken line of the New England coast, and at 
last reached Newfoundland, from whence he returned to France 
and gave a very glowing account of his discoveries. 

Still, ten years elapsed before the second voyage was made 
under James Cartier. Coming directly to Newfoundland, he 
crossed the Gulf of St. Lawrence, entered the river itself, sailed 
up it for a distance and then went back to France. Before 
returning, however, he landed, set up a cross bearing a shieM with 
the lily of France, and proclaimed the French King monarch 
of the country. Cartier's report having aroused the greatest 
enthusiasm, a third expedition was sent out to found a permanent 
colony. It was furnished with three ships and had volunteers 
from some of the noblest families in France. The whole com- 
pany repaired to the cathedral before sailing and received the 
bishop's blessing. 

They arrived at Newfounland, entered the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence and proceeded up the river to the Island since called 
Orleans. The name of St. Lawrence was now given to the gulf 
and river, because the expedition entered these waters on the 
day of the festival of St. Lawrence the martyr, . The fleet having 
anchored, Cartier proceeded still farther up the river to an Indian 
settlement on the Island of Hochelega. Ascending a hill at the 
foot of which the Indian settlement lay, on a beautiful day in 
September, he gazed with admiration at the magnificent region 
spread out before him and called the hill Mont Real; a name 
now known as Montreal. But the enthusiasm of the company 
was speedily quenched by the rigors of a Canadian winter, and 
when spring opened they all were glad to get back to France with- 
out making any settlement. 

It was sometime before there was another attempt to colonize, 
and when it was made in 15 41 under Lord Roberval the attempt 
was a failure, like those which had preceded it. A period of 
fifty years followed in which the government of France made no 
further attempt. Meantime some persecuted Huguenots under 
the patronage of Coligni, came to the coast of Florida, passed 
northward to Port Royal in Carolina, landed and built a fort and 
remained about a year, when the company grew mutinous, killed 
their leader, constructed a rude brig and put out to sea, where 
they were driven about for a long time and finally were picked 
up by an English ship and carried to France. A second party 
under the same auspices were sent out and succeeded in making 
a settlement near the present city of St. Augustine in Florida, 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 973 

but they soon quarreled among themselves, and was finally dis- 
persed or killed by the Spaniard Melendez. 

A hundred years had passed and still no French colony had 
succeeded in permanently establishing themselves in the New- 
World. The time had now come, however, when such an attempt 
was destined to flourish. A colony sent out from France under 
De Monto as leader in 1604, consisting of two ship loads, made 
their way to the Bay of Fundy, discovered a harbor on the north- 
west coast of Nova Scotia, landed, built a fort at the mouth of 
St. Croix river, and called the whole country Acadia. Here 
they remained and prospered until finally broken up by the 
English in King William's War, 1755. 

About the same time with the settlement of Acadia, Samuel 
Champlain was commissioned by a company of merchants in 
France to come to America and establish a trading-post upon 
the St. Lawrence. Under this commission Champlain crossed 
the ocean, entered the gulf, sailed up the river, and with admirable 
prudence and good judgment selected the spot on which Quebec 
now stands as the site for a fort. After going back to France 
and giving an account of his expedition, he returned to his settle- 
ment and laid the foundations of the present city. In company 
with two others he joined a company of Huron Indians in a 
march against the Iroquois, and ascended the Sorel River until 
he discovered the long and narrow lake which has since borne 
his name. In process of time he completed a strong fortress for 
his colony, and to him more than any other man, the permanence 
of the French colonies on the St. Lawrence is to be attributed. 

Champlain died, and nis settlement in Canada was called New 
France. After his death settlers came over in considerable num- 
bers, and Quebec became an important place. The principal 
business of these northern settlers was trading in furs, and the 
French sought to gain the exclusive possession of it. But to do 
so required the friendship of the Indians inhabiting the country 
north and west of the great lakes. Accordingly some Jesuit 
Missionaries, whom Champlain had brought over from France,, 
undertook the task of converting the Indians-. By joining the 
Hurons and Algonquins against the Iroquois, Champlain had 
gained the deadly hatred of the latter, and this hatred the French 
were never able to overcome. So avoiding the Iroquois, the 
missionaries began to labor most zealously for the salvation of 
the other tribes. By the year 1536, thirteen Jesuits were at 
work among the Indians in Canada. But the Jesuits desired to 
extend their labors, and so two of their number, named Father 
Brabeuf and Daniel, accompanied a party of Hurons to their 
homes, a distance of nine hundred miles, and established six 
missions on the shores of Georgian Bay and Lake Simcoe. Here- 



974 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

they remained and labored for fifteen years, and had the satisfac- 
tion of seeing many of the dusky children of the forest enrolled 
among their converts. Among the number was Ahasistari, the 
chief of the Hurons, who became quite enthusiastic for the con- 
version of others after his own baptism, and exclaimed, " Let us 
strive to make the whole world embrace the faith in Jesus." 

The reports of the success of the missionaries in America gave 
great satisfaction to the Catholics in France, and money and 
support were freely given them to prosecute their work. A col- 
lege for the education of missionaries was founded in 1635 at 
Quebec, two years before the establishment of Harvard at Cam- 
bridge. A nunnery was also established at Montreal for the 
education of Indian girls. By the close of 1646, the French had. 
established a line of Missions across the continent from Lake 
Superior to Nova Scotia, and between sixty and seventy Jesuits 
were laboring for the conversion of the savages. Of course, this 
conversion was only formal' and external, and did not change 
either the habits or lives of the disciples, and when the mission- 
aries went away they all fell back into their old ways. 

In 1648, war blazed out between the Iroquois and Hurons, 
which very much disturbed Missionary operations. Brabeuf and 
Daniel were taken prisoners and put to death, Ahasistari, the 
Huron chief, sharing their fate with them. The Jesuits now 
turned their attention to other tribes in other parts of the country. 
A Mission was established among the Indians of Maine; another 
at the head of Lake Superior among the Chippewas ; and another 
at Green Bay. The Missionary at the latter place was the famous 
Father Marquette, who, in company with a fellow-priest named 
Joliet, and some Indian guides, struck across the country, found 
the Wisconsin river, sailed down that into the Mississippi, and 
stopped not until he had reached the mouth of the Arkansas, 
when, fearing he might fall into the hands of the Spaniards, he 
returned to Green Bay, thence to the country of the Illinois, and 
finally died and was buried on the banks of the river which still 
bears his name. The memory of this truly good man was long 
cherished by the Indians. 

The work of exploration begun by Marquette, was taken up 
and carried on by Robert de La Salle, a fur-trader of Fort 
Frontenac, at the outlet of Lake Ontario. He ascended the lake 
to Niagara, passed around the falls, and built a vessel of sixty 
tons on Lake Erie. Going on, he passed through the straits into 
Lakes Huron and Michigan and entered Green Bay, trading as he 
went. Exploring Lake Michigan as far as the mouth of St. 
Joseph, he crossed over the country and built a fort near the site 
of Peoria. Then building a large barge on the Upper Illinois, 
he embarked therein and floated down the Mississippi into the 
Gulf of Mexico, naming the country Louisiana, in honor of Louis 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 975 

XIV. Afterward the French formed a colony at the mouth of 
the Mississippi and claimed the whole country; which colony 
was the germ of the present city of New Orleans. 

France had formed the magnificent plan of an Empire in 
America, which should extend from Canada and the Lakes to the 
Gulf of Mexico. But the climate and the difficulties of various 
lands, and the wars with Indians and the English thwarted the 
design, and gradually her possessions were taken from her until 
not a shred remained. At one time however about sixty military 
posts were in existence, reaching from Canada to the Gulf, 
along the Illinois, Maumee, Wabash and Mississippi rivers. 

The most touching story in this process of subjugation, is the 
capture and ruin of Arcadia, on the coast of Nova Scotia. This 
was the oldest French colony in America, and the most peaceful 
and prosperous. The population was about 17,000. They lived 
by themselves and cared but little for the outer world. But the 
conquest of America by the English, demanded the dispersion of 
this colony. A large force was sent against it which captured the 
forts and nominally reduced the country to submission. But the 
English, envious at the prosperity of the French, pretended to 
fear an insurrection, and so it was determined to break the colony 
up and scatter the people along the Atlantic coast. The peaceful 
hamlets were destroyed, the people forced into the larger towns, 
and thence forced at the point of the bayonet into ships. Fami- 
lies were broken up never again to be reunited. Many of the 
Arcadians fled to Canada, and others went into the wilderness, 
but seven thousand were torn away and scattered among the 
English colonies. The property was confiscated, the towns burnt, 
and the whole land laid waste. And for what? Nothing but to 
satisfy the exigencies of war. The history of civilized nations 
furnishes no parallel to this wicked and wanton destruction of a 
peaceful, inoffensive people. Not a single crime is charged against 
them, only that they were French. Longfellow's beautiful poem 
called " Evangeline " puts this history into verse. 

THE DUTCH IN AMERICA. 

The Dutch settlements in America resulted from the voyages 
of Sir Henry Hudson, who was commissioned by some English 
merchants to find, if possible, a passage through the continent to 
the Indies. He made two voyages, which were both unsuccessful, 
and when he applied for more means to make a third attempt, the 
English merchants refused to grant them. Thereupon he went 
to Holland, and was fitted out with a small ship called the Half 
Moon, in which he continued his enterprise. While searching 
along the coast for his passage-way, he found himself on the 3d 
of September, 1609, safely anchored in the bay of Sandy Hook. 






97^ FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Passing through the Narrows, he entered the noble river which? 
now bears his name, and sailed northward. He reached the 
point of Kinderhook, moored his vessel, took some boats, and 
went up beyond the present site of Albany. On his return 
voyage the vessel stopped in an English harbor, and was there- 
detained by the English, who claimed the crew, and consequently 
the results of the voyage. All that Hudson could do was to for- 
ward to the Dutch East India Company an account of his voyage 
and of his discoveries, made under the flag of Holland. The 
same year several ships came over from Holland, and a settlement 
was made on Manhattan Island, and called New Amsterdam. 
Extending their discoveries north and south, the Dutch made a 
feeble claim to the coast country from Cape Cod to Cape Hen- 
lopen, and called it New Netherlands. They built a fort on Man- 
hattan Island, and another one up the river, just below Albany,, 
and employed themselves in the fur trade. 

The first settlers, consisting of about thirty families, were Dutch 
Protestant refugees from Flanders, and were called Walloons. They 
came to America to find repose from persecutions, and accord- 
ingly, between them and the early settlers of Plymouth a good 
understanding and an active sympathy existed. In 1626, the first 
regular governor was sent over from Holland, Peter Minuits by 
name, and civil government began in the New Netherlands. On 
Minuits' arrival, he purchased from the Indians the whole of 
Manhattan Island, about twenty thousand acres, for twenty-four 
dollars. Under his administration, the colony was one of the 
most prosperous in America. The Dutch settlers were peaceful 
and happy, and trade flourished greatly. 

Minuits was succeeded by Wouter Van Twiller, who has been 
described by Irving as fat, lazy, stupid and incompetent. About 
all that was done under his management was to attempt the settle- 
ment of a portion of Connecticut, in the vicinity of Hartford. 
The English, however, cut of! their communication with the sea, 
and the settlement was abandoned. 

Twiller was succeeded by Sir William Kieft, a man of greater 
abilities and energy, but cruel and arbitrary. Kieft plunged the 
colony into war with the neighboring Swedes, in the present 
State of Delaware, and also with the surrounding tribes of Indians* 
which caused the colony much trouble and distress. After a 
good deal of treachery and bloodshed on both sides, a treaty of 
peace was made, and the people were glad. 

Kieft was succeeded in 1647 by Peter Stuyvesant, the last and 
greatest of the Dutch governors. His first care was to reconcile 
the Indians, and a state of peace followed. But encroachments 
were constantly being made upon Dutch territory by surrounding 
colonies. The Swedes in Delaware again becoming troublesome^ 
Stuyvesant marched into the country and reduced it to submis- 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTOR 977 

sion ; thus practically blotting out the Swedish claim to any part 
of the New World. While Stuyvesant was absent, the Indians 
rose again and commenced their work. When these had been 
quieted the English began. Stuyvesant was in despair. About 
this time, in 1664, Charles II. of England granted to his brother, 
the Duke of York, all the territory between the Connecticut and 
Delaware. The Duke made haste to secure his territory, ap- 
peared before New Amsterdam with a large fleet, and demanded 
its surrender. Stuyvesant tried to rouse his people into resist- 
ance ; but resistance was hopeless, and so the town surrendered, 
and on the 8th of September, 1664, New Netherland ceased to 
exist. New Amsterdam was changed to New York, and Fort 
Orange, up the Hudson, was called Albany. 

THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA 

It seems strange at first sight, that when so many different 
nations were occupying portions of the 1 New World at the same 
time, all of them should fail or be driven off but the English. At 
one time in the early history of the colonies, the French nation 
occupied or controlled by far the larger and best portion of the 
continent; but not one settlement remained permanently. The 
Dutch and the Spaniards also obtained good footholds, but they 
both retired before the English. Two causes, or possibly three, 
may account for this fact. One is the decree, of an overruling and 
superintending Providence ; another is the superior energy and 
strength of character displayed by the English ; and, lastly, the 
English were really the first discoverers of the continent. Al- 
though Columbus had applied in vain to the English court for 
assistance, yet after he returned from his successful voyage, the 
English were not slow to enter upon the work which his voyages 
had thrown open to all. Five years after Columbus sailed from 
Spain, John Cabot sailed from Bristol, to find that northwest 
passage to Asia, which in reality was the object of all the dis- 
coverers and explorers of that century. On the 24th of June, 
1497, Cabot struck the coast of Labrador, and explored the shore 
line for several hundred miles. This was the real discovery of 
the American continent, and it was made fourteen months before 
Columbus reached the coast of South America, and two years 
before Amerigo Vespucci came in sight of the mainland. So 
that, after all, the English were the first discoverers of the coun- 
try, and John Cabot was the first man who went on shore, and 
planted his flag and took possession of the land in the name of 
his sovereign king. This fact gave the English a priority of 
claim over the continent, and made them bold to drive off or 
conquer all other peoples who came in at a subsequent date. 

John Cabot made but one voyage, but Sebastian Cabot, his 
62 



978 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES 

son, took up the work his father had left unfinished, and carried 
it forward with still greater success. Striking the continent at 
about the same place as his father did, he proceeded northward 
until the icebergs stopped his course, then turned southward and 
examined the coasts of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Maine, 
then passing on he reached the point of Cape Hatteras, from 
which he sailed homeward. 

Although the Cabots had done so much for England, giving her 
in reality the possession of a new world, still the nation was slow 
to appreciate the work of these men, and slow to profit by it. 
About this time the Pope of Rome issued a Papal bull giving all 
islands and countries west of the Azores to Spain; and Henry 
VII., not daring to defy the Pope, pressed not the nation's claims. 
After the Reformation in England had been accomplished, how- 
ever, the spirit of discovery reappeared in that bold sailor, Martin 
Frobisher, who made a voyage to the extreme northern part of the 
continent, explored the same, but being hindered by the icebergs, 
returned to England. After him, Sir Francis Drake sailed south, 
passed through the Straits of Magellan, and explored the Pacific 
coast as far as Oregon. 

Up to this time no attempt had been made at colonization, but 
Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh in 1583 jointly com- 
manded an expedition for that avowed purpose, sailed to New- 
foundland, landed, proceeded farther south, when disaster com- 
pelled them to relinquish the enterprise and return home. 
Raleigh, nothing disheartened, fitted out a second expedition, 
landed at Roanoke Island and left a colony. The colony started 
out well, but trouble arising with the Indians, during the absence 
of the fleet the whole company were murdered. Never did a man 
work more heroically or perseveringly to build the " city of 
Raleigh " on Roanoke Island than did Sir Walter. Three or four 
times did he plant colonies on the spot, and used up his entire 
fortune of 40,000 pounds in trying to sustain them ; but the war 
with Spain in which England was now engaged, and constant 
trouble with the Indians, prevented success. Two of the colonies 
were murdered outright, and the others returned to England. 
Sir Walter died without seeing the wish and hope of his life 
realized. 

In 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold shortened the route from Eng- 
land about two thousand miles by striking straight across the 
ocean instead of first sailing south to the Canary Islands. He 
landed at Cape Cod, and finally began a settlement on an island 
in Buzzard's Bay, but it was short-lived. 

The year 1606 had arrived, and still there was no English 
settlement on the American shore. The time had now come, 
however, for definite and settled action. Two large companies 
were formed, called the London and Plymouth Companies, and 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 979 

to these King James granted nearly the whole of the continent ; 
the Plymouth company taking the northern half, and the London 
the southern. Two attempts were made by the Plymouth com- 
pany to colonize their section, but the first expedition was cap- 
tured by a Spanish man-of-war, and > e second, after a short 
stay at the mouth of the Kennebec River, abandoned the enter- 
prise and went back. It was reserved for the London Company 
to effect the first permanent English settlement in America. 

This was at a place since called Jamestown (after James I.), 
in the present state ^ r Virginia, so called in honor of Elizabeth, 
the virgin queen. Elizabeth had given this name, however, to 
the whole section of territory discovered and described by 
Raleigh, long before the present expedition set out. The leader 
of this colony was the famous Captain John Smith. It consisted 
of three vessels, carrying a hundred and five persons. They 
started for Roanoke Island, but were driven by a storm farther 
north, entered Chesapeake Bay, and sailed up the James River 
fifty miles, where they landed on a peninsula covered with verdure 
and beauty, and laid out the first and oldest English town in the 
New World. This was on the 13th of May, 1607, a hundred and 
Un years alter its discovery by the Cabots, and forty-two years 
after the founding of St. Augustine in Florida, by the Spaniards. 

Two years after, Smith left Jamestown and returned to Eng- 
land, and gaye his attention to the formation of a settlement in 
the northern part of the continent. Accordingly he formed a 
partnership with some London merchants to carry on the fur 
trade within the limits of the Plymouth grant. Two ships were 
put under Smith's command, and with these he sailed to the coast 
of Maine, and while the crews busied themselves with fishing and 
trading, Smith began exploring the coast, and drew an accurate 
map of the same from the Penobscot to Cape Cod. On this map, 
which is still extant, the country was called New England — a 
name which was afterwards confirmed by royal authority and 
which that section has borne until this day. When Smith re- 
turned to England, a second plan of colonization was projected 
on a grand scale, but before it could be carried into execution, 
another settlement was effected on the bleak New England coast 
by a body of men who cared not for any London company, but 
who were guided evidently by God. This body of men is known 
in history by the name of the Puritans. 

They consisted of dissenters from the English Established 
Church, and their sole object in coming to America was to find 
freedom to worship God according to the dictates of their own 
reason and conscience. Being persecuted in England, they first 
fled to Holland, and after remaining there about ten years they 
contemplated a removal to the wilds of America. Asking per- 
mission of the king of England to settle in the new country, 



980 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

they received but poor encouragement, and finally resolved to 
set out alone and commit themselves to the care of the sea. 
Purchasing two small vessels called the Speedwell and the May- 
flower, they embarked and sailed away, but the Speedwell being 
very old and leaky, was obliged to return, and the Mayflower 
went on alone. The voyage was long and perilous, and occupied 
sixty-three days. It had been the intention of the Pilgrims to 
settle in the beautiful country of the Hudson, but the tempest 
carried them out of their course, and on Monday, Septem- 
ber nth (old style), 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers landed on the 
Rock of Plymouth. 

And thus these two settlements, one in Virginia and the other 
in Massachusetts, were the two nuclei or germs of that large and 
powerful nation called the American Republic, whose Centennial 
Anniversary we are this year (1876) celebrating. The begin- 
nings were feeble, but the growth has been marvelous. From 
these two, or encouraged by these two, colony after colony was 
planted, one State after anotherwas formed ; other nations were 
gradually displaced, until the English came to be regarded as the 
rightful owners and possessors of the whole land from Maine to 
Florida, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific strand. 

INDIAN WARS. 

The red men of America, although they were destined to suc- 
cumb to the ever-advancing footsteps of the white man, did not 
give up their inheritance without several very sanguinary though 
ineffectual struggles. These struggles are known in history by 
the name of " The Indian Wars " 

The first of any note that occurred is called King Philip's 
War. The theater of operations lay within the boundaries of the 
colonies of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. King Philip was 
the youngest son of Massasoit, who had been the early friend of 
the settlers. A treaty of peace existed between the tribes under 
the government of Massasoit and their English neighbors. Uncas r 
the chief of the Mohegans, persuaded the English to believe that 
Philip's elder brother, Alexander, was plotting against them. He 
was arrested, tried, thrown into prison, from the effects of which 
he died. Philip succeeded him. Soon after this, more Indians 
from the same tribe were arrested and executed. The repeated 
insults to the Indian honor roused the warlike spirit in the tribe 
to its highest point, and Philip was forced to take the field at the 
head of his warriors, for purposes of revenge. He could only 
muster about seven hundred warriors, and the contest was hope- 
less from the beginning. But Philip was brave, and he resolved 
to strike one last blow for the old liberty which was being taken 
from him. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 981 

The first attack was made upon the people of Swanzey, Mass., 
in 1675. Eight or nine were killed while returning home from 
church. This was the signal for a general outbreak. Philip was 
attacked at Mount Hope and compelled to flee for his life. He 
went to the Nipmuck tribe in Massachusetts, and succeeded in 
inducing them to espouse his cause. For a whole year the war 
raged upon the frontiers. At length the powerful tribe of the 
Narra.gansetts joined Philip's standard, but were crushed by a 
well-aimed blow almost at the outset. Philip then tried to arouse 
the Mohawks, but did not succeed. Finally, with his warriors 
all gone and resources exhausted, Philip went back to his own 
home at Mount Hope, where he was shot by one of his own men. 

In this war, twelve or thirteen towns had been destroyed and 
many others crippled, six hundred houses had been barned, half 
a million dollars had been spent, and over six hundred young 
men belonging to the colonies had been killed, while the power 
of the Indians was completely broken. 

The next great war in which the Indians took part is known as 
41 The French and Indian War," which lasted during the reigns of 
King William and Queen Anne. The Indians were not one of 
the principal contracting parties to these multiplied conflicts, but 
simply took part as the allies of the French against the English. 
The French owned possessions in Canada and northern New 
York, and also owned the territory now comprised within the 
limits of many of the Southern States. The object of the long 
struggle was to secure possession of the valleys of the Ohio and 
Mississippi rivers, and so establish a line of communication from 
north to south through the country; and the first thing to be 
done was to secure the friendship and assistance of the Indians 
along the route, which they did, and then to drive out the English, 
which they did not succeed in doing. 

In this war Washington first came into public notice. He was 
a surveyor of land, and was employed in this capacity by the 
Governor of Virginia. Afterward he acted as aid to General 
Braddock in his unfortunate campaign. After seven years of 
varying fortune, that part of the conflict known as " King 
William's War " came to an end by the peace of Ryswick, in 
1697. It had caused severe suffering to the northern colonies, 
without yielding them any compensating advantages. Two years 
later the same old conflict for the same objects was renewed 
under Queen Anne, and lasted until 17 13, nine years longer, 
when it was terminated by the treaty of Utrecht. During this 
long and tedious struggle, the war extended from one tribe to 
another, until all the territory in question became the theater of 
savage operations and brutal massacre. The butchery and blood- 
shed of this war on the part of the Indians was such, that the 
colonists awoke to the idea that the only way to prevent such 



982 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

scenes in the future was to exterminate the savages entirely. 

The close of this long war was followed by the surrender of 
Canada to the English. This was viewed with great disfavor by 
the Indians, who by this time had come to hate the English about 
as cordially as they loved the French. Pontiac, chief of the 
Ottawas, conceived the plan of falling upon all the English forts 
at the same time, and so prevent the English occupation of the 
country. The plot was well-laid, but failed in the execution. A 
number of attacks, however, were made, resulting in still further 
loss and carnage. 

During the American Revolution the Indians for the most part 
remained as spectators of the contending forces. But no sooner 
had the Revolution ended than the country was involved in a 
succession of Indian wars extending to the year 1840. The first 
of these occurred during the administration of Washington, with 
the Indians of the Northwest, under the lead of Little Turtle, 
chief of the Miamis. In 1791, General St. Clair was sent against 
them, but near the head waters of the Wabash was surprised and 
defeated with great loss. He was succeeded by General Anthony 
Wayne, who marched into the Indian country, and in the battle 
of the Maumee routed the savages with great slaughter and laid 
waste their lands. The Indians made peace, and ceded Ohio to 
the whites. 

The next war with the Indians occurred during Madison's 
administration. The scene of operations was principally in Indi- 
ana Territory, and the tribe was the Shawnee, under the lead of 
the famous Tecumseh. General Harrison was sent against them, 
and by the battle of Tippecanoe subdued and scattered them*. 
Tecumseh, who tried hard to make the war general, failed, fled to 
Canada, and joined the British army, but was finally killed in 
battle by Col. R. M. Johnson, and his forces put to flight. This 
revolt of the Shawnees was followed by that of the Creeks ; but 
the Tennesseans, under General Jackson, drove them, after 
several battles, into Horseshoe Bend, where the main body of 
the tribe were killed, asking no quarter. 

Towards the close of 181 7, the Seminole Indians of Florida 
began to give the settlers some trouble, and Jackson was sent to 
subdue them, which he quickly did, the Indians being afraid to 
fight the Big Knife, as they called him. But still later, under the 
lead of Osceola, a half-breed chief, they again made war upon the 
whites, and it required quite a lengthy and vigorous campaign 
under Generals Thompson, Clinch and Scott, before they were 
reduced to submission. 

About the same time, 1832, another war broke out in Wisconsin,, 
under the famous Black Hawk, chief of the Sacs and Foxes and 
Winnebagoes; but General Atkinson, by prompt measures, nipped 
the conflict in the bud, took Black Hawk prisoner, made him go* 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 983 

over the country and see the power of the white man; when he 
went back and told his people that any further contest was hope- 
less. 

In 1837, there was a conflict with the Seminoles again under 
Osceola, which was terminated by Col. Zachary Taylor, in a hard- 
fought battle in the Everglades. 

After this, the Indians were gradually removed beyond the 
Mississippi, where the remnants of them still remain, occupying 
the lands set apart for them by the Government. 

In 1865-6, the Sioux and Cheyennes took the war-path, and 
perpetrated horrible massacres. Sheridan and Custer were sent 
against them, and the victory of Wacheta put an end to the dis- 
turbance. In 1870, a tribe of the Blackfeet Indians in Montana 
renewed the horrors of the old French and Indian war. Troops 
were called out. The Indian villages were burned, and men, 
women and children put to the sword. The remnant sued for 
peace. Three years later, Captain Jack's band of Modocs, in 
Oregon, left its reservation and refused to return. Troops were 
sent to enforce submission. The Modocs retreated to the lava 
beds, which formed a natural fortification. Commissioners were 
sent to learn their grievance ; but during a peaceful conference, 
the Indians brutally murdered General Canby and Rev. Dr. 
Thomas, and stabbed Mr. Meachem. The Modocs were soon 
after besieged in their stronghold, and forced to surrender. The 
leaders were tried by military commission and executed at Fort 
Klamath, October 3, 1873. In the spring of 1876, the Sioux In- 
dians, provoked by the occupation of the Black Hills by the 
whites, and other causes, took the war-path. Gen. Custer was 
sent to bring them into subjection. He was surrounded by a 
superior force of Indians, under Sitting Bull, and his entire 
command of 315 men were massacred. This hostile band was 
finally driven into English territory, where they took up their 
permanent abode. In July, 1877, the Nez Perces Indians, of 
Idaho, under Chief Joseph, revolted and entered upon a 
course of murder and pillage, until forced to surrender by 
General Miles, in October of the same year. 



984 . FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

AMERICAN LIFE BEFORE THE REVOLUTION. 

In 1774 the thirteen colonies numbered about two millions 
white inhabitants, and five hundred thousand negroes, mostly 
slaves. They were mainly scattered along the sea coast and the 
great rivers, with occasional groups of settlements pushed into the 
backwoods beyond. Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecti- 
cut had charter governments, Maryland and Pennsylvania, with 
Delaware, were proprietary,that is,their proprietors governed them. 
Georgia, Virginia, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey and 
the Canadas, were directly subject to the crown. Boston and 
Philadelphia were the principal cities, each having not far from 
twenty thousand inhabitants. New York contained a population 
of about twelve thousand, Charleston had about eighteen thous- 
and, Baltimore and Lancaster Pa., had each about six thousand. 
Agriculture was the main employment of the people ; manufactures, 
however, even at this early period, received much attention at the 
North. Hats, paper, shoes, household furniture, farming utensils, 
and the coarser kinds of cutlery were made to some extent. Cloth 
weaving had been introduced, although most thrifty people wove 
their own, and every frugal housewife expected to dress her 
family in homespun. 

In 1753, the society for promoting industry among the poor, 
at its anniversary, exhibited on Boston Common, three hundred 
voung spinsters, each with her wheel, and a weaver working at 
his loom, was carried through the streets on men's shoulders. 
Commerce had steadily increased, principally, however, as coast 
trade, in consequence of the oppressive laws of Great Britain. 
The fishermen of New England already pushed their whaling 
crafts far into the icy regions of the north. At the time of the 
Revolution the exports of the colonies were about four millions 
pounds sterling, and the imports three and a half millions ; the 
exports, per capita, being in 1769 nearly equal to those of 1869, 
and the imports over one half as great. Money was scarce. 
Trade was by barter, a coat for a cow, or a barrel of sugar for a 
pile of boards. In 1635, bullets were given instead of farthings, 
the law not allowing over twelve in one payment. Massachusetts 
was the only colony to coin money. A mint was set up in 1652. 
For thirty years all the coins bore the same date. They are 
known as the pine tree shillings, sixpences, etc. The first printing 
press was set up at Cambridge, in 1639. The first book printed 
was the " Freeman's Oath," the second, an Almanac, and the 
third a Psalm Book. Most of the books of this day were col- 
lections of sermons. 

The first permanent newspaper, The Boston News Letter, was 
published in 1704. In 1750 there were only seven newspapers. 
The Federal Orrery, the first daily paper was not issued till 1792. 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 985 

"The first circulating library in America was established under 
Franklin's auspices, at Philadelphia, in 1732. There was a public 
library in New York, from which books were loaned at four and 
a halfpence per week. In 1754 the society library was founded. 
Eleven years later there was a circulating library in Boston of 
twelve hundred volumes. As yet, very few books had been 
printed in this country. The usual mode of travel was on foot 
or horseback, the roads being poor, and as yet few bridges across 
the rivers. Chaises and gigs, however, were in use, with their 
high wheels, and bodies hung low on wooden springs. People 
along the coast journeyed largely by means of sloops, navigated 
by a man and a boy. The trip from New York to Philadelphia 
-occupied three days if the wind was fair. The first stage route 
was between Providence and Boston, taking two days for the trip. 
A Post Office system had been effected by the combination of 
the Colonies, which united the whole country. The rate of 
postage was four pence for each letter if carried less than sixty 
miles, six pence between sixty and a hundred and sixty miles, and 
two pence for every hundred miles thereafter. 

A mail was started in 1672, between New York and Boston, by 
way of Hartford. By contract the round trip was to be made 
monthly. Benjamin Franklin was one of the early Postmasters 
General. He made a grand tour of the country in his chaise, 
perfecting and maturing the plan. Education early made great 
progress. Under the eaves of the church the Puritans always 
built a school-house. When Boston was but six years old, ^400 
were appropriated to the Seminary at Cambridge, now known as 
Harvard University. Some years after, each family gave a peck 
-of corn or a shilling in cash, for its support. In 1700, ten minis- 
ters, having previously so agreed, brought together a number of 
books, each saying as he laid down his gift, " I give these books 
for founding a college in Connecticut." This was the beginning 
of Yale College. It was first established at Saybrook, but in 
17 16 was removed to New Haven. It was named from Governor 
Yale, who befriended it most generously. Earlier than this com- 
mon schools had been provided, not, however, free, but supported 
by voluntary offerings. In 1647, Massachusetts made the sup- 
port of schools compulsory, and education universal and free. 
We read that in 1665 every town had a free school, and, if it 
contained over one hundred families, a grammar school. In 
•Connecticut every town that did not keep a school for three 
.months in the year was liable to a fine. 

The Middle Colonies had already their, colleges and many 
humbler schools scattered through their towns. In the Dutch 
period it was usual for the schoolmaster, in order to increase his 
emoluments, to act as town clerk, sexton, and chorister ; to ring 
<the bell, dig graves, etc.; somewhat after the custom still preserv- 



986 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ed in the country schools of Germany. In the English period 
some of the New York schools were kept by Dutch masters, who 
taught English as an accomplishment. At Lewiston, Delaware, 
is said to have been established the first girl's school in the Col- 
onies'. The first school in Pennsylvania was started about 1683, 
where "reading, writing, and casting accounts," were taught, for 
eight English shillings per annum. The Southern Colonies met 
with great difficulties in their efforts to establish schools. Though 
Virginia boasts of the second oldest college in the Union, yet her 
English governors bitterly opposed the progress of education. 

The restrictions upon the press were so great that no newspaper 
was published in Virginia until 1736, and that was controlled by 
the government. Free schools were established in Maryland in 
1696, and a free school in Charleston, South Carolina, in 17 12. 
Private schools were early established by the Colonists in every 
neighborhood. The richer planters commonly sent their sons to 
England to be educated. At the opening of the Revolution 
there were nine colleges in the Colonies; Harvard founded 1636," 
William and Mary, 1693 ; Yale, 1700 ; Princeton, 1746 ; University 
of Pennsylvania, 1749; Columbia, 1754; Brown University, 1764; 
Dartmouth, 1769; Rutgers, 1770. There was no law or theologi- 
cal school, although a medical shool had been founded in Phila- 
delphia 1762, and one in New York, 1769. In New England 
private morals were carefully watched by the authorities in church 
and state. In the earliest times the ministers had almost entire 
control, and a church reproof was considered the heaviest disgrace. 
A man was whipped for shooting fcwl on Sunday. The swearer 
was made to meditate over his sin, standing in a public place with 
his tongue in a cleft stick ; sometimes he was fined twelve pence, 
or set in the stocks, or imprisoned, " according to the nature and: 
quality of the person." In exaggerated offences, the unruljr 
member was bored through with a hot iron. Minor transgressions 
of the tongue were not winked at; "scolds," says Josselyn, writ- 
ing of the old " Body of laws of 1646," " they gag and set them at 
their doors for certain hours, for all comers and goers by to gaze 
at." " Ducking in running water," is also mentioned as a punish- 
ment for this class of offenders. 

Phillip Ratcliffe, of the colony, was sentenced to " be whipped, 
have his ears cut off, fined forty shillings, and banished out of the 
limits of the jurisdiction, for uttering malicious and scandalous 
speeches against the government and the church of Salem." In 
the early Plymouth days every house opened on Sunday morning 
at the tap of the drum. The men in " sad colored mantles," and 
armed to the teeth, the women in sober gowns, kerchiefs, and 
hoods, all assembled in front of the captain's house three abreast,, 
they marched up the hill to the meeting-house, where every man 
set down his musket within easy reach. The old men, the youngs 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY, 987 

men, and the young women, each had their separate place. The 
boys were gravely perched on the pulpit stairs or in the galleries, 
and had a constable or tithing man to keep them in order. Old 
bachelors seem to have been held by the fathers in small respect, 
and on account of the " great inconvenience " arising from their 
anomalous condition, it was ordered that " henceforth noe single 
persons be suffered to live of himself or in any family but as the 
celect men of the town shall approve of." 

No youth under twenty-one should " take any tobacko untill 
hee had brought a certificate under the hands of some who are 
approved for knowledge and skill in phisick, that it is useful for him, 
and also that he hath received a lyocense from the courte for the 
same." We read of fines for the juryman who should indulge in 
tobacco the same day of rendering verdict; also for all persons 
(except soldiers on training days) who used it " in very uncivil 
manner publickly " in the streets; or "within ten miles of any 
house, and then not more than once a day ;" penalties for the 
" bringing into the colony of any Quaker, Ranter, or other 
notorious heritiques," and, strangest of all to the eyes of the 
active, wire-pulling politician of to-day, a law that any who "were 
elected to the office of Governor, and would not stand to the 
election, nor hold and execute his office for his year," should "be 
amerced in twenty pounds sterling fine," as the price of his mod- 
esty or contumacy. Fast and thanksgiving were the great public 
days. A fast day was regularly kept at the season of annual 
planting; but days of fasting and prayer were often appointed on 
account of some special or threatened calamity. In 1644, one 
day in every month was ordered to be thus observed. Excellent 
care, however, was always taken to avoid a fast on Good Friday, 
as well as to keep clear of a feast on Christmas. Whatever 
cheer was lost, from conscientious scruples at Christmas-tide, 
was made up on Thanksgiving day, especially in Connecticut. 
From its first celebration, eighteen years after the Mayflower 
landing, it was the great social event of the whole twelve months. 
The growing family was gathered, ^from far and near, and cluster- 
ing round the paternal hearthstone forgot every trial in the joys 
of kinship. For days before it came, the plumpest fowls, the 
yellowest pumpkins, and the finest of vegetables were marked and 
put aside. The stalled ox, and the fatted calf were killed. Husk- 
ings, apple-pairings, and quiltings, were also favorite occasions for 
social gatherings. 

Governor Winthrop prohibited cards and gaming-tables. 
Dancing, however, was not entirely forbidden in New England 
circles, for we read that it was long the custom in Connecticut for 
the young people of a parish to celebrate the settlement of the 
new minister by an ordination ball. But these gradually fell into 
disrepute, and were at last suppressed by public sentiment. The 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES 

houses of most of the first settlers were, of nesessity, primitive — a 
log cabin, often of a single room, with an immense chimney built 
externally at its side. The chinks between the logs were " daubed," 
as the term was, with a mortar of clay and straw. Tall grass, 
gathered along the beaches, was largely used for the thatching of 
roofs. After thirty years, a better class of dwellings began to be 
more common. They were usually made of heavy oak frames, 
put together in the most solid manner, and made secure at night 
by massive wooden bars. After the Indians and wild beasts had 
been driven back by increased settlement, bolts and bars fell into 
disuse. The people lived plainly but substantially. In the 
morning the farmer and his family sat down to their bneakfast of 
"bean porridge," or boiled cornmeal and milk, with a healthy 
appetite. Beer, cider, or cold water furnished their usual beve- 
rage; for tea and coffee were unknown in New England homes in 
the seventeenth century. (Note. — When tea was first introduced 
into the Colonies, it was not used as a beverage, but was cooked, 
buttered and eaten as spinach or greens). "Rye and Indian," 
was the staff of life on which they leaned the most. 

The dinner, which was at noon, opened with a large Indian pud- 
ding (ground corn sweetened with molasses) accompanied by 
an appropriate sauce; next come boiled beef and pork, then wild 
game with potatoes, followed by turnips and samp or succotash. 
Pumpkins were served in various ways. Supper was also a sub- 
stantial meal, though generally eaten cold. Baked beans, baked In- 
dian pudding, and newly baked rye and Indian bread,were standard 
dishes for Wednesday, " after the washing and ironing agonies of 
Monday and Tuesday ;" salt fish on Saturday, and boiled Indian 
pudding, with roast beef for those who could get it on Sunday. 
Training day was a great event. All the men from sixteen to 
sixty years of age were required to participate in the general drill. 
Notwithstanding the general simplicity of dress, in these early 
times, great public days called out many an elegant costume. 
The rich articles of apparel brought over by the higher class of 
emigrants were carefully preserved, and lace ruffles, elaborate 
embroidery, silk and velvet caps, and gold and silver shoe and 
knee buckles, made a gathering of wealthy colonists a much gayer 
affair than a black coated party of to-day. The skins of animals 
were much used for garments. 

The well-to do matrons carried their long trailed gowns," liber- 
ally set off with flounces and furbelows," gracefully over one arm, 
or had them " trolloped " in loops at the side, or let them sweep 
their full course (from half a yard to a yard and half) along the 
floor. If in this they transgressed the statute which forbade any 
excess "beyond the necessary end of apparel for covering," 
some of them evidently fulfilled its requirements in the upper cut 
of their robes, for before the end of the seventeenth century we 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 989 

hear Boston denounced as a " lost town," because of its " strange 
and fantastic fashions and attire, naked backs and bare breasts." 
The price of wages was regulated by law, and it was settled 
(1641) that "carpenters, plowrights, wheelrights, masons, joyners, 
smiths and coopers shall not take above twenty pence for a day's 
work, from the 10th of March to the ioth of October, and not above 
eighteen pence a day for the other part of the yere. and to work 
ten hours in the day in the summer time, besides that which is 
spent in eating or sleeping, and six hours in the winter." 

In the Souther?! Colonies the established church of England was 
guarded with as zealous strictness as were Puritan principles in 
the North ; the first laws of both colonies pertaining to religious 
observances. In Virginia, according to the regulations of 1632 & 
room or house in every plantation was to be set apart for, and 
consecrated to worship. Absence from service " without allowa- 
ble excuse," was punished with a fine of a pound of tobacco, and 
if the abscence continued a month, with fifty pounds. (Note — 
The English first learned the use of tobacco from the Indians 
at Roanoke Island, Virginia, in 1585, and soon after it was intro- 
duced into Europe by returned emigrants). Ministers were 
restrained from a neglect of their duties by a fine of half their 
salary if they absented themselves two months ; losing the entire 
salary and the cure itself for an absence of double that length of 
time. The salary aforesaid consisted of ten pounds of tobacco, 
and a bushel of corn — " the first gathered and best " — from every 
male over sixteen, with marriage, christening and burial fees. 
In the earliest days, every twentieth calf, pig and kid in the 
parish were also his due. On the other hand, " he who disparaged 
a minister without proof was to be fined five hundred pounds of 
tobacco, and to beg the minister's pardon publicly before the 
congregation." Drunkenness cost five shillings, and every oath 
cost one shilling. 

Virginians in 1674 are thus described by Bancroft: "The 
generation now in existence were chiefly the fruit of the soil ; 
they were children of the woods, nurtured in the freedom of the 
wilderness, and dwelling in cottages scattered along the streams. 
No newspapers entered their houses; no printing-press furnished 
them. They had no recreations but such as nature provides in 
her wilds ; no education but such as parents in the desert could 
give their offspring. The paths were bridleways rather than 
roads, and the highway surveyors aimed at nothing more than to 
to keep them clear of logs and fallen trees. Visits were made in 
boats or horseback through the forests ; and the Virginian, travel- 
ling with his pouch of tobacco for currency, swam the rivers, 
where there was neither ferry nor ford. The houses, for the most 
part of one story, and made of wood, often of logs, the windows 
closed by convenient shutters for want of glass, were sprinkled 



990 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES 

at great distances on both sides of the Chesapeake, from the 
Potomac to the line of Carolina. The parish was of such extent, 
spreading over a tract which a days journey could not cross, that 
the people met together but once on the Lord's day, and some- 
times not at all ; the church, rudely built in some central solitude, 
was seldom visited by the more remote families, and was liable 
to become inaccessible by the broken limbs from forest trees, 
or the wanton growth of underwood and thickets." The genial 
atmosphere of the " sunny south," so unlike the bleak New 
England climate, and the entirely different products of the two 
soils, each requiring its own peculiar mode of culture, served 
constantly to increase the dissimilarity in character and manners 
which primarily existed between the northern and southern set- 
tlers. The large plantations of the latter necessitated a numerous 
train of servants. These, supplied first by the apprentices 
brought over from England, were in time, superseded by negro 
slaves. (Note. — In 1619, twenty Negroes were brought to Amer- 
ica by a Dutch ship, and were quickly purchased by the planters. 
From this small beginning sprang the institution of slavery in the 
United States. About this time the proprietors sent out a load of 
industrious, virtuous young women, who were sold as wives to the 
planters for one hundred pounds of tobacco per head. So great 
was the demand that, as the record quaintly tells us, " one widow 
who was sent over in a subsequent lot went readily with the rest, 
and the price of the " faire maidens " ran up to a hundred and fifty 
pounds of the market weed. Domestic ties were now formed, 
homes established, and the permanence of the colony was insured). 
There being but few books and little education in those early 
times (only a few families being able to send their sons 
and daughters to England to be instructed), excitement was 
often sought in bull baiting, horse racing, fox hunting, and cock 
fighting. These amusements, looked upon with horror by the 
Puritans, were not considered at all derogatory to the southern 
gentleman, who copied his sports from those of the English nobil- 
ity of that day. The finest of horses were imported from the 
mother country, at great care and expense, and the Virginia plan- 
ter was pardonably proud of his well stocked stables. Emigrants 
from Maine and Vermont often struck into the then far west, 
along the banks of the Monongahela or even of the Ohio. This 
was just before the revolution. Having established the " tomahawk 
right " by hacking the trees around the circuit (four hundred 
acres) to which settlement gave them free possession, they com- 
menced pioneer life. Wild turkeys, venison, and bear's meat, 
gave them strength while they waited the growth of pumpkins, 
squashes, and potatoes. A hominy block was hollowed out by 
fire, and the corn was pounded by a pestle ; sometimes to lessen 
the toil, by a sweep sixteen feet long. Nail-holes in a piece of 



OUR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 991 

tin formed a grater for the same purpose ; two stones were also 
used, made to play upon each other in the manner in vogue in 
Palestine since before the days when our Saviour spoke ot " two 
women grinding at the mill." 

A piece of deerskin, stretched over a hoop and pierced with hot 
wire, made a good sifter or bolting cloth. A large trough sunk in 
the ground furnished a tan vat for each family. Ashes were used 
instead of lime to unhair the skin ; bear's grease or hog's lard 
served for fish oil, and soot mixed with grease was an efficient 
blacking. The bark was shaved and pounded. Every family 
did its own shoe making. " Shoe packs " made like moccasins 
of single pieces of leather often answered every purpose. The 
women spun and wove the linsey-woolsey for the family clothing, 
and fashioned every garment. 

OUR NATIONAL TREATIES. 



THE TREATY OF PARIS 

was signed on the 3rd of September, 1783, by American and 
English commissioners, thereby closing the long and disastrous 
War of the Revolution, and effecting the independence of the 
American colonies, and their recognition as a separate nation 
under the name of the United States by all other countries. 

A TREATY WITH ENGLAND. 

In 1796, wlien the French Revolution was at its height, the 
minister of France (Genet) without presenting credentials to our 
government, fitted out ships and men in our harbors, to aid this 
country against England. As France was the ally of the United 
States in the Revolution, and as the English were committing 
depredations on our shipping, and had not evacuated their forts, 
the people demanded that he should be assisted and war declared 
against Great Britain. This, Washington declined to do, and held 
the government to the neutrality which he had proclaimed. A 
satisfactory treaty was ratified with England April 30th of this 
year by a special envoy, John Jay. 

A TREATY WITH SPAIN. 

In 1795 an important treaty, fixing definitely the boundaries of 
the United States, Louisiana and Florida, giving the right to 
navigate the whole length of the Mississippi river, and to use 
New Orleans as a place of deposit for ten years, was concluded 
with Spain. 

A TREATY WITH ALGIERS. 

In 1795 the United States were obliged to make a very humilia- 
ting treaty with the Dey of Algiers, in order that our commerce 



992 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

might be protected from his corsairs, and thereby agreeing to pay 
him $800,000 for captives then alive, to make him a present of a- 
frigate worth $100,000, and to pay an annual tribute of $23,000. 

A TREATY WITH FRANCE. 

Seven years after the treaty with Spain, our President, Jefferson, 
received information that a secret treaty, ceding that portion of 
North America known as Louisiana, to France, had been ratified, 
and it was soon announced that the provision of the treaty giving; 
the right to use New Orleans as a place of deposit was no longer 
open. As war seemed imminent, James Monroe was sent to pur- 
chase New Orleans. Instead of this, Bonaparte offered to sell 
him the whole of Louisiana for eighty million francs, which was 
accepted, and the treaty was concluded in 1803. 

THE ASHBURTON TREATY, 

in 1842, settled the question of the North Eastern boundary 
between Maine and New Brunswick, with England. 

THE TREATY OF GUADALUPE-HIDALGO. 

The war with Mexico growing out of the annexation of Texas ; 
to the United States, was concluded by the treaty of Guadalupe- 
Hidalgo, in February, 1848. By this contract New Mexico and 
Upper California were ceded to the United States, and the bound- 
ary of Texas was settled at the Rio Grande. In return for this our 
government paid $15,000,000, and assumed $3,500,000 debts due 
to American citizens. 

THE CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY. 

The last official act of President Taylor, was to sign the Clay- 
ton-Bulwer treaty, between this country and Great Britain, set- 
tling the respective rights and privileges in regard to canal 
communication across Central America. 

THE GADSDEN TREATY. 

As the map used in making the treaty with Mexico was proven* 
incorrect, a discussion arose as to the ownership of Mesilla valley, 
and the United States, as usual, anxious to appear perfectly hon- 
est, made a treaty with Mexico by which she agreed to pay 
$10,000,000 for the desired territory. 

THE TREATY OF WASHINGTON. 

This treaty provided for the payment of the losses of the 
United States by the privateers fitted out in the British ports 
during the late civil war. It was signed in 1872 at Geneva, 
Switzerland, when $16,250,000 were awarded- to the United States* 



THE ELECTORAL COMMISSION OF 1877. 993 



THE ELECTORAL COMMISSION OF 1877. 

In the Presidential election of 1876 both parties claimed that they had 
elected their President. Owing to this peculiar situation of the country, one 
of the first measures passed by the Forty-Fourth Congress (by the Senate) 
was the adoption of a resolution devolving upon the Committee on Privileges 
and Elections the duty of inquiring whether in the States of South Carolina, 
Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana anc Mississippi the right of any por- 
tion of the citizens to vote has been denied or abridged, the extent to which 
and the means by which it has been accomplished, for what purposes, and by 
what authority. The House, December 4, adopted a resolution providing for 
the investigation of the action of the returning or canvassing boards of South 
Carolina, Florida and Louisiana. In the Senate, December 7, the Message 
of the President, accompanying the report of the gentlemen appointed by him 
to visit Louisiana to witness the canvass of the votes for electors was ordered 
to be printed. The report defended the action of the Returning Board in ex- 
cluding votes in certain parishes, and thus giving the majority to the Repub- 
lican electors. In the House, December 12, the report of the Democratic 
Committee which witnessed the canvass was ordered to be printed. Various 
measures were introduced in both Houses to relieve the present uncertainty as 
to the authority under the Constitution of the two bodies, or of either of them, 
in the counting of the electoral vote. Mr. Edmunds, in the Senate, Decem- 
ber 5, submitted an amendment to the Constitution providing for the counting 
and declaration of the electoral vote by the Supreme court of the United 
States. The resolution proposing the amendment was defeated, December 13 ; 
yeas, rq. ; nays, 31. In the House, December 14, Mr. Knott, from the Judi- 
ciary Committee, reported a resolution — as a substitute for a* resolution pre- 
viously offered by Mr. M'Crary, and referred to that committee — that a com- 
mittee of seven members be appointed by the speaker, to act in conjunction 
with any similar committee that may be appointed by the Senate, to prepare 
and report such a measure, either legislative or constitutional, as may in their 
judgment be best calculated to accomplish the end proposed, viz., that the 
electoral votes may be counted and the result declared by a tribunal whose 
anthority no one can question, and whose decision all will accept as final. 
This resolution was adopted without division. The Senate voted, December 
18, in favor of a committee to act with that appointed by the House. 

The committee consisted of fourteen members — seven of each party — 
namely, Senators Edmunds, Freylinghuysen, Morton and Conkling, and Rep- 
resentatives M'Craiy, Hoar and Willard, Republicans ; and Senators Thurman, 
Bayard and Ransom, and Representatives Payne, Hunton, Hewitt and Springer, 
Democrats. The report of the Joint Committee was piesented to both 
Houses on January 1 8th. It was signed by all the committee except Senator 
Morton. The bill submitted by the committee provided for the meeting of 
both Houses in the hall of the House of Representatives on the first of Feb- 
ruary, 1877. Two tellers to have been previously appointed by each House, 
to whom should be handed, as they were opened by the President of the Sen- 
ate, all the certificates and papeis purporting to be certificates of electoral 
votes ; these to be opened, presented, and acted upon m the alphabetical order 
of the States. Where there should be a single return from a State, and an 
objection thereto, with its ground, should be made in writing, and signed by 
least at one Senator and one Representative, the two Houses should sepa- 
rately decide upon such objection or objections, the vote to be objected only 
by the affirmative vote of the two houses. In the case of more than one re- 
turn from a State, all such returns, having been read by the tellers, should be 

63 



994 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

upon objection being made, submitted to the judgment and decision, as to 
which is the true and lawful electoral vole of the State, of a commission of 
fifteen, to be constituted of five members from each House, to be appointed 
viva voce, January 30, with five associate Justices of the Supreme court of the 
United States, four of these justices being those of the First, Third, Eighth 
and Ninth circuits, who shall, on January 30th select another of the associate 
justices of the same court ; the entire commission to be presided over by the 
associate justice longest in commission. Each of the members of the com- 
mission to take an oath to consider the questions submitted, and to give a 
true judgment thereon agreeably to the Constitution and the laws. The deci- 
sion of the Commission, or a majority thereof, to be made in writing, signed 
by the assenting members, and submitted to Congress ; and this decision, 
having been entered in the journals of each House, must be final, unless over- 
ruled by the action of both Houses. 

This bill was passed by both houses — in the House of Representatives, 
January 26th, by a vote of 191 to 86 ; in the Senate, January 25, by a vote of 
47 to 17. The opposition to the bill proceeded mainly from prominent Re- 
publicans, both in the debate and in the vote. In the House, 158 Democrats 
and 33 Republicans vote^ in favor of th bill, while 18 Democrats and 68 Re- 
publicans voted against it. In the Senate there was only one Democrat 
vote against the bill. The Republican vote standing 21 for 16 against. The 
bill was signed by the President, January 29th. On the 30th the Senate and 
the House each elected five members to serve on the Electoral Commission, 
the Senate electing Edmunds, Morton, Frelinghuysen, Thurman and Bayard, 
and the House electing Payne, Hunton, Abbott, Garfield and Hoar. On the 
31st, a communication was received by both Houses from the four United 
States Associate Justices — Clifford, Miller, Field and Strong — chosen as 
members of th* judicial branch of the Commission, announcing that they had 
chosen. as the fifth member Associate Justice Joseph P. Bradley. The joint 
convention of Congress to count the electoral vote assembled in the hall of 
the House of Representatives, February 1. The President of the Senate pro- 
ceeded to open the certificates of the several States in their alphabetical order. 
The votes from six States having been counted, that of Florida was reached, from 
which State there were thiee certificates that, under the provisions of the 
Electoral Bill, were submitted to the electoral Commission. Two questions 
were raised in the Commission, and fully debated by counsel on either side: 
First, whether evidence should be admitted going back of the State returns, 
and second, as to the eligibility of F. C. Humphreys, one of the electors. On 
the 7th, the Commission decided the first of these questions in the negative, 
and after hearing evidence as to the eligibility of Humphreys, that body, by a 
vote of 8 to 7, resolved to report Florida as for Hayes and Wheeler. Upon the 
reception of this report in joint convention, objection being offered in due 
form, the two Houses separated. Re-assembling February 12, the two Houses 
not concurring in the objection to the decision of the Commission, the vote of 
Florida was counted for Hayes and Wheeler. The count then proceeded until 
the double returns from Louisana were presented, when these were referied to 
the Commission. The decision of the Commission, reached February 16. was 
the same, and sustained by the same vote as the case of Florida. On the 20th, 
the vote of Louisana was, in joint convention, recorded for Hayes and 
Wheeler, and the count proceeded until the State of Michigan was reached, to 
which objection was made, but not being sustained by both Houses, the count 
proceeded. Objection was made to the vote of Nevada, but was not sustained. 
On the 21st, Oregon was reached in the count, and the returns from that State 
went to the Commission. On the 24th, Oregon was counted for Hayes and 
Wheeler. 

The counting of the electoral vote was completed March 2d, and the result 



THE ELECTORAL COMMISSION OF 1 87 7. 



995 



was announced by the President of the Senate. Hayes and Wheeler were de- 
clared elected, each receiving 185 votes. 

The new President and Vice President were publicly inaugurated March 
5th, 1877. 




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Note.— Democratic and Republican authorities disagree in regard to the vote in Louisiana 
•and Florida. 



THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORAL VOTE FROM 
1778 TO 1876. 



Previous to the election of 1804, each elector voted for two candidates for 
President, and the person receiving the highest number of votes, if a majority 
of the whole number of electors, was declared to be President ; and the per- 
son having the next highest was Vice-President. At the first election, 1788, 
there were 69 electors, all of whom voted for Washington, and 34 for John 
Adams, and there were 35 " scattering " votes, of which John Jay, of N. Y., 
received 9, Robert H. Harrison 6, John Rutledge, of S. C. 6, John Hancock, 
of Mass., 4, George Clinton of ISf. Y., 3, Samuel Huntington, of Conn., 2, John 
Milton 2, James Armstrong, of Penn., 1, Edward Telfair, of Georgia, 1, and Ben- 
jamin Lincoln 1. At this election, three States did not vote, viz., New York 
(8) which had not passed an electoral law, North Carolina (7) which had not 
adopted the Constitution, and Rhode Island (3). In 1792 4 votes were cast 
for Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, and 1 for Aaron Burr, of New York. In 
1796, of the 48 "scattering," Samuel Adams, of Mass., had 15, Oliver Ells- 
worth, of Conn., II, George Clinton, of New York, 7, John Jay, of New York, 
5, James Iredell, of N. C, 3, George Washington 2, Samuel Johnston, of N. C, 
.2, John Henry, of Md., 2, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, of S. C., 1. In 
1800, there having been a tie vote between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, 



996 FOOTDRINTS OF THE AGES. 

in the college, the choice devolved upon the House of Representatives, which, 
on the 36th ballot, on the 17th of February, 1801, being the 6th day devoted 
to balloting, elected Thomas Jefferson President, ten States concurring, viz., 
Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Penn- 
sylvania, Tennessee, Vermont and Virginia. The States of Connecticut, 
Massachusetts, New" Hampshire and Rhode Island voted for Mr. Burr ; and 
Delaware and South Carolina voted by blank ballots. Mr. Burr became the 
Vice-President. In the Electoral* College, John Jay, of New York, received 
1 vote, 

In 1808, George Clinton, of New York received 6 votes for President, and 
for Vice-President John Langdon, of N. H., received 9, and James Madison, 
of Va., and James Monroe, of Va., each 3. In 18 16, there was no regular 
Federal opposition to Daniel D. Thompson, of N. Y M for Vice-President, but 
there were 34 " scattering " votes, of which John E. Howard, of Md., had 22, 
James Ross, of Penn., 5, John Marshall, of Va., 4, and Robert Harper, of 
Md., 3. In 1820 there was no organized opposition to Mr. Madison and Mr. 
Tompkins, but one vote, from New Hampshire, was cast for John Quincy 
Adams, of Mass., for President, and one elector in Pennsylvania, Tennessee 
and Mississippi each, having died, failed to vote for President ; for Vice-Pres- 
ident, 8 votes were cast for Richard Stockton, of New Jersey, 4 for Daniel 
Rodney, of Delaware, I for Robert G. Harper, of Maryland, and one for 
Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania. The Electoral College consisted of 232, 
without Missouri, whose formal admission was not proclaimed by the President 
till August 10, 1821, or 235 with it. As Mr. Monroe and Mr Tompkins had 
a majority in the event of either counting or excluding the vote of Missouri, 
they were declared elected President and Vice-President.* 

In 1824, no choice having been made of President by the Electoral College, 
the House of representatives chose from the three highest in vote. On the 
first ballot John Quincy Adams, of Mass., received the votes of Connecticut, 
Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Missouri, 
New Hamyshire, New York, Ohio, Rhode Island and Vermont — 13 ; Andrew 
Jackson received the votes of Alabama, Indiana, Mississippi, New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania, South Carolina and Tennessee — 7; William H. Crawford re- 
ceived the votes of Delaware, Georgia,. North Carolina and Virginia — 4 ; and 
Mr. Adams was declared elected. For Vice-President, Andrew Jackson had 13 
votes — 8 from Connecticut, 3 from Missouri, 1 from Maryland, and 1 from 
New Hampshire ; Martin Van Buren, of New York, 9 from Georgia ; and 
Henry Clay, of Kentucky-, 2 from Delaware. In 1828, William Smith, of 
South Carolina, had 7 votes from Georgia, for Vice-President. In 1832. 
for Vice-President, William Wilkins, of Pennsylvania had 30 votes from Penn- 
sylvania ; Henry Lee, of Massachusetts. 11 from South Carolina ; and Amos 
Ellmaker, of Pennsylvania, 7 from Vermont. Two votes in favor of Mr. Clay 
for President, and Mr. Sergeant for Vice-President, were lost because of the 
illness of two of the electors chosen in Maryland, the State law not having 
given power to fill vacancies. In 1836, no candidate for Vice-President hav- 
ing received a majority of the votes of the Electoral College (which being 294 
with Michigan counted, required 148 for a majority, or 291 without Michigan, 
required 146 for a majority, in either event there being no majority for any 
one) the Senate elected Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky, who received 33 
votes, and Francis Granger, J16. As the Electoral College consisted of 291 
without Michigan, whose formal admission was declared by act of Congress 
approved January 26, 1837, or 294 with it, and Mr. Van Buren received 167 
votes without it, or 170 with it, and that vote did not affect the result ; the 
vote was announced in the alternative, and Mr. Van Buren's election pro- 
claimed. In 1840, 11 votes from South Carolina were cast for Vice-President, 
for Littleton W. Tazewell, of Virginia, and one vote from Virginia for James 



THE ELECTORAL COMMISSION OF 1877. 997 

K. Polk, of Tennessee. In 1856, it appears from the record that the electors 
of Wisconsin cast their votes on the 4th day of December, instead of the 
3d. The teller on the part of the House reported that fact in his statement 
to the President of the two houses, and indicated the figures given above as 
the result, including the five votes of Wisconsin ; and the presiding officer de- 
ciding out of order all debate, on a suggestion as to the propriety of rejecting 
said vote, proceeded to declare that Mr. Buchanan had received 174 votes, Mr. 
Fremont 114, and Mr. Filmore 8 ; and that Mr. Buchanan having the greatest 
number of votes for President, that number being a majority of the whole 
number of electors, had been duly elected President. The subject of the 
counting of Wisconsin was debated in each House, after adjournment of the 
joint meeting, but it was finally tabled without action by either. In 
1864, the return from Nevada showed the vote of but two electors, one having 
died since his election, and the law of the State not providing the authority to 
fill the vacancy. After reading the return given above, the Vice-President 
Mr. Hamlin, on inquiry made, stated that he had " in his possession returns 
from the States of Louisiana and Tennessee, but in obedience to the law of the 
land, the chair holds it to be his duty no"t to present them." This " law of 
the land*" was a joint resolution, approved February 8, 1865 — the day of the 
counting— resolving that, whereas the inhabitants and local authorities of 
the States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Ala- 
bama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas and Tennessee rebelled against 
the government of the United States, and were in such condition on the 8th 
of November. 1864, that no valid election of electors of President and Vice- 
President of the United States, according to the Constitution and laws thereof, 
was held iherein on said day ; therefore the States mentioned are not entitled 
to representation in the Electoral College for the choice of President and 
Vice-president of the United States, for the term commencing March 4th, 1865, 
and no electoral votes shall be received and counted from said States for said 
term. Mr. Lincoln, in a message announcing his approval, disclaimed all pow- 
er in the executive to defeat or obstruct the power in the two Houses of Con- 
gress, under the 12th amendment, to exclude from the count all electoral votes 
deemed by them to be illegal, or in any way to interfere with the canvassing 
or counting the electoral vote ; and said he signed the joint resolution in 
deference to the view of Congress implied in its passage and presentation to 
him. In 1868 the two Houses adopted a concurrent resolution, reciting that 
whereas the question whether the State of Georgia has become and is entitled 
to representation in the two Houses of Congress is now pending and undeter- 
mined, it the counting or omitting to count the electoral vote of Georgia shall 
not essentially change the result, the result shall be reported as in the alter- 
native by the presiding officer of the two Houses. Counting it, Seymour and 
Blair had each 80 votes ; excluding it, they had each 71 votes. In 1872, the 
full vote of the Electoral College for President was 366, of which 17 were ex- 
cluded, being the 8 votes of Louisiana (the two Houses concurring), the 6 votes 
of Arkansas (the Senate voting to reject and the House to receive), and 3 votes 
cast in Georgia for Horace Greeley, he being then dead, the Senate voting to 
receive and the House to reject. The votes counted on President were 349, 
on Vice-President 352. On the latter, there were these additional votes : 5 
from Georgia, for Alfred H. Colquitt, of Georgia; 5 from Missouri, for George 
W. Julian, of Indiana ; 3 from Kentucky, for Thomas E. Bramletie, of Ken- 
tucky ; 3 from Missouri, for John M. Palmer, of Illinois ; 1 from Georgia, for 
Nathaniel P. Banks, of Massachusetts ; 1 from Missouri, for William S. 
Grosebeck, of Ohio; and 1 from Kentucky, for Willis B. Machen, of Ken- 
tucky. In 1876, the vote was 185 for Hayes and Wheeler, and 184 for Tilden 
and Hendricks. 



998 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



THE TWENTY-SECOND JOINT RULE. 

This rule was adopted February 6, 1865, and is 
as follows : 

22. The two Houses shall assemble in the hall 
of the House of Representatives at the hour of 
1 o'clock p.m., on the 2d Wednesday in Februa- 
ry next succeeding the meeting of the electors 
of President and Vice-President of the United 
States , and the presi dent of the Senate shall be 
their presiding officer; one teller shall be ap- 
pointed on the part of the Senate, and two on 
the part of the House of Representatives, to 
whom shall be handed, as they are opened by 
the President of the Senate, the certificates of 
the electoral votes ; and said tellers having 
read the same in the presence and hearing of 
the two Houses thus assembled, shall make a 
list of the votes as they shall appear from the 
said certificates; and the votes having been 
eounted, the result of the same shall be deliv- 
ered to the President of the Senate, who shall 
thereupon announce the state of the vote and 
the names of the persons, if any elected; which 
announcement shall be deemed a sufficient 
declaration of the persons elected President 
and Vice-President of the United States, and 
together with a list of the votes, be entered on 
the journals of the two Houses. 

If, upon the reading of any such certificate 
by the tellersjany question shall arise in regard 
to counting the votes therein certified the 
same having been stated by the presiding 
officer, the Senate shall thereupon withdraw. 
and said question shall be submitted to that 
body for its decision; and the Speaker of the 
House of Representatives shall, in like man- 
ner, submit said question to the House of Rep- 
resentatives for its decision. And no question 
shall be decided affirmatively, and no voto ob- 
jected to shall be counted, except by the con- 
current votes of the two Houses ; which being 
obtained, the two Houses shall immediately 
reassemble, and the presiding officer shall 
announce the decision of the question submit- 
ted ; and upon such question there shall be no 
debate in either House. And any other ques- 
tion pertinent to the object for which the two 
Houses are assembled may be submitted and 
determined in like manner. 

At such joint meeting of the two Houses 
seats shall be provided as follows : For the 
President of the Senate, the "Speaker's chair;" 
for the Speaker, a chair immediately upon his 
left ; for the Senators, in the body of the hall 
upon the right of the presiding officer ; for the 
Representatives, in the body of the hall not 
occupied by the Senators ; for the tellers, secre- 
tary of the Senate, and clerk of the House of 
Representatives, at the clerk's desk , for the 
other officers of the two Houses; in front of 
the Clerk's desk and upon either side of the 
Speaker's platform. 

Such joint meeting shal not be dissolved 
until the electoral votes are all counted and 
the result declared ; and no recess shall be ta- 
,ken, unless a question shall have arrisen in re- 
gard to counting any of such votes, in which 
case it shall be competent for either House, 
acting separately in the manner hereinbefore 
provided, to direct a recess not beyond the 
next day, at the hour of 1 o'clock p. m. 



TARLE OF ELECTORAL VOTES. 

The following table shows both the popular 
and the electoral votes cast for President from 
George Washington to Hayes : 



Year. 



Candidates. 



1789— George Washington. 
1796— John Adams. - - - 

Thomas Jefferson - 
1S00— Thomas Jefferson*- 

Aaron Rurr. - - - 

John Adams. - - 
1804— Thomas Jefferson - 

C. C. Pinckney, 
1808— James Madison. - - 

DeWitt Clinton. - 
1820— James Monroe. - - 



Popular Electoral 
Vote. Vote. 



105,321 
155.872 
44,282 
46,587 
647,231 
509.097 



1824— John Q. Adams. - 

Andrew Jackson. 

W. H. Crawford. 

Henry Clay. - -■ 
1828— Andrew Jackson. 

John Q. Adams. 
1832— Andrew Jackson. - 687,S02 

Henry Clay. - - - 530,189 

John Flovd, - - - 

William Wirt. - - 
1836— Martin Van Bur en. 761,549 

Wm. H. Harrison. - 736.656 
1840— Wm. H. Harrison. 1,275.011 

Martin Van Buren.l ,135761 



1844— James K. Polk. - 
Henry Clay. - - - 
James G. Birney. 

1848— Zachary Taylor. - 
Lewis Cass - - - 
Martin Van Buren, 

1852- 



1,337.243 

1,299,062 

62,300 

1,360,099 

1 ,220,544 

291,263 

Franklin Pierce. - 1,601,474 

Winfield Scott. - 1,386,578 

John P. Hale. - - 155,826 

1856— James Buchanan 1,838,169 

John C. Fremont. 1,341,263 

. Millard Filmore. - 874.534 

1860— Abraham Lincoln. 1,866,352 

Stephen A. Douglas 1,375,157') 

J. C. Breckenridge. 845,763 }~ 

John Bell. - - - - 589.58U 

1864— Abraham Lincoln. 2,216 .067 

G. B. McClellan. - 1,808-725 

1868— Ulysses S. Grant. - 3,015,071 

Horatio Seymour. 2,709.613 

1872— Ulysses S. Grant. - 3,597,070 

Horace Greeley. - 2,835'079 

1876— R. B. Hayes. - - - 4,033,295 

S J.Tilden. - - 4,284,265 



Unanimous. 



73 

7a 

65 
148 
28 
122 
70 
Only 1 elec- 
toral vote in 
opposition. 
84 
99 
41 
37 
178 
83 
219 
49 
11 
7 
170 
124 
234 
60 
170 
105 

163- 
127 



254' 



174 
114 



180 



21£ 
21 

214 
80 

300 
66 

185 

184 



*In 1800 the contest was thrown into the 
House of Bepresentati ves, and the excitement 
pending the election was almost as great as it 
was in the election of 1876. 

It will be seen that Adams, in 1824, Vau Bu- 
ren, in 1836, Polk, in 1844, Taylor, in 1848, Bu- 
chanan, in 1856, Lincoln, in 1S60, and Hayes, 
in 1876, were all elected, although the popular 
vote was against them. 



THEORY OF MONEY. 



In its theoretic or economic aspects, money presents a field of apparently 
hopeless discord, controversy and confusion, without a single doctrine estab- 
lished as a principol of universal,' or even of general acceptance. In a word 



OTJR GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY. 999 

no one of these doctrines can be presented as a truth, which needs only to be 
stated, not demonstrated ; no one who writes upon them can properly lay 
down any so-called principles without, at the same time giving the ground 
upon which each one of them claims to rest. To go no further back, Mon- 
tesquieu and Hume, about the middle of the 18th Century, laid down the 
dictum, which stated in the words of Hume, is as follows : "It seems a max- 
im almost self-evident, that the prices of everything depend on the propor- 
tion between commodities and money, and that any considerable alteration on 
either has the same effect of heightening or lowering the price ; or, more 
plainly, that 'an increase in the quantity of the local currency of a particular 
country will praise rices in that country, exactly in the same manner as an in- 
crease in the general supply of precious metals raises prices all over the world." 

From that time to the present hour, there has been a sharp and never-ceas- 
ing controversy upon every phase of the subject. 

There is a large school which utterly denies this proposition. It is con- 
tended by this latter school that money has a fructifying influence upon in- 
dustry, and that an increase in its volume may increase production, trade and 
commerce, and so far from necessarily increasing prices, in some cases act- 
ually reduce them ; that if the theory were true, no increased production in a 
country, were it two, five, ten or twenty fold, without a corresponding increase 
in the volume of money, could increase the aggregate value of these produc- 
tions a single dollar, there are those who contend that "money should be 
a thing of a country, of a people, and not of the world !" and that the financial 
and business affairs of a country should in no wise be based upon the precious 
metals, which are, it is contended, liable to export beyond the control of the 
people or the authorities of a state. There has long been a considerable num- 
ber of writers in Great Britain holding these opinions, but it is in this country, 
and within a comparatively recent period, that such views have taken most 
decided and original shape. By no means all of these writers contend for an 
arbitrary volume of such money, only limited by the wants of the state or ot 
the people at a particular time. Several of their plans have contemplated the 
conversion of this money, by means of funding to any extent which a curtail- 
ment in the monetary wants of the people, may demand. Probably the ear- 
liest advocate of such a system as is here referred to, was Edward Kellogg, 
who, in September, 1843, published in New York a pamphlet entitled " Cur- 
rency, the evil and the remedy." He propos»d as a remedy for usury, that 
the United States government should establish a national safety fund which 
should lend money on mortgage of real estate at 3 per cent, per annum, in 
the form of " circulating medium or safety fund notes," which notes were to 
be payable or fundable at the pleasure of the holder in " treasury notes" or 
bonds, bearing interest at the rate of 2 per cent, per annum, and payable on 
and after one year from a given day in circulating medium or safety fund 
notes. This idea was elaborated by him in subsequent works ; and immediate- 
ly before and after the passage of the act of Feb. 25, 1862, providing for the 
issue of United States legal-tender notes, it was strongly urged upon the gov- 
ernment by prominent financiers, that these notes should be made interconver- 
tible at the pleasure of the holder with United States bonds. This scheme of 
finance called the " 3-65 bond plan," has attracted much attention. Its friends 
maintain that the interchangeability of national paper money with govern- 
ment bonds bearing a fixed rate of interest, will give an automatic, self-ad- 
justing volume of currency at all times, commensurate with the wants of the 
people and of business; and that it will preclude the possibility of financial 
crises by introducing a cash system of business instead of the credit one 
which at present exists. In entire consistency with the history of all finan- 
cial schemes and theories, old as well as new, this plan is opposed with a vigor 
nearly if not quite equal to that with which it is advocated. 



1000 



FOOTPK1MTS OF Tlllu AG-ES. 




THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1001 



HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION 

OF THE 




I 

EARLIER INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITIONS. 

)E find some reference in ancient history to large collections 
of merchants at Tyre and Sidon, and in the present cen- 
tury in Europe and Asia, bringing together the people, 
and sellers and buyers from long distances, thus being to a cer- 
tain extent of an international character. 

In 1699, an Exhibition was held at Leyden, in Holland. In 
1756 and 1761, prizes were offered by the Society of Arts in Eng- 
land. France, in 1797, founded the first of her National Fairs, at 
which were 110 contributors. The second took place in 1801, 
with 229 Exhibitors. 

This International Exhibition was held in the Grand Court of 
the Louvre. The report of the jury indicated the value of these 
Exhibitions as follows: "That not an artist or an inventor, who, 
once obtaining thus a public recognition of his ability, has not 
found his reputation and business largely increased." The par- 
ties receiving the Gold Medal on this occasion dined with Napo- 
leon, then First Consul. These Exhibitions were kept up for sev- 
eral years; the Eleventh in 1849, had 4,494 exhibitors. 

To Prince Albert is certainly due the credit of originating and 
completing the first of all international exhibitions. His own 
words were that the intention was " to give a true test and a liv- 
ing picture of the point of development at which the whole of 
mankind had arrived in this great task, and a new starting-point 
from which all nations will be able to direct their further exer- 
tions." How well his idea has been carried out, the history of the 
past twenty years stands in evidence. Designs for the building 
were advertised for in regular form, and there were not less than 
two hundred and thirty- three competitors; but, at the last mo- 
ment, Joseph Paxton, gardener of the Duke of Devonshire, sug- 




FLORENCE EXHIBITION BUILDING, 1861. 




iAYi.ORrSMlTH.PHIL, 

MANCHESTER EXHIBITION BUILDING, 1857. 






THE GEEAT EXHIBITION. 1003 

gested the plan of the Crystal Palace, which resulted in the fairy- 
like structure of iron and glass erected in Hyde Park in 1851. 

The entire amount of space covered by this building was twenty 
acres, of which it was estimated that one-half would be occupied 
by exhibitors, the balance being devoted to passage, etc. The 
total number of exhibitors was between 15,000 and 16,000, nearly 
one-half of whom represented Great Britain. 

The special result of this Exhibition to American industry was, 
the introduction of Colt's Fire Arms, India Rubber Manufactures, 
MeCormick's Reapers, and American Pianos into Europe, for the 
fiist time. It has been estimated that the sales of these articles 
since that date have been to the extent of several millions of dol- 
lars in value. 

It must not be forgotton that it was during this Exhibition the 
yacht America made her famous voyage, and won the Interna- 
tional Prize from all competitors. 

The New York Industrial Exhibition of 1853 did not prove 
satisfactory, and the building was sometime afterwards destroyed 
by fire. The General Report of the English Committee says: 
" There can be little doubt, that in nearly all essential points, the 
Exhibition will prove, to the intelligent and industrious artisans 
and enterprising manufacturers of America, much more of an in- 
structor in what has to be done, than an exposition of what has 
been done by them; for the latter can be alone fairly judged of in 
the manufactories." 

Dublin had an Exhibition in 1853, which proved very successful. 

At the Paris Exhibition of 1855, the United States was well 
represented. 

Of the 131 exhibitors from the United States, the proportion of 
rewards was greater than any other country; as we received two 
Grand Medals of Honor, awarded to McCormick for his Reaper, 
and to Goodyear for his improvements in the treatment of India 
Rubber; and in addition, there were granted 3 Medals of Honor, 
17 First-class Medals, 28 Second-class Medals, and 30 Honorable 
Mentions, accompanied by a Diploma. Of the Grand Medals of 
Honor, Great Britain received but one, although represented by 
1,549 exhibitors. The Government of Great Britain expended 
nearly $200,000 in its own Department at this Exhibition. 

It remained open 200 days, and the total receipts were about 
$650,000. 

The First Italian Exhibition of Art and Industry was opened at 
Florence, in September, 1861. It proved to be a great success, 
especially in bringing forward the more prominent branches of 
Italian industry. 

In 18*62 the Second International Exhibition was held in Lon- 
don, and was opened by the Duke of Cambridge, and the musical 



1004 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




MUNICH EXHIBITION BUILDING, 1854. 




PARIS EXHIBITION BUILDING, 1867. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 2005 

services were performed by 2,000 voices and a band of 400 instru- 
ments — the poet Tennyson preparing an ode for the occasion. 

The Exhibition opened May 1st, and closed November 15th, 
being open for visitors 171 days, during which time it was visited 
by 6,225,000 persons, and the gross receipts were $2,298,155. 

Although the United States was represented by only 132 arti- 
cles, yet it received the largest number of awards in proportion, 
of any nation represented, viz.: 56 Medals, and 29 Diplomas. 
When it is borne in mind that this was in 1862, when our country 
was involved in civil war, and that the American section of the 
Exhibition was entirely controlled by private funds, the result is 
certainly moat creditable; the special objects of interest, from the 
United States at the Exhibition of 1862, were McCormick's 
Reapers, Sickles' Steam Steering Apparatus, Ericsson's Caloric 
Engine, Sewing Machines, Pianos, Maizena or Corn Starch, Flour, 
Street Railway Cars, Steam Fire Engines, etc., etc., Axes, 
Ploughs, Model Houses, Shirtings and Sheetings. 

The attractions of the Paris Exhibition of 1867, led to its being 
visited by more of our countrymen than any former Exhibition. 
The city of Paris itself has always been styled " the Mecca of 
Americans," and many took this opportunity to visit and enjoy 
its pleasures. The Exhibition building was located in the Champ 
de Mars, a large square in the immediate vicinity of the Military 
School. Early in 1866, steps were taken by the commission in 
charge of the Exhibition to beautify and improve this place, and 
ftt its' opening the barren waste was made to blossom as the rose: 
trees, shrubs and flowers were planted in appropriate positions, 
and diversified with lakes, fountains and cascades. 

The regular admission to this Exhibition was fixed at 1 franc or 
20 cents gold, but on special occasions a higher price was charg- 
ed, and on Sundays the admission was reduced to 10 cts.; the 
largest number of any one day, as officially reported, was 128,000; 
and the total number of visitors, during the entire Exhibition, was 
estimated at nearly ten millions. 

The Vienna Exhibition was opened May 1st, 1873, and closed 
Oct. 31st. The main building, of brick and glass, erected on the 
Prater (a beautiful Park about 5 miles long), was 2,985 feet long, 
82 feet wide and 51J feet high, with a central dome, and opening 
out from this Hall were 32 transverse galleries, 250 feet long, and 
49 feet wide, the whole presenting a form which was compared to 
a gridiron,or to a fish's spine, with the projecting bones. There 
was also a machine annex of brick, 2,614 feet long, and 155 feet 
wide, and a large fine art hall and numerous smaller buildings. The 
exhibits were classified into 26 groups following nearly the plan of 
the divisions in the great expositions of London and Paris. The 
industries of nearly all the world were represented. There were 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1007 

643 exhibitors from the United States, of which 349 were award- 
ed prizes. Total number of visitors was 7,254,687. The exhibi- 
tion cost more than $12,000,000. It was not a financial success — 
deficit $9,000,000. The industrial benefits to Austria were very- 
great, and the advantages gained by foreign exhibitors were most 
important. 

II 

THE UNITED STATES CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. 

The patriotic impulses of the people of the Great Republic 
originated the idea of some adequate celebration of the one hun- 
dredth anniversary of the National Birthday. In 1866 a number 
of gentlemen originated the plan of celebrating the great event by 
an exhibition of the progress, wealth, and general condition of the 
Republic, in which all the nations of the world should be invited 
to participate. In 1871 Congress passed a bill providing for a Cen- 
tennial Exhibition in Philadelphia, where the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence was adopted and signed. By this bill a commission 
was created of one commissioner and one alternate from each 
State and Territory. A Board of Finance was authorized to issue 
stock to the amount of ten million dollars in shares of ten dollars 
each. Congress appropriated $1,500,000, to finish the building. 
Gen. Joseph R. Hawley was made president of the commission; 
and on June 5, 1874, the President of the United States, Gen. 
Grant, invited the nations to participate, and every civilized na- 
tion except Greece and some petty South American Republics, 
was represented at Philadelphia. This entire enterprise was un- 
dertaken by a few eminent citizens, and everything was arranged* 
provided for, and ready when the first parcel of goods came. 

Ill 

DESCRIPTION OF THE CENTENNIAL CITY. 

Philadelphia has an area of 82,603 acres, or 129^- square miles, 
the largest of any city in the world. Its population in 1876 was 
817,448. It was founded by William Penn, in 1682. The name 
means "brotherly love." It is sometimes called the "Quaker 
City," the " Marble City," the " City of Homes," &c; which latter 
appellation is a well-merited compliment, from the fact, that from 
its now about nine hundred thousand inhabitants, it can boast of 
not far from two hundred thousand comfortable dwellings, hun- 
dreds of which may well merit the name of palaces. Thousands 
of mechanics and operators reside in their own houses, earned by 
their own hard and honest toil. They are constructed of the solid 




CORK EXHIBITION BUILDING. 1853. 




VIENNA EXHIBITION BUILDING, 3873. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 



1009 



and bright red Philadelphia brick, with white marble door-steps, 
facings and window-sills; contain a vestibule, four to six and eight 
rooms, neatly papered; they are furnished with gas and bath, and 
a yard in the rear sufficiently large for the cheerful grass-plot and 
flower-beds. To those who do not own their dwellings, these neat 
and cheerful homes are usually rented at from ten to twenty dol- 
lars per month, according to their locality. 

Philadelphia has also been called the " City of Street Railroads;" 
having about three hundred miles of street-railways, and running 
over two thousand passenger cars; its generally level surface 
and the rectangular lines of its streets and squares, with an 
occasional large arterial avenue crossing through the heart of the 
great city, from some point north-west to south-east, or in the 
opposite direction, render it more available than any other city for 
this desirable vehicle of transit. In whatever part of the vast city 
you may locate or traverse you will hear the lively hum of the 
street-cars, and whatever point you may desire to reach, spring on 
board, apprise the conductor, and he will either convey you to the 
place desired or transfer you to a car that will. 

A stranger who visited Philadelphia for observation and infor- 
mation, thus gave his experience to a friend who was about to 
follow with a similar object: 

" Every street in Philadelphia is ribbed with rail-tracks, and if 
you wish to view the entire square-toed metropolis, without the 
trouble of walking, jump into a street-car at the Delaware head of 
the city, and ride up one street and down another, till you see up 
and down it, north and south, out to the great western or county 
line ; and then perform a similar car-feat across from north to south, 
and you have interviewed a great city in a sitting posture." 

IV 
CENTENNIAL GROUNDS, FAIRMOUNT PARK. 

Fairmount Park, on the banks of the Schuylkill, was selected as 
the site of the celebration, and two-hundred and thirty-six acres 
on Landsdowne Plateau, lying over one hundred feet above tide 
water, were enclosed for the purpose of the Exposition. 

Who can describe, what pen portray or mind conceive of the 
diversified and natural beauties of this wondrous landscape? 
Well may the beholder stand with uncovered head, while gazing 
upon the handiwork of the Creator, where every spot seems hal- 
lowed with historic associations dating back for nearly two hun- 
dred years. The scene thus extolled might well be called the 
"Eden of America;" embracing as it does, nearly three thousand 
acres of ground — forming hills and dales, leafy woodlands, rip- 
pling brooks and placid river, rocky ravines and wilder nooks and 

64 



1010 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




THE HOUSE WHERE THE "DECLARATION" WAS WRITTEN IN 1776. 




carpenter's hall in 1776. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1011 

crannies, extensive drives and sequestered valleys, numerous cas- 
cades and sloping terraces. Though not so artistically adorned 
as other and older parks, nature has lavished her gifts so abund- 
antly, that scarcely an additional attraction seems to be needed. 
This Park, so inseparably connected with our Centennial enter- 
prise, is three times as large as the Central Park of New York, 
and is divided by the Schuylkill river into two sections — East and 
West Parks. The entire Park contains nearly 3000 acres. 

Particular praises must be lavished upon the lovely Landsdowne 
Valley. Strangers were almost invariably tempted to forget the 
great Exhibition which they came to see, over their delight with 
this fairy spot. 

The little brook which meanders through the valley dashes and 
splashes in crystal purity over the rocks, and gurgles into the lit- 
tle pools on its tortuous way with a music of which the sweetness 
will forever be vainly imitated by aggressive art. Three large 
bridges and a number of smaller rustic ones span the brook on its 
way through the ground. This lovely retreat in the midst of the 
great exhibition buildings filled with the wonders of the whole 
world, is a blessing inestimable to the crowds who, weary of feast- 
ing in splendor, seek some relief in the calmer pleasures of a 
quiet ramble. 



STATISTICS OF THE WORLD'S PARKS. 

Park of the Hague, 200 acres. Alameda, City of Mexico, 1$ 
acres. Park at Munich, 320 acres. Peel, Manchester, 32 acres. 
Petit Park, Versailles, 1,280 acres. Palais Royal, 10 acres. Tuil- 
eries, 50 acres. Luxembourg, 160 acres. Champs Ely sees, 225 
acres. The Bois de Boulogne, 2,158 acres. Grosse Garden, Sax- 
ony, 8oo acres. Schwebgingen, near Heidelberg, 300 acres. 
Schloss Garden, Stuttgard, 560 acres. Hof Garden, Munich, 500 
acres. Thier Garden, Berlin, 200 acres. Djurgard, Stockholm, 
480 acres. The Prater, Vienna, 2,500 acres. The Summer Gar- 
den, near St. Petersburg, 480 acres. Boboli, Florence, 200 acres. 
Szarsco Selo, near St. Petersburg, 350 acres. Sweetzingen, near 
Mannheim, 100 acres. Richmond Hill, 2,468 acres. Lambeth, 
250 acres. Kew Garden, 684 acres. Arboretum, Derby, 50 acres. 
Meadows, Edinburgh, 200 acres. Phoenix Park, Dublin, 1,752 
acres. Birkenhead, Liverpool, 185 acres. Kensington Gardens, 
35 acres. Buckingham Palace, 40 acres. Hyde Park, 389 acres. 
St. James's Park, 59 acres. Green Park, 55 acres. Regent's 
Park, 450 acres. Norfolk, Sheffield, 20 acres. Primrose Hill, 50 
acres. Greenwich Park, 200 acres. Baxter, Dundee, 37 acres. 
Victoria, 300 acres Crystal Palace, Edinburgh, 200 acres. Bat- 




Robert L. Qrr, 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1013 

fcersea, 175 acres. Albert Park, 409 acres. Kensington Park, 
262 acres. Chiswick Gardens, 33 acres. Windsor Little Park, 
500 acres. Windsor Great Park, 1,800 acres. Hampton Court, 
1,872 acres. Green, Glasgow, 121 acres. Prince's Park, Liver- 
pool, 90 acres. Washington, South Park, 150 acres. Hartford, 
Central, 46 acres. New York, Central Park, 862 acres. The 
other New York public grounds are — The Battery, 30 acres; City- 
Hall Park, 10^- acres; Washington Parade Grounds, 9-J- acres; 
Union Square, 4 acres; Stuyvesant Park, 4 acres; Tompkins' 
Square, 10 J acres; Madison Square, 7 acres; St. John's Park, 4 
acres; Gramercy Park, 1^ acres; Brooklyn, Prospect, 550 acres; 
Baltimore, Druid Hill, 700 acres, and Patterson's Park, 35J acres. 
San Francisco has twelve squares of small extent — one improved. 
Cincinnati, Washington Park, 4^- acres; Lincoln Park, 7 acres; 
Hopkins, 1-J acre; City Park, 1|- acre; and Longworth's Garden 
of Eden, 156 acres. St. Louis, Tower Grove Park, 277 acres; it 
has also fourteen others, containing 119 acres, and Shaw's Garden, 
the "Wonder of the West," 276 acres. Chicago, Lincoln Park, 
50 acres; Washington Park, 2-j- acres; Lake Park, 40 acres; Dear- 
born Park, 1-J- acres; Ellis Park, 3 acres; Union Park, 23 acres; 
Jefferson Park, 5-J- acres; Vernon Park, 4 acres; South Side Park, 
about 1000 acres; Central Park, 185 acres; Humbolt Park, 225 acres; 
Douglass Park, 180 acres, and other small Parks. Boston Com- 
mon, 48 acres. New Haven, Wooster, 5 acres; the Green, 16 acres; 
the Brewster, 55 acres. Philadelphia, Hunting Park, 45 acres; Fair- 
mount Park, 2,991 acres. The other Philadelphia parks or 
squares are — Logan Square, 7 acres 3 roods; Franklin Square, 7 
acres 3 roods; Rittenhouse Square, 6 acres 2 roods; Washington 
Square, 6 acres 2 roods; Independence Square, 4 acres 2 roods; 
Jefferson Square, 2 acres, 2 roods. 

The first parks or public inclosures laid out in North America 
for the pleasure and convenience of the people, were dedicated at 
the settlement of Philadelphia, in the Northeastern, Southeastern, 
Northwestern, Southwestern and Centre Squares, in 1681. 

VI. 

OPENING CEREMONIES OF THE EXHIBITION. 

May 10, 1876, proved an auspicious day for the inauguration 
•exercises, and these were attended by over one hundred thousand 
enthusiastic people. The band, under Theodore Thomas, played 
the national airs of the various countries represented in the Fair. 
This was followed by a Centennial March composed by Richard 
Wagner, of Germany. Bishop Simpson, of the M. E. church, 
offered prayer. A chorus of eight hundred voices, with organ 
and orchestral accompaniments, sung John G. Whittier's Centen- 



1014 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




INDEPENDENCE HALL IN 1876. 




THE GIRARD COLLEGE. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1015 

nial Hymn to music, by John K. Paine, of Massachusetts. John 
Welsh, President of the Board of Finance, presented the buildings 
to the Commissioners, who accepted them through Gen. Hawley. 
A cantata by Sidney Lanier, of Georgia, music by Dudley Buck, 
was rendered. General Hawley presented the buildings to Presi- 
dent Grant, who declared the exhibition opened. The American 
flag was run up to the peak of the Main Building, a hundred guns 
were fired, and President Grant, and Dom Pedro, Emperor of 
Brazil, taking their stand on the platform of the great Corliss 
engine, moved the levers, and set in motion fourteen acres of ma- 
chinery. And in this dignified manner the opening ceremonies 
were terminated. 

VII. 

DESCRIPTION OF BUILDINGS AND THEIR LOCATION. 

The chief edifices were th\» Main building, the Art Gallery, and 
Horticultural, Agricultural and Machinery Halls. Says one in 
describing their relative positions at the opening of the show: 

The first which one reaches in coming from the city is the 
Main Exhibition building; but the only point from which a com- 
prehensive view may be taken of them all, is from the summit of 
George's Hill, on the western margin of the Exhibition grounds, 
and here the spectator will find the Machinery and Agricultural 
Halls in the foreground, and the Main Building and Art Gallery 
in the distance. Looking at them from this point, it will be seen 
that the northern faces of the Main and Machinery Buildings are in 
a line ; that they are divided by an avenue, but connected by a 
covered way; and that the length from the extreme of one build- 
ing to the extreme of the other is very great, — more than two- 
thirds of a mile. Running along the northern length of these 
buildings is a boulevard one hundred feet in width, which is tra- 
versed by a double line of narrow-gauge cars, for the accommoda- 
tion of visitors. Three hundred feet back of the Main Building, 
their centres being in a line, stands the Art Gallery. Next north- 
ward, and on the further side of Landsdowne Valley, which is cross- 
ed by a bridge, is the Horticultural Building; still back of it, 
northernmost of the principal structures, is the Agricultural Build- 
ing, and midway between this and the Machinery Hall is the 
building for the exhibition to be made by the United States Gov- 
ernment. In addition to these buildings, the demands for space 
were so numerous that annexes were erected both to the Art 
Gallery and Machinery Hall. Besides the five principal buildings 
;here were nearly two hundred smaller structures tastefully scat- 
ered over the extensive grounds. 

From the numerous descriptions we select the following, which 
contain the most condensed and satisfactorv items for our readers: 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1017 

The Main Exhibition Building was constructed of iron and glass. 
It was 1,880 feet long, and 464 feet wide; while at the centre of 
each side and end was a projection two hundred and sixteen feet 
in length, containing an entrance and an imposing arcade and 
facade. The larger part of the structure was one story high, the cor- 
nice being forty-five and the ridge seventy feet from the ground; 
the central pavilion, however, rose to a height of ninety-six and its 
towers of one hundred and twenty feet. The enclosed area was 
21.47 acres. The eye of the visitor wandered over this expanse, 
bewildered by its extent, the impossibility of grasping its vast 
dimensions, and the forest of supporting columns and girders. 
Through the centre of the building ran an aisle one hundred and 
twenty feet wide and over one-third of a mile long; this was flanked 
by two others, one on each side, one hundred feet in width. Be- 
tween the nave and each avenue were three aisles, each forty-eight 
feet wide, and between each avenue and the wall of the building 
were two aisles, one forty-eight and the other twenty-four feet in 
width. Crossing these longitudinal avenues were a central tran- 
sept one hundred and twenty feet wide, and on each side an 
avenue one hundred feet wide. The narrowest aisles were ten 
feet in width. The roof was of tin, light being introduced at the 
north and the south sides and by skylights over the central aisles. 
The foundation consisted of piers of masonry on which rested the 
columns supporting the roof. These were six hundred and seventy 
two in number, varying from twenty-three to one hundred and 
twenty -five feet in length, and weighing in all two million two 
hundred thousand pounds. The whole building was gayly but 
harmoniously painted. The entire cost of erection was one million 
five hundred and eighty thousand dollars. 

The Machinery Hall, being located on the same line with the 
Main Exhibition Building, was practically a continuation of that 
immense structure, and a walk through both from end to end was 
about three-quarters of a mile long. This Building was 1402 
feet long by 360 feet wide, with an annex on the south side of 208 
by 210 feet, together covering an area of fourteen acres. A steam- 
engine of fourteen hundred horse-power drove the shafting and 
belts, which reached to every avenue and aisle, and so ran the 
immense number of machines which were exhibited over this vast 
area. An elevated tank, constantly supplied with water pumped 
up from the river, served to operate all sorts of hydraulic machines, 
and the overflow formed a waterfall thirty-six feet high and forty 
feet wide. Beneath was a reservoir, one hundred and six by sixty 
feet, around which the pumps were grouped and into which they 
constantly poured great jets of water. A chime of 13 Bells, re- 
presenting the 13 original States, were hung in the northeast tower 
of the building. The cost of this building was $542,300. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1019 

The Memorial Hall, or Art Gallery, was a permanent edifice 
erected by the city of Philadelphia and the State of Pennsylvania 
at an expense of a million and a half of dollars. The style of archi- 
tecture is the Modern Renaissance. The only materials used are 
granite, iron and glass, thus rendering the structure fire-proof, and 
ensuring the preservation of the treasures of art which it contains. 
The building is three hundred and sixty-five feet long, two hundred 
and ten feet wide and fifty-nine feet high. It is surmounted by a 
graceful dome, rising one hundred and fifty feet and terminating 
in a colossal ball, which supports a figure of Columbia standing 
with outstretched hands, as if protecting all. In front are three 
huge doorways, each forty feet high and fifteen feet wide. The 
doors are of iron, with bronze panels, containing the coats-of-arms 
of all the States and Territories. On either side of the main en- 
trance, reaching to the pavilions at the corners of the building, are 
arcades, with promenades looking outward on the Exhibition 
grounds and inward upon gardens ornamented with fountains and 
statuary. From the main entrance a broad hall leads to the centre 
grand hall, from which extend the galleries, each ninety-eight feet 
long, eighty-four feet wide and thirty-five feet high. Together 
they are capable of holding eight thousand persons, and furnish 
seventy-five thousand square feet of wall-space for the display of 
paintings. The application for room in the Memorial Hall so 
greatly exceeded its capacity that an annex was, at the same time, 
built in the rear, which afforded sixty thousand additional square 
feet of wall-space. 

The Horticultural Hall was erected by the city of Philadelphia 
to remain as a permanent ornament of the park. It is approached 
on either side by ornamental bridges, which span romantic ravines 
extending to the river. The length of the building is three hun- 
dred and eighty-three feet; width, one hundred and ninety-three 
feet ; and height, to the top of the lantern, seventy -two feet. The 
style of architecture is the Moresque of the twelfth century. Both 
entrances are very attractive, being by flights of marble steps 
leading up from terraces, at the centre of each of which stands an 
open Kiosque or summer-house twenty feet in diameter. The 
centre of the building is occupied by a conservatory, two hundred 
and thirty feet by eighty feet. A gallery five feet wide and 
twenty feet from the ground extends entirely around, and affords 
a fine view of the interior. Off from the conservatory are four 
forcing-rooms, each one hundred feet by thirty feet, two of which 
are noticeable in the picture for their curved roofs of iron and 
glass. From the vestibules, ornamental stairways lead to the in- 
ternal galleries of the conservatory, to the external galleries which 
overlook the forcing-rooms, and to a grand promenade formed by 
the fiat roofs of the vestibules. Thirty-five acres of ground sur- 



1020 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGBS. 




THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1021 

rounding the building were devoted to horticultural purposes. 
This building cost $300,000. 

The Agricultural Hall was simply a series of arches constructed 
on the principle of the Howe truss, and presented upon the out- 
side an exceedingly novel appearance. The interior resembled 
that of a grand Gothic cathedral, with the vistas continually 
broken by the bases of the arches and the slender wooden pillars 
which upheld them. The central nave was eight hundred and 
twenty feet long, one hundred and twenty-five feet wide, and 
seventy-five feet high. It was crossed by three transepts, the 
central one being one hundred feet, and the end ones each eighty 
feet in width; the space between the nave and the transepts, and 
also at the four corners of the building, being roofed and enclosed. 
The grand plan of the -building is a parallelogram of 820 by 540 
feet, covering an area of about 10 acres. It cost 8260,000. 

The general arrangements for the Exhibition were of the most 
ample character. There were seven large restaurants on the 
grounds, besides several buffets in each of the principal buildings. 
Seven miles of substantial roads and walks led to the principal 
points of interest. The system of drainage was complete, there 
being two miles of pipes underlying the Main Exhibition Building 
alone. A reservoir containing forty million gallons of water was 
close at hand, while special pumping-engines raised from the 
river six million gallons daily. The railroad tracks were laid 
within the enclosure, and heavy machines were thus carried di- 
rectly into the broad aisles of the building assigned for their dis- 
play; while facilities were afforded at various platforms, scattered 
at convenient points over the grounds, for unloading sixty cars at 
once. 

The several railroads, with trains capable of carrying twenty- 
four thousand passengers per hour, seven different lines of street 
cars running on "one-minute time," besides numerous omnibuses 
and transfer coaches, conveyed visitors to and fro between Phila- 
delphia and the Exhibition. For the accommodation of travelers, 
the Philadelphia and Reading and the Pennsylvania railroad com- 
panies erected commodious stations near the grounds. The depot 
of the latter was close to the main entrance. Three tracks were 
here laid in a circle one thousand feet in diameter for the trains 
arriving from the East, West, and South respectively. The trains 
stopped so as not to overlap, and discharged and received passen- 
gers upon long, covered platforms. There were thirteen entrances 
to the Exhibition grounds, at each of which the visitors passed 
through self-registering turn-stiles. 

The Jury Pavilion was an ornate two-story wooden structure 
costing$30,000, 152 by 113 feet in size. Here the judges 



-■■■■ -m;i~~ ;■■ - 



m 



w 






mu 



m 



- 



h: 






THE GREAT EXHIBITION". 1023 

bled, and awards were made. We give the rules adopted by the 
Commission : 

Fiest — Awards will be based upon written reports attested by 
the signatures of their authors. 

Second — Two hundred judges shall be appointed to make such 
reports, one-half of whom shall be foreigners and one-half citizens 
of the United States. They will be selected for their known qual- 
ifications and character, and will be experts in departments to 
which they will be respectively assigned. The foreign members 
of this body will be appointed by the commission of each country, 
and in conformity with the distribution and allotment to each, 
which will be hereafter announced. The judges from the United 
States will be appointed by the Centennial Commission. 

Third — The sum of $1,000 will be paid to each commissioned 
judge for personal expenses. 

Fourth — Reports and awards shall be based upon merit. The 
elements of merit shall be held to include consideration relating 
to originality, invention, discovery, utility, quality, skill, work- 
manship, fitness for the purposes intended, adaptation to public 
wants, economy and cost. 

Fifth — Each report will be delivered to the Centennial Com- 
mission as soon as completed for final award and distribution. 

Sixth — Awards will be finally decreed by the United States 
Centennial Commission, in compliance with the act of Congress, 
and will consist of a diploma with a uniform bronze medal, and a 
special report of the judges on the subject of the award. 

Seventh — Each exhibitor will have the right to reproduce and 
publish the report awarded to him, but the United States Centen- 
nial Commission reserves the right to publish and dispose of all 
reports in the manner it thinks best for public information, and 
also to embody and distribute the reports and records of the Ex- 
hibition. 

VIII. 

GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE EXPOSITION. 

To every visitor the Fair presented certain features that made 
a deep and durable impression ; and these depended much on the 
character, culture, and nationality of the observer. 

A great traveler, like Bayard Taylor, naturally compares this 
with former World's Fairs, and so says: " Taken as a whole, the 
Exhibition surpasses all its predecessors in beauty of position, 
convenience of arrangement, and variety of interest. I cannot 
guess what first impression those may receive who see a World's 
Fair here for the first time. But, having already given the points 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1025 

of comparison between this and the preceding five Exhibitions, 
I looked upon it yesterday without reference to them. I found 
that its prominent characteristic was the broad cosmopolitan 
stamp which extended even to the details. Whatever might have 
seemed specially American, if standing alone, took its place as 
one of many forms of human skill or industry. Thus, also, the 
manifestation of one nationality balanced that of another ; and it 
would be. hardly possible to say, without inspecting the crowd 
rather closely, whether one was in England or France, Germany or 
America. The singular collection of State buildings is now so 
flanked by (so called) Turkish, Tunisian, Moorish, and other 
structures of foreign fashion, that its grotesqueries no longer strike 
the eye. But nearly all the more prominent objects are in nega- 
tive if not in positive good taste, and stamp their character upon 
the scene. Wherever we turn, there is such an animated, popu- 
lous, and cheerfully-colored picture that we are constantly be- 
guiled from the serious work of our visit. 

There is now no sign of rubbish anywhere ; the paths, avenues, 
and bridges are complete ; and if here and there an enforced 
slope of turf looks thin and feeble, or a clump of shrubbery grows 
but languidly, it seems no more than the hot Summer has eifect- 
ed in many old pleasure-grounds. The many full-grown trees 
scattered throughout the enclosure greatly increase the impres- 
sion of permanence, and the variety of surface produced by the 
two dells which, falling toward the Schuykill, divide the blossom- 
starred plateau of the Horticultural Building from the Main and 
Agricultural Halls, is now seen to be one of the greatest charms 
of the spot. The locality is beyond all question the most beauti- 
ful which has ever been chosen for an International Exhibition ; 
and the more the disposition of the main and subordinate build- 
ings is studied, the more their admirable combination of conven- 
ience and picturesque alternation will be appreciated by the visi- 
tor. Perhaps there are fewer luxurious effects of gardening art — 
fewer surprises and rapid changes of scene than in Paris in 1867 — 
but, on the other hand, there is greatly more space and freedom. 
Considering how much there is, it is amazing that every single 
feature of the Exhibition is of such easy reach. 

People, when they first arrive, stare much and speak little, 
bestowing their amazement upon great things and small with 
strict impartiality. The vast extent of the show at first solem- 
nizes them. If they ask for information, their speech is timid and 
tentative, as if they are not quite sure whether you will under- 
stand the English language. It was a relief to hear a buxom girl 
exclaim, with honest impulse if defective grammar : "Oh, look'ee 
there ! What's them things ?" By noon, however, when 20,000 
persons are sure to be present, the habits of individual communi- 
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THE GKEAT EXHIBITION. 102? 

ties grow confused ; there is such a vast and variegated crowd 
that each one returns to his or her natural manner before he or she 
is aware of it, sure of not being particularly noticed. Then you 
see strangers giving question and answer or interchanging re- 
marks at every turn. Then the restaurants, the bazaars, and the 
circular trains are crammed with people who talk freely, laugh and 
jest at will, and pour their mixed impressions into the genial com- 
mon atmosphere. It is not quite the abandon of a European 
crowd, but a very pleasant approach to it. 

I am surprised to find such a small proportion of the better — I 
-should say, the richer — classes of those who live in cities, and 
<jlaim higher culture and better opportunities of knowledge. 

Most persons seem more keenly interested in all the auxiliary 
features which reproduce, or in any way illustrate, foreign life, 
than they are in the mere display of foreign art and industry. 
"The figures in costume,in the Swedish and Norwegian department, 
for example, constantly draw away crowds from the cases which 
contain the natural products or mechanical skill of the Norse peo- 
ple. The exhibits which are accompanied by exhibitors of anoth- 
er race, at once recognizable in features or dress, have a double 
attraction to the crowd. This is not only natural, but commend- 
able : it simply shows how deeply rooted in all mankind is the 
feeling : homo sum, etc. It is something stronger and graver 
than curiosity. I have watched the faces of country people as 
they here — undoubtedly for the first time in their lives — look up- 
on Japanese, Turks, Greeks or Moors ; and I have not yet discov- 
ered the slightest expression of repulsion or instinctive prejudice 
of race. On the contrary, it is easy to detect an agreeable sur- 
prise, in most cases — as if the spectator had found an unexpected 
likeness to his own stock. 

The glowing prophecy of what might be expected at Phila- 
delphia furnishes a graphic picture of what actually came to pass, 
and was abundantly shown at the Great Exhibition : 

The American Eagle's Centennial scream has really roused the 
world. The sister eagles of France, Germany and Austria have 
answered it with sympathetic cries ; the British lion has respond- 
ed to it with a jubilant roar, re-echoed from the jungles of farthest 
India ; and even the Russian bear growls not altogether surly 
congratulation upon the coming event over the scene of which 
our symbolical Bird already distends her beak and flaps her im- 
measurable wings. 

Great Britain and nearly all her coloniss, France and hers — in 
fact, all the European nations but one — several Asiatic and African 
states, and most of the South American countries, are represented 
here by their agents, and will contribute to the Exhibition. To 
swell the enormous, and, as we shall see, unprecedented show, will 




Gen. Sam Houston. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1029 

come offerings of gold and ivory and gums from torrid Barbary, 
and furs and feathers from Norway in the North. Egypt, now 
ruled by a great Khedive, has gathered together her relics of a 
civilization forerunning by thousands of years the birth of the 
Saviour of the modern world, and sends them across the Atlantic 
in company with specimens of products — such as tobacco, sugar- 
cane, indigo and cotton — the culture whereof has long replaced 
that of the papyrus in regions inundated by old Nile. In the un- 
opened boxes which have been received from Cairo a^e said to be 
transcendent antiques excavated froun Abousambul, Alexandria 
and Memphis. The Obelisk and the Pyramids have given up 
parts of themselves # for transportation hither, and several objects 
illustrating the remotest Theban past will be set down here to 
touch the minds of millions of people next summer with thoughts 
of days when Osiris, Isis and Horus were worshiped in the earli- 
est recorded abodes of man. From the Netherlands — the ancient 
nurse-lands of Erasmus, Scaliger and Grotius, of Rembrandt, 
Jean Steen and Van der Heist, and the modern home of Ary 
Scheffer and Rotterdam Schnaaps — are on their way, specimens of 
diamond-cutting and similar wondrous arts, fabrics of wool, cot- 
ton, silk and paper, and canvases from the choicest galleries 
north of the Pyrenees and the Alps. Worried though Turkey 
just now is, the ports of Constantinople, Trebizond and Smyrna 
are full of the tumult of preparations for shipping goods through 
the Mediterranean and across the Atlantic. The odor of attar of 
roses is upon the deep, and the costumes of Sclaves and Rouman- 
ians, Albanians, Armenians and Circassians, Koords, Gypsies, 
Druses, Arabs, Tartars, Syrians — all the motley nationalities of 
which the Osmanlis are made up — will blend their colors with the 
approaching kaleidoscopic scene. Siam has appropriated $100,- 
000 to bear the expenses of her display of vases and urns, fine 
cloths and glass wares. The Japanese are early in the field with 
materials for their building on the Exhibition grounds and have 
devoted $600,000 to make their part in the festival a brilliant suc- 
cess. To the porcelain articles, lacquer-work, wood and ivory 
carvings and gorgeous specimens of lithochrome printing which 
have distinguished this singular people at European and native 
fairs, they will add on this occasion many extraordinary objects 
which have never before quitted the shores of their islands, nor 
even the seclusion of certain residences there of the highest rank. 
The land of the Shah, whose jewels lately dazzled London, has also 
in preparation its tribute of silks, shawls and felts, satins, sarcenets 
and somewhat inferior brocades and velvets. If one may trust 
the reports current in the no longer staid Quaker City, the pla- 
teaux and mountain recesses of Persia are streaked with caravans; 
the sites of Persepolis, Shahpur and Istakhar are turned into noisy 



THE GEEAT EXHIBITION. 1031 

encampments, and the Straits of Armuz and the Gulf are loud 
with the shout of Tajik mariners under white sails that bend for- 
ward over costly cargoes toward the western world. Even Tunis 
will render store of precious metals, leather, senna, spices and 
cochineal and web-like muslins; and the rising empire of Brazil, 
of whose growth and progress we have taken too little heed, is to 
fling into this peaceful arena a full assortment of its agricultural 
products, manufactures and arts. Italy has dedicated many of 
her most glorious paintings and groups of statuary to the exhibi- 
tion of the arts. And for the -first time since the days of the Jes- 
uits' ascendency in America the walls of the art galleries of Mad- 
rid and Lisbon will loan a generous portion of their long-secluded 
treasures to the gaze of eyes beyond the Atlantic sea. Belgium, 
Denmark, Sweden, Peru, Bolivia, Hayti,Venezuela, Mexico, Ecua- 
dor, Nicaragua, Liberia, Guatemala and Salvador, Honduras, the 
United States of Colombia, Hawaii, the Argentine Confederation, 
Orange Free State — these are among the countries which are to 
be represented at the biggest World's Fair that will ever have 
been held. 

IX. 

THE EXHIBITS. 

THE MAIN BUILDING. 

The Main Exhibition Building contained twenty-one acres of 
wonders in its collections in Mining, Metallurgy, Manufactures, 
Education and Science. 

The United States had nearly seven acres assigned them on the 
Eastern side. "We had no reason to be ashamed of our part in 
the display. Our jewelers and silver workers won universal ad- 
miration for the beauty and originality of their designs. Let us 
notice this mantle made from Mexican onyx, for the Emperor of 
Germany, by a New York house, which is a marvel of beauty, not 
only in regard to the material, but also in design and finish. In 
front, are two columns with silver trimmings; on the top stands a 
neat clock, with antique design in silver, in bas-relief. This mar- 
ble is light colored, dappled with different shades in the most ex- 
quisite manner, and extremely rich and delicate in its appearance. 
The price of this household treasure was $2,500. 

This necklace, blazing with a score of brilliant diamonds, is 
worth $42,000; these sets of furniture which almost belong to the 
realm of fine arts, are fit for palaces of the proudest monarchs; we 
have reason to take pride in the high rank of our skilled labor in 
its most artistic aspect. 

One of the most exquisite pieces of workmanship, is a vase 
called " The Century Vase," made by the Gorham Company, the 



LOo^ 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




A SCENE IN FAIRMOUNT PARK. 




THE GIRARD AVENUE BRIDGE. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1033 

celebrated manufacturers of silver ware. It is about five feet 
long, and four feet high, and contains two thousand ounces of 
solid silver. It is an epitome of our history during the last cen- 
tury; so suggestive and appropriate are the designs. 

The Bryant vase was hammered by hand out of flat silver. 

The exhibit of chandeliers was very full and creditable. In- 
deed, the variety of styles and the luxuriousness of the work were 
so marked as to show that the American manufacturers had in 
this direction fairly outstripped their foreign competitors. 

In porcelain and pottery ware the European far surpassed the 
American workmen; but in pure white glass, the United States 
factories had no superiors. Their cut-glass was thin, transparent, 
ringing, and the engraving beautiful and artistic enough to satisfy 
the most exacting. 

The Eastern factories exhibited a great variety of textile fabrics 
such as thread, yarn, silks, sheetings, prints, hosiery, carpets, and 
cotton and woolen goods; and also of paper, blank-books, and 
stationery of all descriptions. The fine, soft blankets from the 
West had no rival. 

Tall and elaborately executed marble and granite monuments 
and sarcophagi from Maine were brought into direct and by no 
means unfavorable comparison with shafts of Scotch granite, so 
extensively imported into the United States. Marble mantles 
and etageres, of exquisite beauty, proved the richness of our quar- 
ries and the promise of our stonecutters. 

The section devoted to chemical products was exceedingly 
gratifying to Americans. The European manufacturers were 
fairly outdone, and every competent observer felt that there was 
henceforth no need to go abroad in order to secure even the rarest 
chemicals. Those extremely scarce and costly substances, caf- 
feine and chloride of propylamine, were represented by masses of 
beautiful crystals. The more common salts of gold, silver, iron, 
lead and mercury, were exhibited in great purity. Massive jars 
of the citrates were brilliant with opaline lustre. One large case 
represented the products of coal tar, and another of cryolite, 
among which was a block of alum crystals weighing nine tons. 
Huge bottles of pure carbolic acid, glycerine, quinine and various 
pharmaceutical extracts and preparations, blocks of refined cam- 
phor, of stearic and oleic acids, of blue vitriol and various dyes 
and paints, attracted the wondering eyes even of the careless vis- 
itor; while perfumeries of every conceivable kind glittered iu 
cases rich with crystal and gold, or, flashing in tiny fountains, 
loaded the air with their fragrance. 

The iron ores and manufactures were naturally predominant, 
those of Pennsylvania taking the lead, though there were fine ex- 
hibits from other States. Few ornamental articles were shown; 



i 



1034 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




MLUJIBIA BRIDGE FROM THE RUSTIC BRIDGE IN WEST PARK. 




THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1035 

bat there was a great variety of iron and steel rails, safes, kitchen 
utensils, galvanized iron and tin-ware, and of axes. 

Great Britain and Ireland presented a very interesting array. 

Gorgeous tapestries of huge dimensions; exquisite lace and 
embroidered curtains; engravings and chromos; case after case of 
the best editions of standard works, which would warm the heart 
of a book-lover; brass and silver musical instruments, which re- 
flect hke a mirror; guns and cutlery of the finest finish; cloths of 
all kinds, costly furs and robes, ladies' silk dresses and plain and 
figured velvets of the richest material ; shawls of almost every con- 
ceivable quality and pattern: furnished bedrooms, in the styles of 
Queen Anne, and India, respectively; so rich, and yet so quiet, 
the decorations and furniture so happily blended, as to make 
them look like the chambers of peace. 

A splendid collection of cut glassware, which is a study for an 
artist. A goblet, so light and fragile that it makes one feel un- 
comfortable to take it up, and which is figured with a spirited de- 
sign of St. George and the Dragon, cut almost as delicately as a 
cameo, worth $140. A pitcher, covered with mythological de- 
signs cut in the same exquisite manner, priced at $250. Hundreds 
of pieces of these costly articles, worth a fortune. Extensive 
treasures in porcelain, which might be studied for days together; 
samples of all sorts of tile for floors, wainscoting, panels, mantels, 
and many other uses; a life-size statue of Thomas Carlyle, repre- 
sented as seated in his easy arm-chair; a most beautiful work of 
art, called " Milton's Shield," oval in form, about 4 feet long, and 
three feet wide, of silver, and covered with designs illustrating 
"Paradise Lost" (In the centre we see Satan, in guise of a serpent, 
tempting our parents in Paradise. On the right, the archangel 
Michael, with spear and shield, hurling the lost spirits over the 
battlements of heaven; on the left, Satan encouraging his hosts 
to battle; and at the bottom, Michael, standing triumphant over 
Satan and his hosts), possessing artistic merit in the highest de- 
gree, valued at $8,000; scientific apparatus, sporting implements, 
small arms, traveling equipments, hardware of every description, 
brushes, combs, hosiery, clothing, umbrellas, inks, perfumery, 
paints, — an almost endless catalogue of articles in every branch of 
industry, — all illustrating how really England is the workshop of 
the world. 

Canada made nearly as large an exhibit as the mother country. 
Her excellent school system formed the principal feature. Nova 
Scotia presented a small sloop rigged with ivory and white silk, 
by a person who not only was never at sea, but also is not a me, 
chanic. The gold mined in British Columbia from 1858 to 1875 
was represented by a pyramid, and the total value was $38,166,- 
970. The geological products of the Dominion were illustrated 




ON THE WISSAHICKON PARK. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1037 

by maps, samples of ore, petroleum, a block of plumbago six feet 
by four, beautiful marble mantles from Montreal, and red granite 
from New Brunswick. The variety of rugs and blankets, furs and 
woolen goods, attested that the art of keeping warm was success- 
fully pursued ; while the furniture, boots and shoes, sewing-ma- 
chines, pianos, etc., rivaled those from far more favored lands. 
The models of vessels from the principal ship -yards, and the mag- 
nificent collection of furs from the Hudson Bay Company, com- 
pleted this extensive department. 

The Australian colonies — New South Wales, Queensland, Vic- 
toria, South Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania — were fully 
represented. Their samples of manufactured goods, chemicals, 
furniture, jewelry, earthenware, and even of stained-glass, gave an 
enlarged view of the progress of art and industry in that far-off 
quarter of the globe. The photographs were especially remarka- 
ble, the climate of Sydney being, it is said, the best adapted in the 
world to the photographer's art. Large gilt models indicated the 
production of gold; that in the Queensland section was an obe- 
lisk representing a mass of gold weighing sixty-five tons and 
worth $35,000,000, found since 1868. In New South Wales and 
Queensland, however, the mining of tin has, in some degree taken 
the preference, the production of that metal, since the date of 
its discovery in 1871, having been seven thousand tons. The 
relation of the geologic structure of the land to its products was 
aptly illustrated by means of blackboards containing the names of 
the various formations, kinds of rocks, etc., and their correspond- 
ing agricultural productions. Beneath these tablets hung photo- 
graphs of the country and its inhabitants ; while below were 
placed samples of the rocks, grain, timber, metals, and botanical 
specimens. Victoria exhibited models of the famous nuggets of 
gold which had been found, and wax fac-similes of fruit which had 
been grown within her territory. South Australia showed fine 
specimens of her native birds and animals. New Zealand dis- 
played the products of her soil, and also drawings and photo- 
graphs of the land in different sections, with the native inhabi- 
tants, their costumes and dwellings, and the prominent towns and 
buildings. New South Wales and Australia made a remarkable 
show of wools and woods. 

India displayed a set of furniture from Bombay, carved in 
black wood ; a collection of their musical instruments ; one of 
their famous Cashmere shawls, woven by hand, valued at $1,155 ; 
elegant pieces of tapestry, inlaid marble vases, and silver table 
service; one of their native plows made of a rough log with a 
brad in it, having a rod of iron like a crow-bar projecting in front 
to scratch the ground, a rough, crooked beam, and a small stick 



i 



1038 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

If Jill 





THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1039 

leaning backwards for a handle, and a rude yoke made to tie to the 
front of the oxen's heads. 

Germany showed porcelain from the Royal Works at Berlin ; 
chemicals from the Chemical Union; cotton and mixed goods from 
the Gladbach District ; musical instruments from Saxony ; clocks 
from the Black Forest ; linen goods from Wurtemberg ; agate 
wares from Idar-Oberstein ; the Rhenish exhibit of cloths ; the 
Bavarian contribution of toys and small wares ; German books 
and collattral printing industries, representing over one hun- 
dred and fifty individual firms and organizations. The German 
idea of an exhibition is not a show of things that please the eye 
or gratify an artistic taste, but a collection of all-important natur- 
al industries, including articles made for the use of peasants as 
well as of princes. If the Berlin porcelain were taken out of the 
German section, and the Elkinton silver, the porcelain, and the 
Doulton ware out of the English, in respect to beauty the areas 
occupied by those countries would rank with that of France very 
much as a potato-field does with a flower-garden. In Germany 
and England, as in the United States, there are a few industries 
in which the artistic element has been developed to a high degree, 
but in France the quick perception of beauty characteristic of the 
Latin races is manifested in a very wide range of manufactures, 
so that articles which from their uses are elsewhere wholly com- 
monplace, are elevated almost into the domain of art. 

France displayed a predominance of articles of real beauty, such 
as bronzes, porcelains, faience, laces, jewelry, an innumerable host 
of articles de fantaisie, many elegant things, such as women most 
covet — lace shawls of the finest workmanship, silks in a profuse 
variety of cofor and pattern, rich brocades and velvets, lovely em- 
broideries, costly Paris dresses, heavy with flowers and real point 
lace ; silk stockings with lace inserted at the instep ; the dainti- 
est of shoes and slippers, jewelry, fans, ribbons, artificial flowers, 
and a thousand quaint and pretty articles for the writing-desk, 
the mantel, and the boudoir-table, al] admirable in their way. 

Switzerland abounded in specimens of her watchmaking indus- 
tries. One tiny watch weighing less than a gold dollar, and only 
three-fourths as large, attracted much attention. The material 
cost less than seventy-five cents, yet the product was worth two 
thousand dollars ; a pithy commentary on the value of skilled la- 
bor. Out of a snuff-box lid, by touching a spring, leaped a jew- 
eled singing-bird ; while a pencil case contained a watch, a baro- 
meter,and a thermometer. The lace curtains made by hand were 
wonderfully delicate in pattern and execution. The carved wood- 
work, so familiar to all foreign tourists, was represented by a large 
collection of Alpine birds, rock-poised chamois, cucktoo clocks, 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1041 

brackets, models of Swiss chalets, etc. The Educational section 
contained the maps, text-books, models and apparatus used in 
Swiss schools, with specimens of the work of pupils. 

Belgium exhibited laces, silks, tapestry, fire-arms, musical in- 
struments, linen goods, blankets, inlaid wood- work, sewing ma- 
chines, clothes, glassware, and a beautiful carved oak fire-place, 
all showing the varied industries of the country, and the skill of 
her artisans. 

Brazil was represented by a volume of 500 pages, descriptive 
of the institutions and resoures of the country, in English, Por- 
tuguese, and German, all printed at Rio de Janeiro, and very 
handsomely printed too. 

Her pavilion was of Moorish architecture and brilliantly colored, 
where were grouped artificial flowers made from brilliantly-color- 
ed feathers of Brazilian birds; collections of butterflies and insects; 
specimens of coffee, cocoa, rice, ginger, and many tropical fruits; 
and samples of logwood, mahogany caoutchouc, Brazil-wood, rose- 
wood, castor tree, and other products of the Brazilian forests. 
Books, maps, and excellent art sketches were followed by tiers of 
leather in hides and saddles. 

In the Netherlands were fine assortments of soaps, glassware, 
blankets, marbles, tapestries, and beautiful lacquer- work. 

The engineering works were shown by which Holland is drain- 
ed, and casts of the surface of a portion of the country. There 
were model dwellings, collections of sheet music, fine Smyrna 
carpets and rugs, clay pipes, cologne water, lacquered work on 
wood, chemicals, a fine assortment of school-apparatus, and a large 
screen of surpassing beauty, ornamented with four scenes from 
Goethe's Faust, and four from poems of Schiller, — the one unap- 
proachable and perfect gem of the Holland exhibits. 

Mexico gave us silver and iron ore, Galena marbles of great 
beauty, coal, native woods, medicinal plants, and other samples of 
the natural wealth of the country. 

Austria made a very extensive display of delicate, green, cut- 
glass; a collection of the finest Bohemian glassware; a goblet made 
by a new process just discovered. (It reflects the most brilliant 
colors, and is thought to be an important discovery, as its cost is 
comparatively moderate.) A magnificent vase of cut-glass, of 
large size and elaborate workmanship, worth $640; an immense 
collection of costly pipes and an extremely fine display of jewelry. 

The Russian department was superb, and exhibited school-ap- 
paratus, books, maps, the finest cutlery, satins, laces, velvets, bro- 
cades, and ot^er fabrics of choicest color and texture, rich display 
of furs, statuary, carving in gold and silver, porcelain, silver plate, 
and embroidery in gold and silver, — all evincing the most con- 
summate skill and exquisite taste, — a silk handkerchief with ele- 




fHE JUDGES HALL. 




UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT BUILDING. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1043 

gant colored border, thrown across a golden basket or server, — 
the imitation of the glistening silk being exquisite beyond descrip- 
tion, — a sleigh scene moulded in silver, — three horses, graceful 
and fleet, and at their utmost speed, are drawing a sleigh with 
two occupants, — a malachite table, the top resting on gilt standard 
— a kind of marble green, figured and grained with black, — the top 
of the table is made by fitting together different pieces, selected 
for their beauty, and joined so perfectly, that the joints are hardly 
discernible, — in the middle is fitted a piece like a star, and around 
it a circle of patterns mottled like shell-work, making a most 
charming combination of colors and designs, a mantel of the same 
material, a perfect gem of the kind, priced at $540, a gilt clock 
for mantel-piece, on which a falconer is seated on a spirited 
charger with bow in case, and arrow in quiver. The hunter has 
reined up his steed, and the falcon rests on his outstretched hand, 
with wings outspread. 

Spain's exhibit contained samples of ores, coal, building-stone 
and marble; specimens of iron, wool and cotton fabrics, boot|^ 
shoes, gloves, hardware, chemical products and pottery. The de- 
signs of the shawls, silks and brocades, as well as the porous 
water-coolers and the "pilgrim's bottles," had a singular Eastern 
look betraying the lasting stamp of the Moorish conquest. 

Egypt, "The oldest nation in the world sends its morning greet- 
ing to the youngest." She sent a model of the largest pyramid, 
photographs of noted ruins and of street scenes, brass dishes and 
■a great salver ornamented with etching, costly rugs or carpets, in- 
laid and carved stools and low tables, elegant inlaid furniture, — 
one piece an ebony cabinet, profusely inlaid with pearl, valued at 
$4,000, two carved Arabic doors and another ebony cabinet, drom- 
edary saddles and some ancient Arabic gravestones found in 
Abyssinia, Turkish weapons, a Damascus sword, with a magnificent 
elephant saddle of crimson velvet richly embroidered with gold, 
worth $5,000, Arabic ornaments for mosques, gorgeous embroid- 
ery, striped gauze undershirts for ladies' wear embroidered with 
gold thread, a crimson velvet curtain to use in place of a door, 
also rich with gold, a white velvet table-cover in gold and floral 
embroidery, a crocodile and some rhinoceros horns, two lamps for 
the mosque, valued at $5,000 each, engraved with burnt colors, 
jewelry made at Arrooan and Soudan, books in Arabic, plants 
dried, parchments, hardware and a piece of chain armor. 

Turkey was Oriental in her arms, ornaments, embroideries in 
cloth of gold, spangles, articles from olive-wood of Jerusalem, to- 
bacco and pipes, and a collection of coins five thousand in number 
and two thousand six hundred years old. 

Denmark excelled in terra cotta ware, in furs and skins; while 




BOWEL S NEWSPAPER PAVILION. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1045 

the fisherman in his boat and the Danish winter-house proved 
very attractive. 

Tunis pitched in the park Bedouin tents with all the applian- 
ces of Arab life in the desert. There were, also, saddles, cush- 
ions, slippers and fezzes. There was a mosaic of a large lion, 
which was found near the temple of Astarte, and carried the 
mind back to the palmy days of Carthage. 

Portugal exhibits a selection of topographical and geological 
maps and charts of the kingdom. There is also a display of glass- 
ware, pottery, porcelain, fine dyes, cotton and woolen goods. A 
good display is made of silk fabrics, and excellent specimens of 
wood carving is shown. Also a collection of tin-ware, showing 
the fine quality of the native Tin of Portugal. 

The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands, sent a case of articles by 
Queen Emma, of fans, brushes, and native millinery; also, beau- 
tiful specimens of coral, a stalk of sugar-cane 26 feet long, various 
products, and views of native scenery. 

Japan was a great bazaar filled with attractive goods. The 
lacquer-work was very marvelous — little cake trays marked 50 
cents, large glittering cabinets marked $1,000, and between these 
extremes articles innumerable. The art of lacquering is believed 
to be more than a thousand years old. The finest modern ware is 
made in Tokio and Kiyoto, and the less artistic ware is produced 
throughout the empire, the business appearing to be almost as 
widely practiced as that of cabinet-making in this country. Lac- 
quer, it may be remarked for the benefit of people who have no 
encyclopedia handy, or who are not so fortunate as to possess 
the very excellent catalogue of the Japanese section, is the sap of 
a tree called " Rhus Vernicifera," and is applied, layer upon layer, 
to a wooden surface with brushes and spatulas. The figures in 
relief are either carved or built up on the plain surface by suc- 
cessive applications of the liquid. The pretty gold-sprinkled lac- 
quer is made by sifting small pieces of gold-leaf upon a freshly- 
painted surface, which is then coated with a choice quality of lac- 
quer prepared with gamboge, and afterward polished when hard. 
China's most interesting and valuable exhibit belonged to the 
richest man in the Empire, Hu Kisang Yung, of Hong Chow, 
who is worth $30,000,000, and lives in a house that cost $2,000,- 
000, and was represented by a large collection of antique china 
and bronzes. There was a bronze urn 3,800 years old ; and rare 
porcelains dated back from three to 1,200 years. Necklaces of 
gold, and ivory, fans, boxes, trinkets, useful articles, exquisite 
carvings and wonderful lacquer-work, were among the contribu- 
tions of China. 

Chili made a magnificent display of geologic specimens from 
the Andes (placed within a padoga of the Peruvian aborigines), of 




'■■:■'• .Ji".i.:,,.^L_ ' ' ■' ' i'! ' '■! ' ' -y^" i-. ".-'•' ' •'■' : -v/;.sv-yja. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1047 

stuffed hides of the puma and agosto, of Indian relics and cos- 
tumes, of ropes, of unexpectedly fine book-binding, and drawings 
of her public works. The Argentine Republic offered thirty- 
thousand specimens of its ores, leather, manufactures, etc., select- 
ed from an exhibition made for this purpose by its fourteen prov- 
inces at Buenos Ayres the previous year. Peru displayed speci- 
mens of the precious stones and metals which so often tempted 
the Spaniard to that El Dorado of the sixteenth century ; many 
curious relics of the times of the Incas ; and samples of cotton, 
cocoa, coffee, cinnamon, pimento, pepper, indigo, Peruvian bark, 
and caoutchouc. 

Orange brought thither from Southern Africa diamonds in the 
rough from her diamond fields, koodoo cowhides, antelope and 
jackal leather, rhinoceros thongs, ivory tusks, elegant cases of os- 
trich feathers and tropical birds, and various curious articles of 
native manufacture. 

Italy displayed her goods with the purposes of a shopkeeper. 
It would require hours to describe the exquisite marble, bronze 
and terra cotta statuary, the wonderful carving in black walnut 
and ebony, the latter often inlaid with pearl, — centre tables inlaid 
with marvelous skill, the top of one resting on the stooping body 
of a negro carved in ebony, — jewelry, porcelain, cameos, silver 
filagree work, specimens of mosaic, ancient armor, books, velvets, 
and a table in mosaic worth $1,500; a violin 171 years old, used 
by Pagininni, valued at $1,000; a table on which is the " Cathedral 
of Milan" inlaid in mother of pearl, with its wonderful imitation 
of sunlight; also, a table and settee carved in stone, covered by a 
maze of elaborate designs of game, guns, fruit, &c, of exquisite 
beauty; and hundreds of other articles, which show the wonder- 
ful ingenuity and artistic taste of this people — leghorn hats, gloves, 
shoes, coarse woolen blankets, buttons, bed-spreads, hats, brushes, 
soaps, candles, chemicals, perfumery, paper and books. 

Sweden and Norway made a capital impression by the quality 
and order of their exhibits. Says an observer : 

" What attracts the first notice of visitors, are the admirable 
groups of costumed figures illustrating peasant life. They are 
models in plaster, the faces and hands are painted, so that they 
are exceedingly lifelike. The costumes have all been actually 
in use by peasants, having been purchased directly from the wear- 
ers. The artist who made the figures is Prof. Loderman of Stock- 
holm, a sculptor of established reputation. Such great care is 
taken to secure absolute correctness in details that, when the 
hand of one of the figures was broken in transit, it was supplied 
by a cast taken from the hand of a Swedish girl in the employ of 
the Commission here. Most of the groups were made up from 
paintings. The expressions of the countenances and the attitude 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1049 

of the figures are remarkably natural. One of the groups repre- 
sents a hunter and his family gathered in front of a dying elk that 
has just been shot. The face of the hunter expresses self-satisfied 
pleasure at the success of the chase, as does that of his son, but the 
two women obviously sympathize with the dying beast, and the 
little girl hides her face in terror in her mother's apron: Anoth- 
er admirable group is that of a Laplander in his sledge, drawn by a 
reindeer, who stops to chat with a fur-clad woman carrying a ba- 
by slung to her neck in a sort of trough. I only call attention, in 
conclusion, to that of the dead child and one representing the in- 
tercession of the wife of an old clockmaker in behalf of the suit 
of a stalwart young fellow who has come to ask the hand of the 
blushing daughter." 

They showed wonderful progress in education, engineering, 
and manufactures. Their relics were very curious, going back 
to the age of the Vikings when men were apparently stronger 
than now. Norway was strong in cod-liver oil as well as in iron 
products and furs. Both countries had reason to be proud of 
their industries. In the annexes to the Main Building on the 
southeast side were minerals from all parts of the country, to- 
gether with much of interest which was excluded for want of room 
in the larger structure. 

Machinery Hall. 

As has been said : " There is hardly an industry to the progress 
of which America has not largely contributed. The cotton-gin, 
without which the machine-spinner and the power-loom would be 
helpless, is American. The power-shuttle, which permits an un- 
limited enlargement of the breadth of the web, is American. The 
planting-machine is American. Navigation by steam is Ameri- 
can. The mower and reaper are American. The rotary printing- 
presses are American. The hot-air engine is American. The 
sewing-machine is American. The manufacture of wool-cards is 
American. The whole India-rubber industry is American. The 
hand-saw originated in America. The machine-manufacture of 
liorse-shoes is American. The sand-blast, of which the large ca- 
pabilities are not yet developed, is American. The gauge-lathe 
is American. The only successful composing-machine for print- 
ers is American. The grain-elevator is American. The artificial 
manufacture of ice, under the name of the Carre process, was in- 
vented by Professor Alexander S. Twining, an American. The 
electro-magnet was invented and first practically applied in trans- 
mitting telegraphic signals by Professor Joseph Henry, an Amer- 
ican. The telegraphic instrument introduced a few years later in- 
to public use, and which has since obtained universal acceptance, 
was invented by Professor Samuel F. B. Morse, an American. 




PARIS RESTAURANT. 




THE GRAND EXPOSITION HOTEL EUROPEAN PLAN. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1051 

The total number of exhibitors from all countries was as fol- 
lows: United States, 1,030; Great Britain, 92; Canada, 198; 
France, 98; Germany, 46; Austria, 8; Switzerland, 2; Belgium, 
28; Netherlands, 10; Sweden, 52; Norway, 13; Italy, 11; Brazil, 
24; Argentine Republic, 7. Total, 1,619. 

The great Corliss engine at the middle of the building was the 
centre of attraction. Some of its arithmetical data are worthy of 
record — a driving-wheel thirty feet in diameter and weighing 
fifty-six tons ; pistons with a stroke of ten feet, and cylinders with 
a diameter of forty-four inches; and twenty boilers, of seventy 
horse-power each. To transport it from Providence to Philadel- 
phia required a train of sixty-five cars. With its irresistible grip 
this tremendous machine carried 8 miles of shafting and moved 
14 acres of machinery, and all so quietly as to give only a mere 
murmur of motion. 

Of the 558,440 square ft. in the Machinery Building, 80,479 
were taken up by foreign countries, thus: 





Sq. Ft. 




Sq. Ft. 


Russia had . 


. 1,500 


France 


. 10,139 


Brazil . > 


4,000 


Great Britain . 


. 36,725 


Denmark • 


585 


Canada 


4,300 


Italy . • 


585 


Germany . . 


. 7,018 


Sweden 


. 3,168 


Austria . « 


1,536 


Spain 


2,448 






Belgium 


. 9,375 


Total 


. 80,479 



Imagination strives to picture the images and conjure up the 
sounds that made this enormous interior wonderful. The most 
ponderous, intricate and delicate mechanical contrivances invent- 
ed by man and applicable to the needs and fancies of every peo- 
ple were ranged along these naves and aisles. All the machines, 
tools and apparatus of mining, metallurgy, chemistry and the ex- 
tractive arts — hoisting machinery and machines for pumping, 
draining and ventilating the deepest mines of gold, silver and 
coal; machines and tools for working metal, wood and stone; im- 
plements of spinning, weaving, felting and paper-making; all va- 
rieties of sewing machines; apparatus for type-setting, printing, 
stamping, embossing, and for making books and paper- working; 
motors for the generation and transmission of power; hydraulic 
and pneumatic apparatus; railroad machinery, from locomotives 
down; mill machinery, and machinery used in grinding or prepar- 
ing agricultural products; every invention of aerial, pneumatic 
and water transportation; and boilers, engines, cranes, pumps, 
and minor machinery especially adapted to the requirements of 
the Exhibition — all articles that can be conceived of as coming 
under these general descriptions were displayed, and most of 
them in full motion and at work, a'ffording exhibitors of manufac- 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION, 1053 

tunng machinery facilities for practically illustrating the processes 
of manufacture of various articles and fabrics, such as woolen 
cloths, linens, paper, calicoes, watches, &c, &c. 

Thus, there were machines for sawing, planing, matching, 
molding, paneling, tenoning, mortising, dove-tailing and polishing 
lumber; for making the hubs, spokes, felloes and rims of wheels; 
for picking, carding, drawing, spinning, doubling, twisting, warp- 
ing, weaving, dressing and finishing cotton; and for planing, turn- 
ing, slotting, shearing, punching, pressing and shaping iron. 
Paper was making on a Fourdrinier machine; paper collars were 
drying; boxes and bags were manufacturing; sheets were being 
folded, stitched and bound into books; thread was being doubled 
and twisted, wound, measured, and the spools printed automati- 
cally; carpets, floor-cloth eight yards wide, cotton-sheeting three 
yards wide, seamless bags, corsets, etc., were weaving; envelopes 
were being folded, gummed, finished, and dried ready for use by 
single machines; portraits, book-marks and figured silks were 
weaving on Jacquard looms; chromo pictures were making, chro- 
motype illustrations were printing in five colors; a candy estab- 
lishment was turning out chocolate sugar-plums; Waltham watch- 
makers were producing tiny wheels and screws of almost micro- 
scopic fineness; clay was being tempered and pressed into brick; 
newspapers were folding by machinery; and a tobacco factory ex- 
hibited its hands making cigars, singing meanwhile their planta- 
tion songs. One machine was voraciously biting off wire into 
small bits and transforming them into pins, while another assort- 
ed the promiscuous pile and stuck the pins into paper ready for 
market. 

In addition to these, there were steam fire-engines of marvelous 
beauty; a planing-machine weighing eighty-one tons, and having 
a traverse of forty-four feet; weighing scales; twenty or more 
sewing machines with bewildering attractions of pavilion and 
work ; knitting, button-hole, braiding and embroidery machines in 
operation; steam and hand, single and duplex, rotary, plunger, 
and force pumps in great variety; thirty or more steam engines 
of various patterns and sizes; hat-molding machines; steam, water 
and gas-fitting apparatus; gas metres; bolts, nuts, screws, saws, 
axes, planes, nails, locks and all sorts of hardware; cracker and 
candy machines; trip-hammers; steam-gauges; soda water appa- 
ratus; hay and cotton presses; cheap Yankee clocks; type casting, 
type writing and type setting machines; wire-making apparatus; 
brick machines; mine ventilators; steam fan-blowers; rock borers; 
stone-dressing and sawing machines; copying and printing presses; 
water-wheels; hydraulic rams; pile-drivers, fifteen locomotives, old 
and new; fire extinguishers; flour-mill machinery; grindstones 



105-i 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGE3. 




THE GREAT EXHIBITION". 1055 

neatly erected in the form of a monument; and paper boats, light 
and strong. 

The productive industry of Nevada is mining, and she was rep- 
resented by a quartz-mill in operation. The process is curious: 

The rock goes to the stamps through a self-feeding hopper, and 
comes out in the form of a powder dissolved in a small stream of 
water that runs through a trough into the amalgamator — a big, 
round, sheet-iron box heated by steam. Here the quicksilver is 
added, and the mixture passes into another circular tank, where it 
is stirred by revolving arms. The quicksilver seizes upon the sil- 
ver and carries it off into an iron pot, whence the two commingled 
metals are put into iron pans and heated in a retort, when the 
former passes off in fumes and is collected, to go through its labor 
of releasing the silver from the dross again and again. 

France, Germany, Belgium and the United States, were repre- 
sented in the plate glass department; but we are far behind for- 
eign countries, especially Belgium. Glass is obtained by melt- 
ing together in large pots, sand, soda-ash and limestone. 

Now for the operation of casting the glass and carrying it into 
the annealing furnace. When the glass has been properly melted 
in the pots, the pots are taken out of the melting-furnace and the 
glass is poured from them on to a large cast-iron table, the sur- 
face of which is perfectly planed. An iron roller is then passed 
over the glass, and the rough plate is produced. It is really very 
much like rolling delicate pie-crust. But the plate of glass thus 
obtained would be, if allowed to cool in the open air, in a brittle 
state. It must, therefore, be annealed, a process which consists 
in its remaining for some days in the annealing furnace, in which 
it is allowed to cool very slowly and gradually. These annealing 
furnaces are composed of a flat slab large enough to receive one or 
more sheets of glass, covered by a very low vaulted roof, and hav- 
ing a door in front. After the glass has been put into the fur- 
aace, the doer is shut and hermetically sealed with fire-clay. The 
mrnace is then heated by two or three fires, whose flames, having 
4 licked" the glass, escape by a chimney, which generally has its 
opening in one of the corners of the vault. 

In a population of nearly forty millions, it stands to reason that 
the demand for plate -glass must be enormous. Every decent 
house, every store-front, bears ample testimony in that direction; 
and yet, we are to fold our hands, make no use of the resources 
which nature has lavishly placed at our command, and purchase 
from abroad what we ought to produce • at home. Considering 
the cheapness of coal, sand and limestone, all found in abundance 
and of a superior quality in this country, and delivered at much 
lower prices than in Europe; when we consider that soda-ash can 
be imported from England at the mere nominal duty of one cent 



1056 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1057 

per pound, and that it costs no more here than in Belgium; when, 
moreover, we consider the enormous import duty of fifty cents a 
square foot, it is astonishing that American capital should lie idle 
in the banks, and American workmen and their families crying 
out for bread, when our natural opportunities and resources point 
to so profitable a way for the employment of both the one and the 
other in the manufacture of a staple article, for the purchase of 
which we are now compelled to send millions of money annually 
to Europe. 

The tenor of the report of the Commissioner of Belgium to his 
government is that the United States have it in their power to 
render themselves absolutely independent of foreign producers of 
plate-glass just as soon as they make up their minds to do so. 

What a monster was that Krupp gun, weighing sixty-two tons, 
and throwing a twelve-hundred-pound ball several miles, more or 
less. 

Here is a wonderful machine for making envelopes for letters. 
A roll of white paper goes in at one end of the ingenious piece of 
mechanism, and comes out ready to receive the letter, and at the 
rate of one hundred and twenty per minute, in packages of twen- 
ty five each. .And here a girl works another almost as marvelous. 
A pin-sticking contrivance yonder enables one person to stick on 
paper one hundred and eighty thousand pins per day. There is 
an iron planer that plows grooves in solid iron or takes off wide 
shavings of the metal. 

But where shall we close our catalogue of wonders that crowd 
Machinery Hall? We must pass on to take some glances through 

MEMORIAL HALL. 

The best American artists were not represented in the Exhibi- 
tion, owing to professional jealousies. There were, however, 
several good pieces; and among these Rothermel's Battle of Get- 
tysburg excited much attention. This great painting barely es- 
caped destruction in the great fire that prostrated Chicago. 

The English collection reflected immense honor on the " mother 
country." We noticed a solidity of execution, an honest, sturdy 
apprehension of Nature, and a restriction of means to effects, 
which have their origin in the blood of the English people rather 
than in the teachings of any school. Many as are the transition 
phases between West and Maclise, or Fuseli and Millais, English 
art invariably seems strong and positive in intention, if not always 
in execution. 

Even if the collection were made up of the very best works of 
each artist represented, it could scarcely have been more instruc- 
tive. The single Fuseli and the single Barry illustrated in the 
most satisfactory manner the beginning of this century. The for- 




BHODE ISLAND STATE BUILDING* 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1059 

mer's "Thor" shows the influence of Michel Angelo and the 
Elgin marbles — with a long interval between. It throws a clear 
light upon the quarrels and struggles of Haydon, and partly ex- 
plains many passages in the literary history of the time. Barry's 
*' Temptation in Paradise " is a most interesting record of a man 
whose career greatly resembled that of Haydon — an artist whose 
ideas were better than his work, and who quarreled bitterly with 
a generation which could not understand them. It was painted 
after his return from Italy in 1770, and must be nearly a century 
old. Although the flesh- tints are somewhat hard and cold, the 
picture is characterized by a noble simplicity of style. 

The two pictures by West are more satisfactory than his large 
works. His " Death of General Wolf " has a historic interest, as 
an innovation which ought to balance many deficiencies. It is 
the first instance of using modern costume in historical painting, 
and the step was no less bold than right, when West took it. The 
picture is well composed, and the action is spirited; the coloring, 
moreover, is much better than those might anticipate who know 
the artist chiefly through the assaults made upon him. There can 
be no question of his native talent, and he seems to have been 
ohiefly held back from higher artistic success by the early ignor- 
ance of his colonial years, followed by a too-early fame in England. 

Of the succeeding generation, there were two Wilkies, five 
small Landseers, one Turner, one Constable, one Northcote, one 
Opie and one Leslie. We were sorry to miss Haydon, whose 
name would have made the list tolerably complete. Wilkie's 
** Reading the Gazette " is in his characteristic style. It has all 
his firmness of drawing, power of facial expression, and solid sim- 
plicity of color. Constable's picture interests every one, as a 
specimen of the revival of true landscape art in England. He 
never blends earth and sky, even in his distances, as so many of 
our American artists are accustomed to do — probably because 
they see so much of it. His air is air, and his earth earth; his 
meadows can be walked upon and his trees climbed. Turner ex- 
presses the opposite form, of landscape spiritualized, or interfused 
with moods of the imagination. Hence he cannot be properly un- 
derstood from any single picture. His " Dolbadden Castle " is 
not one of his most famous works, yet it expresses much of the 
subtle quality of his genius. 

Etty is celebrated in England for his painting of flesh. His 
" Sleeping Nymph and Satyrs," is a good example of his style; 
yet, while his coloring has a great deal of warmth and vitality in 
light, the shadows have an unpleasant brownish tint. Sir Francis 
Grant had three portraits, and the examination of them convinced 
us that the Royal Academy might have had a worse artist for its 
President. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1061 

There was always a dense crowd around two of Frith's paint- 
ings, " The Railway Station " and the " Marriage of the Prince of 
Wales." Their hard, honest, careful realism, is instantly under- 
stood by the multitude. The appositeness, the individuality and 
the finish of each figure seems to detach it for the spectator's eye, 
while it keeps its proper place in the group. This, combined with 
the restricted realism of the color, makes the engravings of Frith's 
pictures almost equal to the original paintings. The " Banquet 
Scene from Macbeth," by Maclise, is far more ambitious in its aim 
than Frith's spacious illustrations of the life of our day, yet by no 
means so successful. It is melodramatic in the highest degree, 
and the tawdriness of its color is not atoned for by a certain 
amount of professional skill. Allston's little picture of " Spalatro's 
Vision of the Bloody Hand," in the American collection, is a 
much more effective attempt to represent the horror inspired by 
seeing the invisible. 

The heads of Millais and Holman Hunt are equally excellent 
and interesting. The former gives us one of those clear-eyed, 
pink-cheeked young English girls, just approaching maidenhood, 
whom he loves to paint. The latter sent his own portrait, a rug- 
ged, irregular face, with not a line omitted or smoothed, — a singu- 
larly frank, independent, and lovable countenance. The two 
pictures show that if the artists formerly united in the same move- 
ment, and preached the same doctrines, it has in no way interfered 
with the character of their work. They have been alike in their 
aims, not in their choice of means; neither could have done the 
other's work. 

We have not space here to make a careful examination of the 
works of the younger artists; but the well-known names of 
Boughton (half of whom we claim as an American), Orchardson, 
George Leslie, Prinsep and Eyre Crowe, will call attention to 
their pictures. There were also three striking works by Alfred 
Elmore, an artist whom we hardly know in this country, as yet. 
His " Lenore," from Birger's ballad, is very weird and powerful. 

Germany showed one hundred and forty-five oil paintings, none 
of them of any great merit. The large battle pieces illustrating 
the late Franco-Prussian war excited most attention. 

France had two hundred oil paintings and only about two dis- 
tinguished names. 

The great classical work of the French Art Exhibit was " The 
Death of Julius Cassar," by A. F. Clement, Paris. This scene 
occurred on March 15th, 44 b. c, when Cassar was fifty-six years 
of age. He had been warned by a soothsayer to beware of the 
ides of March, and on that day, when making his daily visit to the 
Senate house, a written account of the conspiracy was placed in 
his hands, to which he paid no attention. It was agreed between 



1063 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




SWEDISH SCHOOL HOUSE. 




THE SOUTH. 



THE GEE AT EXHIBITION 1063 

the conspirators, about sixty in number, that Lucius Tullius 
Cimber should present a petition to him, and his refusal to grant 
the same should be the signal of attack. The assassins rush- 
ed upon him with their daggers, and he fell at the foot of Pom- 
pey's statue, pierced with twenty-three wounds. The picture 
represents the moment, when, seeing Brutus among his murder- 
ers, he makes the exclamation, "Et tu Brute!" 

"Rizpah Defending the Bodies of her Sons" (2 Sam. 21:10) 
attracted great attention, but less admiration. People looked upon 
a mighty canvas with its great gallows decorated with shields and 
spears, the trophies of battle, and along whose ghastly transom the 
naked bodies of five men are suspended, while on the ground be- 
low them, a woman, powerfully built and wrought up to fury, 
threatens with a club an eagle who seems to be attacking her 
with beak and talon, and they were filled with horror. This we 
judge, was the artist's purpose. And those who have visited gal- 
leries in France must have observed how swift are the transitions 
from scenes of barbarity to those of grossness. You pass from 
lust to murder, as if these were the natural elements of that peo- 
ple's life. The painter of Rizpah, Mr. Becker, is a strong young 
man, fresh from his studies. He yearned to startle Paris at her 
annual salon, he felt able to do it, and he accepted this subject 
because it gave him all he wanted, something bloody and terrible, 
and with action enough to give him difficulties to overcome — -the 
study of the nude, a mass of drapery, and drapery in motion, and 
a fierce eagle to show that his studies had not been confined to the 
Academic models. 

The Austrian department had a marvel of art, the finest picture 
shown. It was Makart's " Venice Doing Homage to Catharine 
Cornaro." Catharine Cornaro, descended from a family which 
had furnished several doges to the republic, was born in 1454, 
and was one of the most renowned beauties of her day. When,, 
for political reasons, it became desirable that the young Prince of 
Cyprus, Jacopo II. Lusignano, should be more closely bound to 
the republic, the authorities of Venice recommended his marriage 
with Catharine Cornaro, whose family had, in course of time, be- 
come reduced in wealth. The republic, adopting her as its 
daughter, richly endowed her for the forthcoming marriage. But 
the glory and pleasures of the throne were, in her case, of brief 
duration. The king died, and Catharine, wearied with the vexa- 
tions to which she was submitted by the Venetian authorities, 
returned to Venice, after having abdicated in favor of the repub- 
lic. Drawing towards her the society of scholars, poets and artists, 
she spent the remainder of her days at a country seat, Asolo, in 
the neighborhood of Venice, where she died in 1510. 

The period chosen by the artist is when the widowed queen, 



1064 



FOOTPRINTS OF THL AGES. 





THE ENGLISH BUILDINGS. 



THE GEE AT EXHIBITION. 1065 

having resigned her crown, had returned to Venice. Arrived at 
the piazzetta, she has just stepped out of her richly- decorated 
gondola, in which, accompanied by the members of her immediate 
family and the ladies of her court, she has made a triumphal tour 
of the Canal Grande. The gondolier, leaning against the prow of 
the boat, seems happy in the honors paid his mistress. Senator 
Loredano (the large figure in a scarlet court dress, and standing 
directly behind her), after welcoming her in the name of the re- 
public, has conducted her to the throne, decked with richest mate- 
rials, where, with graceful majesty, the widowed queen receives 
the homage of a grateful people. Crowds are hurrying towards 
the spot. All ranks, all conditions of life, share in the demon- 
stration; nor age nor sex refrain from taking part. The earnest 
scholar and the young, pleasure-loving nobleman, the sober-minded 
merchant from the Rialto and the merry gondolier, the lady of 
noble birth, whose marble palace is mirrored in the waters of the 
canal, and the poor fisherwoman of Chioggia — all, all have come 
to do homage to the queen who has given a kingdom unto her 
native city. 

Unconsciously, perhaps, the artist has lent added significance 
to the festal scene. Involuntarily the spectator becomes impressed 
with the idea that it is not simply the widowed queen, the grate- 
ful daughter of the republic — but beauty itself, clad in grace and. 
majesty, to whom humanity is thus rendering homage. And this 
lends the picture that deeper significance which, in a measure, 
must needs characterize a truly great work of art. 

The hints that Makart drew from his historical reading were, in 
all likelihood, scant enough. He had probably heard of the " fair 
daughter of the republic." On some lovely moonlight night, while 
yielding to the magic spell of San Marco's beauty, his fine fertile 
fancy may have created the picture. 

Judged from the painter's standpoint, the first feature to chal- 
lenge attention is the light and facile touch with which Makart 
has handled so great a subject. On this great canvas, crowded 
with figures which the artist was obliged to group and yet indi- 
vidualize, the eye of criticism seeks in vain for a pose or an ex- 
pression that is merely conventional, local, cramped by technical 
requirements, or in the slightest degree out of keeping with the 
tone and character of the entire work. The apparent ease with 
which Makart has solved this really difficult problem is a great 
triumph of art. 

Since Paul Veronese, Rubens and Titian, the world has not 
known such a master of color. 

Italy's space was poorly filled. Copies of the great masters were 
there and some pictures, originals, of comparative excellence. In 
statuary there were finely executed pieces, but nothing of much 



1066 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 




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THE ENGLISH BUILDINGS. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1067 

strength of conception or power of imagination. Her sculptors 
are perfect mechanics but not great designers. 

Among the American sculptures there were designs by Rogers, 
Rein hart, Richards, French, Caverly, Volk, Brown and others. 
In applied art our countrymen made about three hundred and fifty 
entries, — photographs, lithographs, heliotypes, engravings on wood 
and steel, crayon sketches, students' work from the schools of de- 
sign, objects in carved wood, and many other proofs of the genius 
of Americans. 

HORTICULTURAL HALL. 

The city of Philadelphia made a liberal grant of money to pro- 
vide for the Horticultural department of the Exhibition an ex- 
tremely ornate and commodious building, which was designed to 
remain as an ornament of Fairmount Park. This structure is lo- 
cated on a terrace bordering the Schuylkill River, a short distance 
north of Memorial Hall, and has a commanding view of the 
Schuylkill River Valley .and the Northwestern portions of Phila- 
delphia. Romantic ravines, running down to the river, separate 
it on the south from Memorial Hall, and on the north from Agri- 
cultural Building. The Horticultural Building is designed in the 
Moresque style of architecture of the 12th century, the chief ma- 
terials externally being iron and glass, supported by fine marble 
and brickwork. The building is 383 ft. long, 193 ft. wide, and 72 
ft. high to the top of the lantern. The main floor is occupied by 
the central conservatory, 230 ft, by 80 ft., and 55 ft. high, sur- 
mounted by a lantern 170 ft. long, 20 ft. wide, and 14 ft. high. 
Running entirely around this conservatory, at a height of 20 ft. 
from the floor, is a gallery 5 ft. wide. On the north and south 
sides of this principal room are four forcing-houses for the propa- 
gation of young plants, each of them 100 ft. by 30 ft., and cover- 
ed by curved roofs of iron and glass, which, appearing upon the 
exterior of the building, present a very fine feature. A vestibule 
30 ft. square separates the two forcing-houses on each side, and 
there are similar vestibules at the center of the east and west ends, 
on either side of which are apartments for exhibitors, reception- 
rooms, offices, etc. Ornamental stairways lead from these vesti- 
bules to the internal galleries of the conservatory, as well as to 
four external galleries, each 100 ft. long and 10 ft. wide, which 
surmount the roofs of the forcing-houses. These external galleries 
are connected with a grand promenade, formed by the roofs of 
the rooms on the lower floor, giving a superficial area of about 
18,000 square yards. The east and west entrances to the Horti- 
cultural Building are approached by flights of blue marble steps, 
from terraces 80 ft. by 20 ft., in the centre of each of which stands 
an open kiosque 20 ft. in diameter. Each entrance is beautified 




COL. FORNEY, COMMISSIONER TO EUROPE. 



THE GEEAT EXHIBITION. 1069 

by ornamental tile and marble work, and the angles of the main 
conservatory are adorned with fountains. Extensive heating ar- 
rangements are provided in the basement, which is of fire-proof 
construction, with sufficient furnace capacity to meet all require- 
ments. 

Everything that taste could do was here lavishly done to make 
the display attractive. All was beautiful within and without. 

Here are orange and lemon trees laden with blossoms; green 
and ripe fruit; camphor, mahogany, guava and India-rubber trees; 
sago, date and fan-palms; bananas, with heavy stems of pendant 
fruit; cream-colored azalias from Belgium; a Japanese maple, 
with crimson shadings; a flamingo, all a-flame with its leaf-like, 
scarlet blossoms; Norfolk Island pines; pitcher-plants from the 
South Sea Islands; and, in an annex, the finest exhibition of rho- 
dodendrons ever made in this country. 

Agricultural Hall. 

No such collection was ever seen since time began, as that 
which filled this extensive hall of the farmers. Holland made a 
compact and well-ordered display, containing two very interest- 
ing collective exhibits made by agricultural societies, the finest 
samples of fruits and vegetables put up in glass jars to be found 
in the Exhibition, fishing nets and models of fishing craft, a mar- 
velous variety of the cordials and fancy liquors for which Amster- 
dam is famous, and numerous piles of the hard, round, little red 
or tin foil covered cheeses of Edam. 

The Russian exhibit was comparatively large, and well repre- 
sented the farming industry of the Empire as far as its products 
are concerned, and also the industries engaged in making the va- 
rious preparations of food. There were grains of all kinds in 
sacks with glass covers and in sheaves, flax, wool, and dried fruits, 
canned goods, cakes, candies, biscuit, wines, liquors, cigars and 
cigarettes, and so on through a long catalogue. The agricultural 
implements consisted only of a mower, a thresher, and two or 
three fanning mills. 

In the Portuguese section were first wines, and then wines, and 
then more wines — case after case, with long rows of bottles mark- 
ed as low as nine and even six cents a liter (a little more than a 
quart), and 25 and 30 cents appear exceptionally high rates. 

There were canned fruits and vegetables, marmalades, jellies, 
preserved fruits, honey, cheeses in tins, sausages enveloped in tin 
foil, dried fish, canned lampreys, an abundance of flour prepara- 
tions of the macaroni and vermicelli order, and crackers and 
fancy biscuits coated with sugar and studded with lots of fruit or 
broken kernels of savory nuts, an excellent display of wheat, oats, 
Indian corn, and millet, and of beans many more varieties than 




SPANISH BUILDING. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1071 

are known to our farmers. The Latin races all make more use of 
the bean for food for man and for domestic animals than we do, 
and consequently give more attention to its culture. 

Her colonies sent coffee, palm oil, vegetable fibers, sugars, 
drugs, nuts, and dried fruits of unfamiliar names and appearance, 
hard woods, cotton and spices, savage arms and implements from 
Africa, rude looms, drums of astonishing devices, carved gourds, 
two stalwart figures of chiefs carved in wood and clad in scant 
costume of cotton cloth and a profusion of tinsel finery — a little 
museum, in short, of African curiosities. 

Liberia to the coffee culture has added indigo and sugar, and 
the manufacture of a very pure article of palm oil soap. Among 
the other articles of trade and commerce are palm oil, cocoa, 
ginger root, arrow root, camwood and ivory, specimens of all of 
which were exhibited, together with samples of iron ore, and sim- 
ple iron manufactures from native beds of very fine ore yet unde- 
veloped, except in the very slightest degree. Some specimens of 
rude implements from this ore were shown, which were made by 
the native Africans, the crude rich ore having been hammered 
into form with stones. Liberia appropriated §10,000 for the ex- 
hibition, but was unable to raise the money, and but for the en- 
terprise of E. S. Morris & Co., of Philadelphia, who largely import 
the products of the country, she would have made no exhibit. 
These gentlemen are Christian philanthropists as well as mer- 
chants. The culture and trade of the coffee berry has been stim- 
ulated by Mr. Morris, the agent and commissioner of Liberia. 
Schools have been established, the condition of membership being 
that every pupil shall plant a certain number of trees. Ten of the 
boys are now in the United States, preparing at a school near 
Philadelphia, to become teachers of their race in Liberia. Their 
expenses are paid by a member of this firm. Every good man 
will sincerily desire the success of E. S. Morris & Co. 

Canada made a choice exhibit of farm machinery, and an excel- 
lent display of grains of great variety and the finest quality. 

France offered wines and brandies; Italy, oils and preserved 
fruits; Germany, beer and wines; Brazil, a palace of cotton and 
a monument of coffees, together with very magnificent woods, 
and other nations brought specimens of characteristic products of 
their soils and resources. 

Our own country was very fully and satisfactorily represented 
in this department. 

" Rivaling this exhibition of the world's products, the United 
States displayed the proofs of the wealth of her soil and the skill 
of her manufacturers — seven hundred exhibitors, covering about 
two-thirds of the entire building. The various State collections 
were of especial interest. Iowa showed samples of the rich 




JAPANESE BUILDING. 



THE GEEAT EXHIBITION. 1073 

prairie-soil of thirty counties, arranged in as many glass tubes, 
six feet high, and also specimens of woods and seeds, and wax 
models of fruits. Delaware had great sections of tree-trunks. 
Oregon showed her woods, medicinal roots, cereals, grasses, and 
her wonderful dried fruits. Indiana exhibited her timber and 
grains; Ohio brought specimens of seeds and grains; West Vir- 
ginia presented timber, grasses, grains and seeds; Massachusetts 
and New Hampshire competed even with the fertile West in 
grains; Michigan State Agricultural Society had a collection of 
forestry and farm products; Illinois illustrated her agricultural, 
horticultural and geological resources; and California and Cen- 
tral New York displayed their native wines. 

In order to illustrate the progress of her fisheries, Gloucester 
had a large tank, in which floated models of the fishing-smacks of 
1776 and 1876, while on the wharf were arranged all the para- 
phernalia of fishing-tackle. 

There were several beautiful cases of stuffed American birds 
and animals. Thirty-five large aquaria illustrated the different 
varieties of fish and the processes of fish-hatching. Above all, 
however, towered selections from Professor Ward's world-wide 
collection of zoological specimens, casts of fossils and magnifi- 
cently mounted objects, constituting a museum by itself. 

The various manufacturers of starch, flour, meal, candies, to- 
bacco, condensed milk, confectionery, canned fruits and vegeta- 
bles, meats and sauces, the pork-packers and the seedsmen, in 
displaying their goods, showed the same fertility of resource, so 
characteristic of the United States in the main Exhibition Build- 
ing. Even guano and tobacco became radiant with ribbons and 
gorgeous with gilt and glass; while hams were hidden in wrap- 
pings of gold and crimson. 

In agricultural implements the United States naturally excelled. 
Three hundred plows of every sort, one hundred reapers and 
mowers, thirty threshers, and exhibits of drills, barrows, cultivat- 
ors, rollers, spades, shovels, forks and scythes, bewildered the eye 
with the brightness of burnished steel, gold-plating and rosewood. 
Almost every operation of the farm was represented by some im- 
plement or ingenious device. 

The United States Goveenment Building. 

The origin of this magnificent display was an Executive Order 
by the President of the United States, which is here given. It 
will be seen that tiie object was a collective Exhibition, that shall 
illustrate the functions and administrative faculties of Govern- 
ment in time of peace and its resources as a war power. 

Whereas, it has been brought to the notice of the President of 
the United States that in the International Exhibition of Arts, 
Manufactures, and products of the Soil and Mine, to be held in the 




NEW YORK BUILDING. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1075 

City of Philadelphia, in the year 1876, for the purpose of cele- 
brating the one hundredth anniversary of the Independence of the 
United States, it is desirable that from the Executive Departments 
of the Government of the United States in which there may be 
articles suitable for the purpose intended, there should appear such 
articles and materials as will, when presented in a collective ex- 
hibition, illustrate the functions and administrative faculties of the 
Government in time of peace, and its resources as a war power, 
and thereby serve to demonstrate the nature of our institutions and 
their adaptation to the wants of the people. Now, for the purpose 
of securing a complete and harmonious arrangement of the arti- 
cles and materials designed to be exhibited from the Executive De- 
partment of the Government, it is ordered that a Board, to be 
composed of one person to be named by the head of each of the 
Executive Departments which may have articles and materials to 
be exhibited, and also of one person to be named in behalf of the 
Smithsonian Institution, and one to be named in the behalf of the 
Department of Agriculture, be charged with the preparation, ar- 
rangement, and safe keeping of such articles and materials as the 
heads of the several departments and the Commissioner of Agri- 
culture and the director of the Smithsonian Institution may re- 
spectively decide shall be embraced in the collection; that one of 
the persons thus named, to be designated by the President, shall 
be chairman of such Board, and that the Board appoint from their 
own number such other officers as they may think necessary, and 
that the said Board when organized shall be authorized under the 
direction of the President to confer with the executive officers of 
the Centennial Exhibition in relation to such matters connected 
with the subject as may pertain to the respective departments 
having articles and materials on exhibition, and that the names of 
the persons thus selected by the heads of the several departments, 
the Commissioner of Agriculture, and the directors of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, shall be submitted to the President for desig- 
nation. 

By order of the President: 

(Signed) HAMILTON FISH, 

Secretary of State. 

Washington, January 23c?, 1874. 

The whole area occupied by the structure was 102,000 square ft. 

A most complete exhibit of our nation was made. The several 
departments at Washington put forth great efforts. The War De- 
partment offered for inspection its armament and uniforms from 
1776 to 1876. The Engineers' Bureau sent a complete set of maps, 
photographs and charts for the purpose of showing the system of 
river and harbor improvements, models of forts, engineering ma- 
chinery, pontoon bridges, wagon trains, mining tools, instruments 




PENNSYLVANIA STATE BUILDING. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1077 

for reconnoisance and a complete outfit of photographic requisites; 
also, the model of a lighthouse, of a boat for removing snags from 
rivers and a dredging boat. 

The Ordinance Bureau had everything pertaining to the arms 
and ammunition of the army; the process of making guns was 
shown, all parts of the Springfield rifle and carbine being made 
and put together; machines in operation showing the mode of 
making metallic cartridges; a 20-inch Rodman smooth-bore weigh- 
ing 115,000 lbs. was mounted in the open air and worked by a de- 
tachment of soldiers; models showed the system of field siege 
and coast artillery. The G-atling gun was an object of special in- 
terest; complete sets of shot, shell, grenades, cartridge bags, gun- 
powder for rifles, cannon and mortars, all formed an attractive 
exhibition. 

The Medical Bureau sent a post hospital of twenty-four beds, 
and a complete series of army medical supplies, stores, clothing, 
surgical instruments, models for barracks, ambulances and medi- 
cal wagons. 

The Quartermasters Department had all the appliances for a 
campaign, such as clothing, camp and garrison equipage, tents, 
flags, musical instruments, army wagons, &c. 

The Signal Service erected a tower seventy-five ft. high, which 
closed like a telescope into a compass of twenty-five ft. In half an 
hour it can be run up and securely fastened. The signal system 
by torch and lantern by night, and flags by day was fully ex- 
emplified. 

The Navy Department sent models of every ship of importance 
in the American Navy from the time of the Revolution to the pres- 
ent year; also models of rams, torpedo boats and monitors: a com- 
plete steel launch, cutters, ship boats, and distilling apparatus. An 
interesting instrument is the sounding machine. In signals there 
were colored lights; sets of mortars and paper bombs, nautical 
compasses, charts, books, plans of derricks, cranes, &c, were shown. 
The astronomical instruments used in observing the transit of 
Venus attracted attention. 

The Smithsonian Institute made a large display of fishes, and 
the subject of fish culture was explained fully by Professor Baird. 
The animal kingdom was largely represented, and all appliances 
for hunting, trapping, the lasso, rifles, &c, were exhibited. The 
Mineral Department was undoubtedly the finest ever shown in 
America. 

The Department of the Interior had about five thousand models 
taken from the Patent Office of revolutionary curiosities — Wash- 
ington's Commission as General of the American Army, a full dis- 
play of his camp equipage, clothing, sword, &c. The practical 




OHIO STATE BUILDING. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1079 

working of the system of issuing patents was explained by the 
requisite clerks from "Washington. 

The Pension Office had volumes containing accounts of Revo- 
lutionary officers, also Bibles containing their genealogy. 

The Census Bureau showed the books of its office complete 
from 1790 to 1876. 

The Indian Bureau in conjunction with the Ethnological De- 
partment of the Smithsonian Institute aided in exhibiting the In- 
dians in their mode of life. Every tribe contributed to the Exhi- 
bition. An Indian residence 100x40 with posts made of carved 
cedar and furniture of the same material was an object of curios- 
ity. Ancient relics, old fish hooks, iron implements, stone arrow- 
heads, carved bones, quaint ornaments, were shown. 

The Bureau of Education had a fine exhibit of the different 
systems of schools, and model school-houses were erected on the 
grounds. The Adobe House of New Mexico, the Sod House of 
Nebraska, had their models. As far as possible it was intended 
to represent the ideas and methods of instruction as brought here 
by the early colonists; such as the Spanish in the South, the En- 
glish in Virginia, New England and Pennsylvania, the Dutch in 
New York and the Swedes in Delaware. The system of instruc- 
tion of the present day was fully illustrated, embracing the clas- 
sification into the elementary, the common and normal schools, 
the training schools, college of science, agriculture and classical 
training, the theological, medical and naval schools; colleges for 
studying law and dentistry; institutes for music, art, painting and 
sculpture, etching, engraving and the like. The other divisions 
of the system into institutes for the blind, deaf, dumb, orphans, 
reformatory schools; instruction given in jails and prisons, and 
the like, were explained. 

The Hayden exploring expedition made a most interesting ex- 
hibition, and our new National Park was reproduced exactly by a 
model on the scale of one mile to an inch; also models of the 
ruins of the cliff builders, a tribe who built their houses in inac- 
cessible localities. 

The Post-Office Department showed a model post-office in op- 
eration; a machine for gumming, making and stamping envel- 
opes automatically; a railroad postal-car, with mail-catchers; and 
specimens of all stamps, envelopes, etc., issued by the Depart- 
ment. 

The Agricultural Department exhibited a collection of all the 
timber trees in the United States; botanical specimens; maps 
showing forest areas, value of farming-lands, and amount of pro- 
duction in all parts of the country; collections of birds and insects 
beneficial and injurious to vegetation; specimens of cereals and 
textile fabrics, raw and manufactured; a series of water-color 




CONNECTICUT STATE BUILDING. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1081 

drawings, showing microscopic fungi, the poisonous and edible 
mushrooms, starch granules of plants, and methods of distinguish- 
ing vegetable and animal fibres, and mineral, vegetable, and an- 
imal fertilizers; the tanning and dyeing materials, and the resins 
of the United States; and the various products manufactured 
from flour, meal, bran, hominy, etc. 

The Women's Pavilion. 

The women of America paid for this building, that they or their 
sisters throughout the world might have an opportunity to exhibit 
their work. 

Mrs. E. D. Gillespie, President of the Women's Centennial Com- 
mittee, gives the following information concerning women's work 
in connection with the Centennial Exhibition: — 

" Eight thousand one hundred and seventy shares of stock in 
the Centennial have been subscribed through their organization 
up to the present date, thus securing the sum of $81,700. Besides 
this amount 88,600.87 have been contributed as a free gift to the 
general purposes of the Exhibition; $3,620 have been paid by the 
women's organization to the treasurers of the Board of Finance 
on account of the sales of medals. This brings the contributions 
fr^m the women of the country to the general exhibition to $93,- 
980.87 ; $33,000 have been contributed for the building of the 
Women's Department. Besides this amount, the committee has 
received information that the ladies of Indianapolis, Ind., had an 
additional subscription of $2,500 to the interior of the Women's 
Department, making a total of $35,500. Since the above $500 
■additional has been received and paid on stock." 

A critical observer said frankly, after speaking of obvious de- 
fects and drawbacks: 

The chief feature of woman's Centennial work is the indefatiga- 
ble, unfaltering spirit which has run through her entire effort. He 
who pronounces the Women's Department a failure has failed him- 
self to catch its real meaning. It expresses the practical woman 
just as she is, with all her one-sided, limited development; her 
instinctive Teachings, imperfect realizations, and accidental suc- 
cesses. It has been of inestimable value to her as showing the ex- 
act measure of her capacity as well as her points of deficiency. It 
has surely rendered it impossible ever again to impugn woman's 
practical ability. She has shown conclusively that she is able to 
carry forward successfully anything she chooses to undertake, from 
the raising of $95,000 to aid her brothers in the dark, early days of 
Centennial preparation, to the erection and furnishing of her own 
industrial domain, managed entirely by herself, even to the func- 
tion of engineer. 

Miss Allison, the presiding genius of the engine room, is per- 




NEW JERSEY STATE BUTLDINtt. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION". 1083 

haps a fair type of what may be expected in the future, when the 
ideal and artistic shall penetrate even to the engine-room. To 
the novelty seeker, Miss Allison's little brick engine-house and 
the kindergarten building were two of the most interesting fea- 
tures of the Pavilion. 

How great progress marks the career of a woman in the medi- 
cal department! The Women's Medical College of Philadelphia, 
offered a complete Materia Medica, prepared with a high degree 
of accuracy. In needle-work the superiority of our American 
work was very manifest. In wood carving and china painting, 
the Cincinnati School of Design came to the front. This showed a 
field for the sex where they can profitably combine useful work with 
the beautiful and artistic. A remarkable specimen of handwork 
in wood was a set of three pieces, screen, table and organ, by 
Christina Olson of Sweden. This woman began as a young girl 
to manifest a decided talent in furniture manufacture. In her 
father's workshop she found her chief pleasure, and although dis- 
couraged in every way by her friends, she succeeded at the age of 
sixteen in making a bureau. Every opportunity after that found 
her devotedly at her work, until her father's death forced upon, 
her the stern realities of the trade, with the necessity of support- 
ing both herself and her mother. At the age of twenty she came 
to this country, and while employed at the drudgery of domestic 
service found sufficient spare time to make a side-board which ex- 
cited the admiration and wonder of all who saw it. The only 
tools she had with which to execute her work were made by her- 
self out of skirt- wire and other available material found about 
the house. The articles here exhibited are the product of four. 
years' labor. They are made of various kinds of wood, laid to- 
gether in a kind of mosaic, comprising in all some 3,000 pieces. 
They are really very beautiful, and, as illustrative of woman's 
power to overcome difficulties, constitute a most valuable acquisi- 
tion to the Woman's Pavilion. 

Mrs. Stiles' " combination desk" when closed, occupies only 18 
inches of space by 6 feet wide. Opened, it presents a double 
front capable of accommodating half a dozen persons at the same 
time, and spreads over a space of 7 by 6 feet. This beautiful 
piece of mechanical construction has brought to its inventor a 
1 great many complimentary notices and a prospective fortune — 
better than all. 

Mrs. Mountain's life -preserving mattress has been found so effi- 
cient in its way that the Board of United States Supervising In- 
spectors of Steamboats have adopted it for general use as an aux- 
iliary life-saving appliance. 

Another invention is the Coston Telegraphic Night Signals, 
which, although not original with Mrs. Coston, owe to her their 




MASSACHUSETTS BUILDING. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 10 S 5 

perfection and introduction into public use. Her husband died 
leaving her a rough chart of the idea, and it was not until after 
many fruitless experiments in combining the chemicals and other 
materials to be employed, with year after year of patient toil, that 
she was able to present the idea perfected to the world. She has 
now the gratification of seeing 300 sets of her night-signals dis- 
tributed through the United States Navy, honored by Government 
approval. An exhibit of the invention was also made in the Gov- 
ernment building. 

The first picture sold at the Exhibition was a woman's, and 
brought one thousand dollars. 

Queen Victoria's response to the invitation of her American 
sisters was at least substantial. The English cases had a fine 
table napkin woven by the Queen's own hands, together with 
etchings by herself, some embroidery by her daughters, and sam- 
ples of work from the Royal School of Needlework. These speci- 
mens of Royal handiwork are peculiarly valuable to us; first, as 
showing the substantial sturdy common sense of our mother coun- 
try; second, as furnishing an opportunity for comparison with the 
same class of work at home. One saw in these exhibits traces of 
that strong sentiment of practicality which characterizes old Eng- 
land, and gives a tone of gravity even to the princes of her realm. 

The ladies of Japan contributed exquisite needlework, show- 
ing the portraits of the Royal family. They also sent cases of 
go.d embroidery and oil paintings of real merit. 

The " New Century for women" was " edited" and " compos- 
ed" by women. The labors of man's help-meet were scattered 
up and down all the buildings, and appropriately beside those of 
man. 

Among the two hundred buildings of the Exhibition, the Jap- 
panese Hotel was very interesting. The materials were brought 
from Japan and the house was constructed by native workmen. 

The British Buildings were three in number: two of then> in the 
style of architecture of the sixteenth century, with tile roofing, 
and surmounted by stacks of red brick chimneys, one in the style 
of the residence of a squire of that period. Nearly every article 
entering into the construction of the buildings was manufactured 
in Great Britain. The rooms were furnished in paneled dados, 
the walls above hung with English paper, the woodwork stained 
and varnished, and the furniture (brought from England) through- 
out in harmony with the style adopted. The French Government 
Buildings, two in number; the German Pavilion; the Spanish 
Building and Guard-house; the Portuguese, Brazilian, Japanese, 
and Chilian Buildings. 

Near these buildings was the Canadian Log House. 

In addition to these were a Shoe and Leather Building, three 




ARKANSAS STATE BUILDING. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1087 

hundred feet long, containing the exhibits of five hundred and 
ninety-five American firms, and representing the condition of this 
industry with great clearness and fullness; a Carriage and Stove 
building, three hundred and forty-six feet long, crowded with speci- 
mens of wagons and heating-apparatus from all parts of the world; 
The Pennsylvania Educational Hall, one hundred and forty-eight 
feet in length, exhibiting all the educational interests of that State; 
the New England Farmer's Kitchen, a log-house of one hundred 
years ago, furnished with relics of the Pilgrim fathers; a Swedish 
school- house, illustrating the educational methods of that country; 
a Turkish bazaar, where guests were served coffee and tobacco by 
Oriental attendants in Eastern style; a Tunis Cafe, with native 
music and dancing; a Hunter's camp, illustrative of sporting life 
in the backwoods; a Glass-ware Building, exhibiting all the 
processes of glass-blowing; the Brewers' Building, containing 
a model French brewery; the French Pavilion with beautiful charts 
and models of public works; the Nevada Quartz Mill, showing all 
the processes of manipulating ores and extracting the precious 
metals; the Tribune omce,a quaint little structure full of papers and 
news; and a woman's school-house, illustrating the kindergarten 
methods of teaching. 

In the Bible Pavilion were exhibited portions of the Bible print- 
ed in more than 100 languages. One characteristic feature of the 
nineteenth century is the formation of Bible societies for the pub- 
lication and distribution of the books of Holy Scripture. The six- 
teenth century was prolific in new versions of the Holy Bible, and 
the seventeenth century saw a large circulation of copies, no less 
than 472 editions of the authorized English version having been 
published before its close. But it was reserved for these later 
years to behold the hearty union of Christian men standing on the 
broad platform of the Bible, and leagued together for the single 
purpose of disseminating the Scriptures in the received versions 
where they exist, and in the most faithful where they may be re- 
quired. First ^imong these associations was the British and For- 
eign Bible Society, founded in 1804, which at the close of its 
seventy-first year, having extended its operations to almost every 
country in the World, had put into circulation nearly seventy-four 
million copies of the Bible, and of integral parts of the Bible, in 
above two hundred languages and dialects, and had expended 
nearly eight millions sterling in translating, printing, and dissem- 
inating the scriptures. It has its agents and correspondents, col- 
porteurs and depots, in every part of Europe, and besides this, Syri- 
ans and Persians, Indians and Chinese, Abyssinians and Kafirs, 
the islanders of Madagascar, New Zealand, and the South Seas, 
Mexicans and Esquimaux, with many others, can say that through 




WEST VIRGINIA STATE BUILDING. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1089 

its means they hear in their own tongues the wonderful works of 
God. 

Since the era of Bible societies began, the Christian scholarship 
of the world has produced not far from two hundred and fifty ver- 
sions of the Bible or parts of the Bible; and probably two hun- 
dred languages and dialects have thus for the first time been en- 
riched with the literature of this book. Many of them had never 
before been reduced to writing. 

Few persons appreciate the difficulty of rendering the Scrip- 
tures from the original Hebrew and Greek into languages which 
have not been previously pervaded and molded by Christian 
thought; yet in laying foundations for generations that are to fol- 
low, one may well devote to the work the energies of a lifetime. 
The translation of the Bible into Arabic by Dr. Eli Smith and Dr. 
Van Dyck required the labor of sixteen years. Dr. Shaufner, of 
Constantinople, completed in 1874 the translation of the Osmanlee 
version of the Scriptures which he began as long ago as 1860. 
Fifteen years of continuous labor were spent by Dr. Schereschew- 
sky in rendering the Old Testament into the Mandarin colloquial. 
After nearly forty years of study and of missionary labor, Dr. 
Williamson and Dr. Riggs have their Dakota version of the Bible 
almost complete, and one of them estimates that he has spent on 
an average full thirty minutes on each verse he has translated. 
These are illustrations of the labor expended by Christian mission- 
aries in the preliminary work of preparing new versions of Scrip- 
ture. 

The American Bible Society, having secured a very eligible 
situation in the book department of the Main Exhibition Building, 
had a case constructed for the display of a collection of Scriptures 
in most of the languages in which the Word of God has been 
circulated since the work of publishing and distributing the Bible 
began. 

One entire compartment was devoted to specimen copies of 
books in various styles of binding, while in contrast with this, an- 
other part of the case contained a valuable collection of printed 
Bibles, illustrating the work of four preceding centuries. 

One shelf was filled with a series of bi-lingual volumes, showing 
at one opening the combination of English Scriptures with Ger- 
man, French, Spanish, Italian, etc. Three shelves were devoted 
to the languages of Europe, one to those of Africa, and three to 
those of Asia; one of these being filled with specimens of the ver- 
sions prepared and printed in the dialects of China. The Scrip- 
tures in languages peculiar to the Islands of the Pacific filled one 
shelf, and on the other was a series of translations made for the 
aborigines of America. 

The different States were represented by Buildings: 

69 




DELAWARE STATE BUDLDIWO. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1091 

New Hampshire Building — was a small and plain, but taste- 
ful, frame cottage, 50 ft. square, and, like all the state buildings, 
was intended as an office for the commissioners of the State and 
a rendezvous for visitors from the state to which it belonged. All 
the State Buildings had large registers in which visitors from the 
respective states were requested to record their names and ad- 
dresses. 

Vermont Building — was a handsome cottage, 35 by 40 ft. in 
size, and the interior was fitted up simply but tastefully, in stain- 
ed pine wood. 

Massachusetts Building — was one of the handsomest cottages 
in the grounds. It was built of wood painted in dark, rich colors. 
Size 70 by 87 ft. 

Rhode Island Building — was a small but tasteful frame cot- 
tage situated on the slope of George's Hill. 

Pennsylvania Building — was a handsome Gothic cottage 57 
by 97 ft. 

Delaware Building — was a handsome frame cottage of two 
stories in the Norman Gothic style with a tower. 

Maryland Building — was built of wood; size 70 by 85 ft. in 
the large hall. In this building were exhibited the agricultural 

Products of the state, its mineral ores, marbles, building stone, tim- 
er, its oyster fisheries, &c, &c. 

Virginia Building — was erected by a private gentleman as the 
state declined to make any appropriation to the Exposition. 

Tennessee — was represented only by a canvas tent erected by 
a private individual. 

Arkansas Building — was constructed of wood, octagonal in 
shape, about 80 ft. in diameter, with a double dome in the center. 
It was painted in bright colors within and without. 

Illinois Building — was a handsome two-story frame cottage. 

Iowa Building — was a neat and tasteful cottage situated on 
the slope of George's Hill. 

California and Nevada Building — was a large wooden pavil- 
ion containing a handsome hall, the pillars of which were finished 
in imitation of the native woods of the Pacific coast. A special ex- 
hibit was made of the agricultural and mineral resources of these 
states. 

Michigan Building — all the fittings and endowments of Michi- 
gan material and the workmanship of Michigan hands. 

Indiana Building — made, as far as possible, characteristic of 
Indiana homes. 

Missouri Building — a handsome structure two stories high, sur- 
mounted by a dome. 

Ohio Building — a very attractive structure, built of stone, fur- 




KANSAS AND COLORADO BUILDING- 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1093 

aiished by different stone companies; domestic Gothic style of ar- 
chitecture, and very substantial. 

Connecticut Building — of the Dutch Colonial style of archi- 
tecture. Inside wood-work chiefly white pine and smoke -stained 
wood. Lower part of the outside of the building of scallop-fashioned 
shingles, and the upper part lathed and plastered. A massive stone 
chimney protruded from the roof, and the front was relieved by 
an old-fashioned porch. 

New York — a large and one of the most beautiful of the State 
Buildings. 

West Virginia, built of native woods,; Mississippi, made of native 
timber and ornamented with Spanish moss; New Jersey, with its 
tasteful turret and red- tile roof; Kansas — 132 by 132 — a large 
and handsome structure, surmounted by a tower; New England 
Log House and Modern Kitchen, on Agricultural avenue, not far 
from Horticultural Building; intended to illustrate the New Eng- 
gland kitchen of one hundred years ago and of the present time, 
— meals cooked and served by young ladies in appropriate cos- 
tumes. 

In the Michigan building was a cottonwood log, about ten 
inches in diameter, cut off by beavers. It was cut almost square 
off, and looked as if done by a small gouge from all directions. 

In the Wisconsin building, an oil portrait of Joseph Crele, who 
died at Portage City in 1866, aged one hundred and fifty-one 
years, shows a face which must have been fine looking when 
young; white hair, dark eyes, that have a languid look, as if the 
fires of life were burning low; mouth sunken completely out of 
shape; brow, cheeks and neck a succession of furrowed wrinkles, 
looking as if Time in his flight had passed by and forgotton him. 

But even such a very old man was outstripped in the race of 
life, for there was a portrait in oil of Meshoweba, an Indian 
squaw, who died several years ago in Wisconsin, and who must 
have been 160 years of age. She had two sons in the Revolu- 
tionary army, and was then well advanced in years. She follow- 
ed our army, doing the cooking for a squad of soldiers, and was 
present at Yorktown at the surrender of Cornwallis. For many 
years she was carefully provided for by the Indians of Wisconsin. 
The picture shows her wrapped in a white blanket, with head 
bare; an old, old face, having the Indian features; broad cheek 
bones, straggling, coarse gray hair, but eyes black and clear; her 
face and neck look like leather, and as if moulded into wrinkles; 
and yet, many squaws are as old looking as she. 

Educational Progress. 

The children of the nations engross much attention in their re- 
spective countries, and the advancement in their education is 




SINGER MANUFACTURING CO. BUILDING. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1095 

marked from the land of the Rising Sun, Japan, to this New 
World. The Japanese system was presented with a detail and 
accuracy only excelled by Sweden. 

All the appliances which Japan brings to bear on her little 
children, to lift them to an English or American level, were ex- 
hibited from the code of rules which govern the Mombusho, or 
supreme Bureau of Education, down to the brilliant- colored 
primers for the babies, with the printed word cow and the real 
brindle beside it. 

The Mombusho, is an office for administering the educational 
affairs of the whole empire. The Minister- General of Instruction 
is assisted by vice-ministers and inspectors. He has absolute 
power in appointing or discharging all officials of second grade, 
and his advice is usually followed with regard to those of the 
rank next his own. It is also his duty to establish systems of ed- 
ucation of all kinds whatever; according to his own judgment to 
improve the educational code, when he thinks it necessary; to 
re-organize school districts, control local questions, raise funds, and 
publish educational information. After this czar of an executive 
officer come other authorities graded in rank, ministers, inspect- 
ors, &c. The money for the support of the schools is raised by 
taxation. The amount in the first year of the establishment of 
public schools (1871) was nearly $500,000, which sum was steadi- 
ly increased until now. Education is not everywhere compulsory, 
although in some districts local laws require it to be so. 

In Tokis there is a school for women ranking with Vassar col- 
lege, and there are large schools solely for instruction in foreign 
languages; in one, Gaikoka-Gogakko, French, English, German, 
Russian, and Chinese were taught; in another English alone, " as 
of supreme importance." The hundred and ninety boys study 
here the language which they learn to handle so easily and ef- 
fectively. The Japanese, indeed, whose own tongue is soft and 
liquid as the Italian, appear to be as facile linguists as the Poles. 
They learn, however, no Latan and no Greek. Girls and boys 
study together in the lower schools, but they are separated in the 
upper. 

It was Charles XIV., born himself a poor lad, that first, I be- 
lieve, convinced Sweden that her poor children were the wards of 
the nation. What she does for them she tried to show in a 
school-house built of pine wood, 60x36 feet and 25 feet high, fin- 
ished as carefully as much of our cabinet-work. Education is 
compulsory, and if the parents refuse to heed the demand of the 
Board of Education, the state has a right to take the children, ed- 
ucate them, and put the parents in the workhouse. Such ex- 
treme cases are very rare, as the Swede submits himself more 
readily to his masters than his Western brother. If he is too 




LIBERTY MONUMENT. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1097 

poor to clothe his child decently the state bears the expense of 
making him fit for school. 

The least salary paid teachers is about the same as $500 here. 

The teachers are pensioned aftei 30 years of service, or 10 if 
invalided, and the widow of a teacher receives a pension at his 
death. If the teacher be a woman, her husband has his pension 
too, which is fair enough. In Stockholm, the women teachers are 
to the men as four to one. In 1873, 218,616 children were in the 
infant schools. 

If they have industry, brain-power or mechanical skill, the 
country stands ready to help them at every step. Should the girl 
desire to become a teacher, she enters a normal school for three 
years, and is fitted for her work gratuitously. There is, too, a 
fund for her entire support for this time if she needs it. If she 
choose domestic work, there are free industrial schools for the 
training of servants, seamstresses, etc. 

The boy may go into the higher national schools, the aim of 
which is to develop both mind and body. On the coast he will 
be taught navigation; inland, farming; in the villages, his own 
craft, whatever it may be. He learns here, too, the art of law- 
making, citizenship and its duties, surveying and chemistry. He 
pays if he can; if not, the door is still wide open. These schools, 
founded by noblemen for the benefit of laboring men, are a pecu- 
liar feature in Swedish educational efforts which Americans have 
nothing to parallel. Many of the workingmen who hold places in 
the Lower Chamber, at Stockholm, owe their places in life to their 
training here. The majority of pupils are men of from 20 to 40 
years of age. Totally apart from these are the elementary schools, 
in which religion, ancient and modern languages, science, philos- 
ophy, and the higher mathematics are taught. The course of 
study usually requires nine years. After the elementary schools 
come the two universities — Upsala and Lund. Should the boy 
pass through this course of higher education, and graduate at one 
of the universities, he can obtain a position of teacher in an ele- 
mentary school with a salary of $500, and an addition every five 
years of $150 until the sum reaches $1,500, with which he can 
live, out of Stockholm, with great comfort. 

Outside of these grammar schools and universities there are five 
technical and two great polytechnic schools. 

Great Britain made no display or report of her educational sys- 
tem. Her colonies made a creditable showing. 

Education in Ontario is compulsory, the parents of every child 
between the ages of 7 and 12, who is not at school, being subject 
to a fine of $1 per month, or imprisonment if the fine is not paid. 
The Catholic rate-payer can elect to send his children to the sepa- 
rate instead of public schools; he is taxed for their support, and 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1099 

is exempted from public school rates. Then sectarian schools re- 
ceive their share of the legislative grant, and are under control of 
the educational department. The prescribed course of study in 
the public schools differs but slightly from our own, the studies 
ranging from reading and spelling up to civil government, physi- 
ology, and the higher mathematics. The high schools furnish a 
higher English course with the classics and modern English lan- 
guages. There are Normal schools for the training of teachers, 
and, outside of the jurisdiction of the Educational Bureau, col- 
leges founded upon the model of the great public schools of Eng- 
land, and universities. Both colleges and universities have been 
endowed with large grants of public lands, the annual income 
amounting to from $12,000 to $55,000. Institutions for the blind, 
the deaf and dumb, mechanics and agricultural schools are all 
aided or supported by the liberal Provincial Government. 

In Norway in 1867, 33,682 children were in the common 
schools receiving instruction in reading, geography, history, nat- 
ural history, drawing and sewing. All these schools are under 
the supervision of the church. They are filled by the children of 
the poor and middle classes, wealthier parents preferring private 
schools. Above the primary are public and high schools, classic, 
combined Latin and high civic, in which the English and old 
Norse tongues are made obligatory studies; peasants' high 
schools, where peasants in winter receive instruction in history, 
geography, and religion. There are also a free university and 
many asylums for little children, agricultural, nautical,, naval, and 
military academies. 

The United States had a full exhibit by different' states of the 
educational methods by which they prepare the youth for the 
great duties of citizenship in a republic whose stability and pro- 
gress must depend on the intelligence and virtue of her citizens. 

Education is conducted by the separate states. In general the 
primary schools are supported by a property tax, and nearly all 
the states have school funds in addition, the income of which is 
distributed among the towns in proportion to the number of pu- 
pils educated. The gifts with which, during late years, private 
individuals have endowed institutions of learning, prove a grow- 
ing appreciation of the claims of the higher education. 

The following statistics are collated from the report of the 
ninth census, 1870: 



1100 



FOOTPRINTS of the ages. 




THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CENTENNIAL FOUNTAIN. 




THE CENTENNIAL FOUNTAIN. 



THE GEEAT EXHIBITION. 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 



1101 



NUMBER 


TEACHERS EMPLOYED. 


PUPILS IN ATTENDANCE. 


OF SCHOOLS. 


MALE. 


FEMALE. 


TOTAL. 


MALE. 


FEMALE. 


TOTAL, 


125,059 


74, J 74 


109,024 


183,198 


3,120,052 


3,I08,008 


6,228,060 



The schools " Not Public" are arranged under two headings: 
" Classical, Professional, and Technical," and " Other Schools." 
"NOT PUBLIC" SCHOOLS (Classical, Professional, and Technical). 





TEACHERS. 


PUPILS. 


NUMBER. 


MALE. 


FEMALE. 


TOTAL. 


MALE. 


FEMALE. 


TOTAL. 


Classical, etc., 2,545 
Other schools, 14,025 


7,766 
H,389 


5,OOI 

13,688 


12,767 

25,077 


348,810 
353,134 


106,380 

373,554 


255,190 

726,688 



INCOME. 





NOT PUBLIC. 


PUBLIC. 


Classical, Pro- 
fessional, and 
Technical. 


OTHERS. 


From Taxation of Public Funds . . $58,855,507 

" Endowments 144,533 

14 Other Sources, including Tuition 5,030,633 


$2,320,250 

3,356,003 

ii,999,t>54 


$570,282 

163,249 

12,962,615 


$64,030,673 


$17,675,907 


$13,696,146 



The total number of libraries returned was 163,353, containing 
44,539,184 volumes. Of these, 107,673 were private libraries, 
containing 25,571,503 volumes. In the opinion of the superin- 
tendent of the census, these results are " manifestly far below the 
truth." 

The newspaper and periodical press comprised, in 1875, 7,850 
publications, divided as follows: Daily, 1,718; tri-weekly, 80; 
semi-weekly, 107; weekly, 5,957; bi-weekly, 24; semi-monthly, 
106; monthly, 802; bi-monthly, 8; quarterly, 68. 

Bureau of Lost Articles. 

The assortment of pocketbooks was large and varied, compris- 
ing all known styles, from the plethoric wallet of the cattle dealer 
to the miniature, pearl-covered portmonnaie of a Vassar school- 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1103 

girl, filled with incongruous bundles of paper " of no value except 
to the owner," and of no cash value to any one; wallets stuffed 
with memoranda, without dates, names, or location; others filled 
with receipts of various kinds, interspersed with fractional cur- 
rency, railroad tickets, and occasionally a few small bills, and still 
others with nothing but a few pennies or postage stamps, and an 
equally large collection absolutely empty. Over $3,000 in cash 
were picked up in the Centennial grounds by the guards, and all 
but the small amounts remaining in several hundred unclaimed 
wallets, aggregating not over $100 at the most, and about $70 found 
m small rolls of bills, returned to the owners. A curious commen- 
tary on one difference in the characteristics of the two sexes is 
found in the fact that fully nine-tenths of the pocketbooks, and 
not less than four-fifths* of the other articles, were evidently the 
property of ladies. Three special cases were thoughtfully reserv- 
ed for the wearing apparel so liberally scattered about the 
grounds by the better and fairer half of humanity. 

Among the simpler and more familiar articles may be mention- 
ed lace and linen collars, linen and paper cuffs, with gold or brass 
sleeve-buttons, shawls of all kinds, mantillas of various patterns, 
sun-bonnets, summer hats, handkerchiefs, eye-glasses, overshoes, 
waterproofs, traveling robes, veils, sacques of all varieties, scarfs, 
neck-ties, ribbons, switches and furs. Among a numerous as- 
sortment, which may not be mentioned, are all sorts of articles 
of underwear, including balmorals, garters, crinolines, bustles, 
and — but limited space and knowledge prevents a completion 
of the list. The collection of fans would bear comparison with 
any display of an evening concert. If the Japanese sold more 
fans than have been left on the grounds, they must have proved a 
strong competition to the sale of thermometers. In the extensive 
stock of ladies' wear on hand, with one exception, every portion of 
visible and invisible feminine attire has been lost at the Centen- 
nial Grounds, and the list includes every ornament not clasped by 
a lock which would puzzle the manufacturer to unfasten. The mis- 
fortunes of male visitors seem to have been confined to the loss of 
empty wallets and umbrellas. Over two thousand umbrellas were 
carried by the guards to headquarters, but with them were about 
1,000 parasols. Many of both were returned, but enough still re- 
main. Some of the sunshades were quite valuable, but the um- 
brellas were without exception so dilapidated by wear or so cheap 
in material or construction that no man or woman not born for 
the gallows would dream of appropriating them. If among the 
millions of visitors at the Exhibition one or two thousand lost um- 
brellas of no use to any one, how many of actual value must have 
been forgotten by careless owners? If the guards returned pack- 
ages of money and valuable jewelry to headquarters, would they 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1105 

not have been likely to return silk and pearl-handled umbrellas? 
If the guards did not pick up the good umbrellas presumed to have 
been mislaid, who did? Judging from the number of useless um- 
brellas delivered at the adjutant's office, and the liability of all 
umbrellas being lost, it must be assumed that fully 500,000 rain- 
shedders are now in the hands of persons who never paid for them. 
Only one conclusion is possible — umbrellas are popularly ostra- 
cised from the protection of the eighth commandment. 

Several thousands of gloves of all imaginable kinds, from the 
six-button kid to the merino mitten, were in a separate compart- 
ment and no two alike. 

Among other lost articles were several dozen spectacles of dif- 
ferent styles, three or four opera-glasses, any number of scrap- 
books, memorandum books, diaries, novels, works of reference, 
Centennial catalogues, guides to the park and city, cigar cases par- 
tially filled, camp-stools, canes, "Aids to Memory," a few linen dust- 
ers, railroad tickets, and any quantity of small satchels, lunch 
baskets, etc. The amount of jewelry picked up by the guards 
would make the eyes of a diamond broker twinkle, but all the 
most valuable trinkets were returned. Among the richest articles 
of personal adornment and use were a number of diamond rings, 
brooches, etc.; emerald, spathine, and opal earrings; several gold 
and silver watches, and a large assortment of lockets and charms. 
Some of the diamond rings were valued at $550, and from this 
amount the jewelry dwindled down to about twenty-five cents. 
One of the first of the lost articles brought into, or rather to the 
door of, the adjutant's office, was a gray mare, large as life, and 
evidently much disgusted at being left to her own resources. The 
owner of the animal was, however, discovered on the same day. 
To this department were also brought the lost children not reclaim- 
ed at the precinct guard-houses, where they are first taken. All 
were handed over to their parents or sent under the care of guards 
to their homes or hotels on the same day. Over 500 children were 
returned to their parents, and as these were only the " worst lost 
cases," it is estimated that several thousands were missed and re- 
claimed soon afterward at the stations. The ages of the little folks 
ranged all the way from two to eight years, and with few excep- 
tions, they bravely resigned themselves to await the long-delayed 
coming of their parents, in full faith that the promise of the kind- 
hearted adjutant to send them home, if not soon called for, would 
be fulfilled. 

Celebration op thf Fourth of July, 1876. 

The patriotic people of this country did not forget the hundredth 

anniversary of the signing of the Declaration. It was celebrated 

with great enthusiasm in all parts of the land. At Philadelphia 

the festivities began on the third; and at midnight at Independ- 

70 V 




A. T. GOSHORN, DIRECTOR-GENERAI, OF THE EXHIBITIOH". 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1107 

ence Hall, the second century of the Republic was ushered in 
by the noise of cannon, clangor of bells and the shouts of thou- 
sands of freemen. The Fourth was the occasion of a grand mili- 
tary pageant, and one hundred thousand persons crowded Inde- 
pendence Square to participate in the exercises of the day. 

General Hawley gave words of welcome and introduced the Vice- 
President of the "United States, Hon. T. W. Ferry, who made an 
appropriate address. The Right Rev. William Bacon Stevens of- 
fered prayer, which was followed by the singing of a hymn com- 
posed by Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

WELCOME TO THE NATIONS. 



Bright on the banners of lily and rose, 

Lo, the last sun of our century sets! 
Wreath the black cannon that scowled on our foes, 

All but her friendships the Nation forgets! 

All but her friends and their welcome forgets! 
These are around her: But where are her foes? 

Lo, while the sun of her century sets, 

Peace with her garlands of lily and rose! 

n. 

Welcome! a shout like the war-trumpet swell, 

Wakes the wild echoes that slumber around! 
Welcome! it quivers from Liberty's bell; 

Welcome! the walls of her temple resound! 

Hark! the gray walls of her temple resound! 
Fade the far voices o'er hillside and dell; 

Welcome! still whisper the echoes around! 
Welcome! still trembles on Liberty's bell! 

ni. 
Thrones of the Continents! Isles of the Sea! 

Yours are the garlands of peace we entwine; 
Welcome, once more, to the land of the free, 

Shadowed alike by the palm and the pine; 

Softly they murmur, the palm and the pine: 
" Hushed is our strife, in the land of the free; " 

Over your children their branches entwine, 

Thrones of the Continents! Isles of the Sea! 

" With singular propriety, Richard Henry Lee, grandson and 
namesake of the patriot who offered in the Continental Congress 
the famous resolution of June 7, 1776, then read the Declaration 




©EN. JOS. R. HAWLEY, PRESIDENT OP THE CENTENNIAL COMMISSION. 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1109 

of Independence from the original parchment. As the immense 
throng caught sight of the faded but precious document there went 
up shout after shout. The enthusiasm was contagious, and the 
4,000 distinguished guests upon the platform, as by a simultane- 
ous impulse, sprang to their feet and joined in the acclamations." 
A " Greeting from Brazil " was sung by the great orchestra and 
chorus, and Bayard Taylor pronounced an ode. Hon. William M. 
Evarts delivered an oration and the multitude dispersed. At night 
the city was ablaze with fire-works. A grand temple-piece repre- 
sented the rise of America. The thirteen original States were em- 
blazoned on thirteen central columns. "E pluribus Unum, July 4, 
1776 — July 4, 1876," appeared above the dome. The Goddess of 
Liberty rose over the whole pile, while the eagle soared aloft hav- 
ing the national colors in its beak. 

X. 

Winding up of the Exhibition. 

According to the original design, the Centennial Exhibition 
closed on the 10th of November. During the latter part of the Fair, 
immense throngs were crowding the aisles and approaches to the 
various buildings, and financially made it a success. It was to 
many merely a show of curious and wonderful things and people. 
To others it was an educator of no small value, and as these pon- 
der and study the memorable objects that were impressed on their 
minds they will find themselves to have been at the best school 
they ever attended. The results of this comparison of national 
progress and products must tend to harmonize mankind and cre- 
ate deeper respect for one another. 

There is a marked contrast between the expressions of foreign 
visitors, depending on their point of view, whether they regard 
American progress with pleasure or regret. The men of science 
express delight. Sir William Thompson, for instance, fairly over- 
flowed with hearty and specific compliment to his co-workers in 
science on this side of the Atlantic. He was " vividly impressed" 
during his stay at Philadelphia, alike by the originality and thor- 
oughness of American scientific research. The advances made 
here in hydrography, in coast survey, in ingenious devices as dis- 
played by the Patent Office Museum, in the science of weather 
predictions, in astronomical apparatus, are alluded to as things 
that benefit mankind. Not the least particle of national jealousy 
appeared in his address before the Glasgow meeting. On the 
other hand, Mr. Isaac* Lowthian Bell, in a speech delivered in one 
of the Northeastern counties of England, scarcely conceals the 
gloom with which he regards American progress in iron manufac- 
ture and the prospect of the loss of our market to England. He 
regards the loss as permanent. Having examined the American 



1110 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

iron exhibits at Philadelphia, and noted the advantages of the 
United States in the position and abundance of ores and fuel, he 
sees no hope for the competition of the English ironmaster. 

The owner of the London Times, Mr. Walter's, opinion of the 
Centennial Exposition was very high. It was certainly the equal, 
and, in many respects, the superior of any of the other World's 
Fairs. He expressed himself as delighted with the good manners 
exhibited by the people he had met at the Exposition. Many of 
them bore traces of the farmer in their dress and talk, but in no 
case had he seen signs of the boor. Yankee curiosity was to be 
noticed on all sides, but the caricatured Yankee inquisitiveness 
did not manifest itself. 

Statistics of Attendance. 

The Exhibition had to make its way slowly into public com- 
prehension and favor. The American people had little knowledge 
of what a World's Fair really was, and asked themselves the ques- 
tinn, "Will it pay to go to the Centennial?" many times before 
they decided to go. There was an ignorance and an indifference 
throughout the country concerning the grand undertaking that 
threatened to mar its success. On the opening day Philadelphia 
furnished nine-tenths of the visitors. There were 76,172 paying 
admissions — a very fair beginning — but the attendance fell next 
day to 14,722, and the day after to 10,252. On the 16th of May 
it was only 7,056. The highest figure reached in that month was 
41,111, on the 30th, and the average for the month was 19,946. 
The highest attendance in June was 39,386, the lowest 20,343, 
and the average 26,756. By the end of the month the glowing 
accounts of returning visitors, few in number though they were, 
had leavened the whole lump of public indifference and created a 
general desire among all classes to make a pilgrimage to Phila- 
delphia. The ceremonies on the Fourth of July brought a nu- 
merous multitude in spite of the severe heat that prevailed. On 
the 3d the paying visitors numbered 47,786, on the the 4th 46,- 
290, on the 5th, 51,825, and on the 6th, 46,088. Then the attend- 
ance ran down rapidly, so that on the 3 1st it was only 15,207. 
The average for the month was 24,481. The heated term was of 
unprecedented length and severity. 

In August the largest attendance was on Jersey Day — 55,930; 
the smallest attendance was 22,141, and the average 33,655. 
September brought the hoped-for throng. On the 1st, 34,182 
visitors entered the gates ; on the 5th, 50,209, and, except on one 
rainy day, the total never dropped below 50,000 thenceforth. 
Connecticut Day, the 7th, scored 64,059 ; Massachusetts Day, the 
14th, 78,977; New York Day, the 21st, 117,941 ; and Pennsyl- 
vania Day, the 28th, brought the enormous number of 257,169 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1111 

people^ within the inclosure. The average for the month was 
81,961. In October the average ran up still higher, being 89,789; 
the lowest figure was 65,865, and the highest reached on Dela- 
ware and Maryland Day, the 19th, was 161,355. Rhode Island 
Day, the 5th, registered 89,060; New Hampshire Day, the 12th, 
101,541, and Ohio Day, the 26th, 122,300. During November 
the attendance was close upon 100,000 every day. 

The bright weather, the near approach of the end, and the 
attraction of a superb display of fireworks in the evening, swelled 
the paid admissions one day to 176,000. 

General Hawlet on the Exhibition. 

" People ask me if the Exhibition has equaled our expecta- 
tions. I answer by saying that it did not go beyOnd or even up 
to our dreams, grand as it is, but that it was better than we had 
reason to expect a year before it opened. The estimates of the 
commissioners as to the attendance ran from 5,000,000 to 10,000,- 
000. The paid admissions have been about 8,000,000. So far as 
the financial side is concerned, we have reason for gratification. If 
the apparent prosperity which prevailed when the enterprise was 
begun had continued, it is impossible to say how great the attend- 
ance would have been. We are well aware that mere extent and 
multitudes of visitors do not make a great Exhibition, and we but 
accept the judgment of foreigners and Americans qualified by 
knowledge of other Exhibitions, when we say that it is the largest, 
best situated, best arranged, best managed, and most successful 
Exhibition ever held. We were early met by the objection urged 
by Charles Sumner and others, that monarchical countries would 
not take part in an affair, which had somewhat of a character of a 
family celebration of the success of republican ideas, but our in- 
vitations were accepted by foreign nations in the kindest spfrit, 
and they evidently exerted themselves to make fine displays. Of 
course, commercial motives influenced their action more or less; 
but it is delightful to believe that something was due to genuine 
good will. Uncle Sam appears to be one of the most popular 
members of the brotherhood of nations. 

" It must be that such a gathering as we have had here will have 
large influence upon international commerce and friendship. 
Reflect that commissioners from thirty governments are making 
reports of their examinations, and especially on the American 
features, and that these reports will be published as official docu- 
ments. In addition, 125 foreign judges, specially qualified by 
their examinations, are reporting their observations to their coun- 
trymen. Furthermore, every newspaper in the world has pub- 
lished descriptions and accounts of the Exhibition, so that, to use 
-a commercial phrase, the United States, have been advertised to 



-»-^-i-2 FOOTPRINTS OF THB AGES. 

in immense extent. The world knows a great deal more about 
as than it ever did before. With scarcely a single exception our 
foreign guests have manifested satisfaction and pleasure at their 
stay in the country. Many have had false impressions removed 
as to the character of our people and their moral elevation. The 
perfect good behavior of the 8,000,000 visitors is beyond praise. The 
American people never in the hundred years of their history ap- 
peared to so great an advantage as this summer. 

" In one respect only the Exhibition did not quite come up to 
our anticipations. We were anxious to see Virginia, Georgia, 
Louisiana, Texas, and other Southern States with unbounded nat- 
ural resources, present themselves here as Kansas, Colorado, Ar- 
kansas, and others have done, and we hoped to see them in gen- 
eral joining more heartily in the social and semi-political features 
of the year. Maryland, Delaware, Mississippi, Arkansas, Ten- 
nessee and Kentucky, among the Southern States, expended 
money in assisting to make the Fair, and found their advantage 
in it. It would have delighted us if all had done the same. Had 
the Governor of Virginia appointed a day for his people to meet 
here, he would have received the warmest greeting he ever saw in 
his life. The masses of the American people desired to make 
long strides in the Centennial year toward perfect reconciliation. 
Divine Providence gave us a splendid opportunity to shake hands. 
There has been a great deal done, but I wish there had been 
more. It has been four and a half years since the commission or- 
ganized. It has had many dark days. It began with no funds, 
and with no machinery for raising any. The jealousy of states 
and localities was very discouraging. The American people two 
and three years ago were in a fault-finding mood. It was a time 
of investigation, criticism, and general dissatisfaction. The press 
was indifferent or unjustly critical toward the Exhibition project. 
This was, I am bound to say, because the project proposed to put 
us before the world in an attitude where we should be closely ex- 
amined, and there was great skepticism as to whether the Exhi- 
bition could be well managed. In the end we gained public con- 
fidence, and the press became our warm and indispensable sup- 
porter. 

" I feel great satisfaction in reflecting that we have demonstrat- 
ed two things — that an almost voluntary association can conduct 
all the material concerns of such an exhibition with ease and ac- 
curacy, and that the enterprise has come to the last day without 
a single occurrence above microscopic size that could make a scan- 
dal if exposed to public view. It is my testimony, after four and 
a half years' presiding over the commission, that its members, al- 
though selected with no just idea of what their work was to be, 
have proved to be a very capable and entirely honest body of 



THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 1113 

men. Many of them are gentlemen of rare qualifications and ex- 
perience. We have labored with a sincere desire to make the 
Exhibition one that our fellow-citizens would have no reason to 
feel ashamed of. We are ready to say that we are very proud of 
our success in the material and moral aspects of the whole enter- 
prise." 

In another place this gentleman said he had not seen a drunken 
man nor an altercation on the ground; so that the grandest ex- 
hibition after all was the American people. 

Many events occurred to give variety to life at the Exhibition, 
and to afford from time to time fresh and novel attractions. The 
advent of the benignant, inquiring, and eccentric Emperor of 
Brazil, who went about in a rusty black coat investigating every- 
thing and permitting nobody to bore him; the visit of the young 
Prince Oscar of Sweden in his fine frigate; the encampments of 
the Pennsylvania National Guard of the Connecticut soldiers, and 
of the gallant young cadets from the West Point Military Acad- 
emy; the excursion of the cadets of the Virginia Military 
Academy ; the three week's regatta on the Schuylkill with its 
exciting contests at the oar between the representatives of Great 
Britain, Canada, and the United States; the orations on the 
history and resources of the several states; all these were inter- 
esting occurrences. 

Who that witnessed the impressive inaugural ceremonies will 
soon forget the scene? — the vast sea of people filling the great 
plaza between Memorial Hall and the Main Building; the crowd 
of dignitaries on the platform, at their head the President of the 
imperial republic and the republican ruler of the only American 
empire ; the great orchestra playing the score sent across the sea 
by the famous German composer, and the mighty chimes singing 
the songs of the venerable Quaker bard of the North and of the 
young poet of the South — music which the lofty walls of the 
adjoining palace of industry caught and flung back to the ap- 
plauding multitude; the procession of officials through the build- 
ings, and finally the touch of the hands of President and Emperor 
upon the levers of the monster motor in Machinery Hall, which 
caused 10,000 wheels, shafts, and spindles to start with busy life. 
The Exhibition was more nearly complete at the opening than 
either of its predecessors in Europe had been. 

Closing Ceremonies. 

On the morning of November 10th, 1876, a Federal salute of 
thirteen guns was fired from George's Hill at sunrise by the Key- 
stone Battery, and simultaneously from the United States steamer 
Plymouth in the harbor. 

The rain made it necessary to adjourn the exercises to the 



1114 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



Judges' Hall, where was a collection of men and women such as 
has been seldom seen in this land. 

President Grant, accompanied by Secretaries Fish and Cam- 
eron, arrived at the appointed time. The Foreign Commissioners 
were assembled, and some of the Foreign Ministers, conspicuous 
among them Sir Edward Thornton, in full official uniform, were 
present. The gallery, running around three sides of the hall, 
was required for as much of Theodore Thomas's orchestra and 
chorus as could find place in it, so that only the floor, accommo- 
dating at most 800 persons, remained for the official participants 
and their guests. A detachment of the 1st City Troop of Phila- 
delphia — superb figures in their antique uniform — kept an open 
space clear in front of the platform and down the middle of the 
hall to the entrance. 

On the entrance of the President the band played " Hail to the 
Chief," which was followed by Wagner's Centennial March. The 
selections throughout were most appropriate, yet none was more 
felicitous than that which followed the Rev. Mr. Seiss's prayer, a 
Chorale and Fugue by Bach. The Chorale is one of those stately, 
dignified hymns of the Lutheran Church, so full of religious 
sentiment, and, with the Fugue which followed, was wonderfully 
in harmony with the spirit of the prayer. These numbers, so far, 
had been for the orchestra, but in the beautiful chorus, " To Thee, 
Cherubim and Seraphim," from the great " Dettingen Te Deum," 
by Handel, the chorus was heard for the first time. The effect 
was capital. The singers, in spite of their distance from him, 
were as much under Mr. Thomas's control as his orchestra, and 
the piece went smoothly and with great spirit. The finale of 
Beethoven's Fifth Symphony was the most trying number on the 
whole programme. 

But everything went to perfection, and the orchestra played 
like one man. The glorious " Hallelujah Chorus," which was ad- 
mirably sung, and which was in the highest degree appropriate 
for such an occasion, was the last of the pieces which properly be- 
longed to the musical part of the ceremonies, though "America" 
and " Old Hundred" were afterwards given, the audience joining 
in the singing. 

A pleasant incident occurred just before the exercises com- 
menced. Mrs. Gillespie, President of the Women's Centennial 
Commission, was seated on the right, between Col. Thomas A. 
Scott and Bishop Simpson; but suddenly a message came to the 
Master of Ceremonies, and she was conducted to a place of honor 
in the front rank on the platform, beside Mr. Welsh. Afterwards, 
when Gen. Hawley referred in his address to the women's share 
in the undertaking, turning to her as he spoke, the applause which 
followed was an unmistakable tribute to her efficiency. 



THE GEE AT EXHIBITION. 1115 

Speeches were made by Hon. D. J. Morrell, by Mr. J. Welsh, 
Hon. A. T. G-oshorn, and Hon. J. R. Hawley of commendable 
brevity and interest. After Gen. Hawley's address, the chorus 
and orchestra rendered the national hymn America, in which the 
audience joined. As this patriotic air was being sung, the orig- 
inal flag of the American Union, first displayed by Commodore 
Paul Jones on the Bon Homme Richard, was unfurled from a 
window overlooking the space immediately adjoining the platform. 
Part of the audience cheered and others sang, while all eyes turn- 
ed to the ancient relic until the hymn was concluded. The un- 
furling of the flag was the work of Miss Sarah Smith Stafford of 
Trenton, X. J., the daughter of Lieut. James Bayard Stafford of 
the Continental Navy, who was with Paul Jones in the famous en- 
gagement of the^Bon Homme Richard with the British frigate Sera- 
pis. The flag has remained in the possession of the lady's family 
ever since the Revolution, and for many years has been commit- 
ted to her special custody. Upon the conclusion of the singing 
.and the subsidence of the enthusiasm which accompanied it, Gen. 
Hawley announced that the President of the-United States would 
give a telegraphic signal for stopping the great Corliss engine, 
and at the same moment would announce the close of the Exhi- 
bition. President Grant accordingly rose and gave the required 
signal by a wave of his left hand, accompanying the act with this 
declaration: "I declare the Centennial International Exhibition 
of 1876 closed." Simultaneously with the utterance of the official 
-announcement, it was instantly communicated by telegraph to the 
exhibitors in Machinery Hall, by a system of gongs in that build- 
ing, to exhibitors and visitors generally by a gong in the General 
Telegraph Office on the grounds, and by an independent wire 
cabled direct to London. The announcement and the act were 
received in solemn silence ; for the end of such a memorable un- 
dertaking, coming, as it were, by a single electric spark, made its 
own deep impression. After this, the first verse of Old Hundred, 
sung as a doxology, was a fitting close to the ceremonies of the 
day, and thus ended the grandest World's Fair ever held. 



1116 



FOOTPKINTS OP THE AGES 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 



A SUMMARY. 



UNITED STATES. 

United States of America. — Constitution. — The form of govern- 
ment is based on the Constitution of 1787, to which fifteen amendments have 
been since added. The thirteenth amendment (1865) abolished slavery, the 
fourteenth (1868) declared all persons born in the United States, citizens there- 
of and equal before the law, and the fifteenth (1870) admits all citizens of the 
United States, except untaxed Indians, to the franchise. The Government is 
entrusted to three separate authorities, the executive, the legislative, and the 
judicial. The executive is vested in a President, who holds office for four 
years, and is elected together with a Vice-President, chosen for the same term, 
in the following mode : Each State shall appoint a number of electors equal to 
the whole number of Senators and Representatives it is entitled to in Con- 
gress ; but no Senator, Representative,) or person holding office under the 
United States, shall be appointed an elector. None but a natural born citizen 
who has attained the age of thirty-five, and been resident in the States four- 
teen years, is eligible to the Presidency. The President is commander-in- 
chief of all the sea and land forces ; he has power of veto on all laws passed 
by Congress ; but any bill, notwithstanding veto, may become law on its after- 
wards being passed by two-thirds of both Houses. The Vice-President is ex- 
officio president of the Senate, and in case of death or resignation of the Pres- 
ident, becomes President for the remainder of the term. The Presidential' 
election is held in all States on the first Tuesday in November every four 
years; and on the 4th March following, the new President is inaugurated. 
The salary of the President is $50,000, that of the Vice-President $10,000. 
The President is assisted in the administration by a "Cabinet" of seven heads 
of departments, viz. : Secretary of State and Foreign Affairs, Secretary of 
the Treasury, Secretary of War, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary of the In- 
terior, Postmaster- General and Attorney- General. These ministers have each 
$10,000 salary, are appointed by the President and hold office under his will. 
The whole legislative power is vested in a Congress, consisting of a Senate 
and a House of Representatives. The Senate consists of two member- from 
each State, chosen for six years. Senators must be at least thirty years of 
age, citizens for nine years, and residents in the State from which they are 
chosen. Besides their legislative capacity, the Senators constitute a High 
Court of Impeachment. Representatives have the sole right of im- 
peachment. Representatives are elected every second year by universal 
suffrage. The number of members allowed to' each State is determined 
by the decennial census. The present number in the House is 292. Rep- 
resentatives must be at least twenty-five years old, citizens for seven 
years, and residents in the State returning them. The House also admits a 
"delegate" from each Territory, elected, like the representatives, by the vote- 
of all male citizens over 21, except that in Wyoming the franchise is also ac- 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 1117 

corded to women : he has right to debate on matters touching: his own Terri- 
tory, but is not entitled to vote. All bills passed by both Houses, to become 
law, must be approved by the President, unless in case of a two-thirds vote 
after veto. The salaries of the Vice-President of the Senate, and of the 
Speaker of the House, are $8,003; that of a Senator, Representative, or Del- 
egate, $5,000, with traveling expenses. No person holding any office of trust 
or profit under the United States can be a member of either House during his 
continuance in office. The period termed "a Congress," in legislative lan- 
guage, continues for two years. The supreme judicial authority is vested 
in a Chief Justice and eight Justices, who are appointed for life by the 
President, by and with the consent of the Senate ; the Chief Justice receives 
a salary of $10,500 per annum, and the associate Justices, $10,030 each. The 
Constitutions of the several States all agree in their main features, each hav- 
ing its own executive, legislature and judiciary, after the model of the general 
government ; the executive is vested in a Governor, who has the nomination 
and, conjointly with the Senate, the appointment of many important officers; 
he makes recommendations to the Legislature, and takes care the laws 
are executed. The United States comprise 37 States with 10 organized Ter- 
ritories, and the districts of Alaska and Indian Territory as yet unorganized. 
Army. — By act of Congress it was enacted that from the year 1875 there 
shall be no more than 25,000 enlisted men at any one time. The term of ser- 
vice is five years. As now organized, the army is composed of 10 regiments 
of cavalry, 25 of infantry, 5 of artillery, and 1 engineer battalion, besides the 
cadets of the Military Academy. The army is commanded by 1 general, 1 
lieutenant-general, 3 major-generals, 6 brigadier-generals, and about 2,000 
other commissioned officers. General of the army, Wm. T. Snerman — pay, 
$13,500; Lieut-general, Philip H. Sheridan — pay, $11,000. The organized 
strength of the militia forces of the United States amounted, in 1875, to 153,- 
320, and the number of men available for military duty (unorganized) was es- 
timated at 3,434,000. During the Civil War (1861-65) 2,670,874 men were 
called under arms by the government. The expenditure for the branch of 
Army, Rivers and Harbors was estimated, for the financial year ending June 
30, 1876, at $41,391,476; and for that of 1877, $40,000,000. Navy. — The na- 
val forces consisted, in 1875, of 27 ironclads, 70 other steamers, and 26 sailing 
vessels, with an armament of 1,282 guns; 8,^oo seamen and marines, 1,254 
commissioned and 490 non-commissioned officers on the active list. There 
are four "rates" in the classification of ships-of-war, viz., first-rates, all vessels 
of 4,600 tons and upwards; second-rates, 2,000 to 4,000; third-rates, 900 to 
2,000; fourth-rates, under 900 tons. Of the unarmored steamers there were 
5 first-rates, 29 second-rates, 31 third-rates; of the sailing-vessels, 5 second- 
rates, 17 third-rates, and 4 fourth-rates. Admiral of the Navy, David D. 
Porter — pay, $13,000; Vice-admiral, Stephen C. Rowan — pay, at sea, $9,000, 
on shore duty, $8,000. Church. — The Constitution grants perfect equality 
to all creeds; all denominations existing in Europe are represented in the 
United States, the most numerous being the three dissenting creeds from the 
Episcopal Church, the Methodists, the Baptists and the Congregationalists ; 
the first-named comprising about one-third of the total population. In the 
census of 1870 there were 72,459 distinct congregations, possessing 63,082 re- 
ligious edifices, with a total of 21,665,062 sittings, being four sittings for every 
seven of the population. Of these, the Methodists had 6,528,209 sittings; 
Baptists, 4,360,119; Presbyterians, 2,698,209; Roman Catholics, 1,990,514; 
Congregationalists, 2,117,212; Protestant Episcopal, 992,051; Lutherans, 97V,- 
332. Education is general, every effort being made both by the government 
and individuals to aid in its progress; still, partly owing to the former existence 
of slavery and the constant influx of uneducated immigrants, there exists a 
large mas& of the population wholly illiterate. In ,1870 it was found that 
4-,528,o84 individuals, over ten years of age, were unable to read, and 5,658,144 



1118 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



unable to write ; at the same date the number of children attending school 
was 6,596,466, being upwards of one-sixth of the population; but of this total, 
6,361,422 were children of natives, and only 235,044 children of foreigners. 
In this regard, however, a great improvement has since taken place. The 
many high-schools and the numerous universities throughout the country 
afford abundant and excellent means of obtaining first-class education. Rev- 
enue and Expenditure. — The total revenue for the financial year ending 
June 30, 1876, was estimated at $297,456,145 ; for that ending June 30, 1879,, 
$273,827,184. The total expenditure (June 30, 1879), $161,619,934. On July 
i» 1879, the National Debt stood (less cash in the Treasury), $2,245,495,072. 
In 1870 there were in the United States, 220 cotton factories, employing over 
110,000 hands; woolen factories, 2,891, with 456,000 hands; pig-iron estab- 
lishments 386, hands 27,554 ; iron foundries 2,654, hands 51,297 ; forges 102, 
hands 3,561 ; bar, rod, railway and other similar iron-works 309, hands 44,643. 
The yield (1870) of iron ore was 3,395,718 tons; of petroleum, 181,263,502 
gallons ; of coal (1874), 45*4 I 3-340 tons - Tha yield of precious metals (1871) 
was estimated at $66,663,000. The exports mainly consist of agricultural pro- 
duce, pork, ham, cotton and tobacco; the imports, chiefly cottons, woolens, 
wrought iron, wines, linens, haberdashery, silks, etc. The Republic occupies 
the central portion of North America, between lat. 25 — 49 N., and long. 67 
— I24 p 30' W., and embraces an area (exclusive of Alaska) of 3,026,094 square 
miles ; present estimated population, 42,856,000. By the census of 1870, there 
were fourteen towns of upwards of 100,000 population, namely, New York, 
942,292; Philadelphia, 674,022 ; Brooklyn, 396,099 ; St. Louis, 310,864 ; Chi- 
cago, 298,977 ; Baltimore, 267,354 ; Boston, 250.526 ; Cincinnati, 216,239 ; New 
Orleans, 191,418; San Francisco, 149,473; Buffalo, 117,714 ; Washington, 
D. C, 109,199 ; Newark, 105,059; Louisville, 100,753. The central seat of 
government is at Washington, D. C. 



AMERICA. 

Argentine Confederation. — President, Dr. Nicolas Avellaneda, el. 
1874; salary, $20,000. Constitution. — The executive power is vested in a 
president, chosen for six years by representatives, 133 in number, from the 
fourteen provinces of the Confederation ; the Legislative in a National Con- 
gress, consisting of a Senate and a House of Deputies, the former numbering 
28, two from each province, and the latter 50 members. The president and 
his ministers are responsible for their acts. The governors of the provinces 
are elected for a term of three years by the people, and possess extensive 
powers. The army consisted, in 1875, of 6,183 men and 955 commissioned 
officers, besides a militia of nearly 20,000 men. The navy (1875) consisted of 
26 steamers (two of them ironclad), with a combined horse- power of 7,510. 
The manufactures £re unimportant. Principal productions: wool, hides, 
tallow, grain, etc. ; imports : cotten and woolen goods, iron, wrought and un- 
wrought, coal, apparel, cutlery, saddlery and linen. The territory of the Con- 
federation extends between 22 — 41 S. lat and 53 30'— 72 W. long.; area, 
838,600 sq. m.; population (1869), 1,877,500; capital, Buenos Ayres, pop. 
about 200,000. 

Bolivia. — Provisional President, General Daza, appointed after the deposi- 
tion of Dr. Tomas Frias in spring of 1876. Constitution.— The exec; itivc 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 1119 

is vested in a president elected for four years; the legislative authority in a 
Senate and House of Representatives, both elected by universal suffrage. The 
regular election, according to law, of the chief of the executive has been sel- 
dom carried out subsequent to the presidency of Grand Marshal Santa Cruz 
(182S-1839); the supreme power has been since almost invariably seized by 
some successful commander, proclaimed by the troops. The standing army 
consisted, in 1875, °f 2 i°°o men and 1,021 officers; the annual cost of the 
army amounts to upwards of two-thirds of the total public revenue. The 
mineral productions are very valuable. The chief exports are copper, cubic 
nitre, silver ore, Peruv : an bark, agricultural produce and guano; imports: 
iron, hardware, cotton goods and silks. Bolivia extends between 9 — 26 15' S. 
lat. and 57 20' — 70 40' W. long.; area, 473,300 sq. m.; population, about 
2,000,000; seat of government, Oruro, pop. 8,000; chief town, La Paz, pop> 
76,372. 

Brazil. — Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil, b. 1825, sue. 1831. Constitution. 
— The executive is vested in the sovereign, assisted by a responsible ministry 
and a Council of State. The legislative power tor the affairs of the empire- 
rests in the Senate and the Congress. Senators (58) are chosen for life by 
electoral meetings, each of which submits three candidates for the choice o£ 
the sovereign. Members of Congress (122) are chosen for four years by 
electors nominated by electoral districts of 30 voters each. A voter's qualifi- 
cation is an income of $100; an elector's, of $200 per annum. Minors, 
monks and servants are not allowed a vote ; naturalized foreigners and persons 
not Roman Catholics are incapable of being elected deputies. Church. 
(established) Roman Catholic; other religions are tolerated, but their places 
of worship must be without " the exterior forms of temples." Education 
(primary) is gratuitous and compulsory. Education is still in a very backward 
state; in 1874 the public schools were attended by only 140,000 pupils. Army. 
— Recruited partly by conscription, partly by enlistment; nominal strength 
(peace footing), 20,000; (war footing), 32,000. Navy. — Manned by enlist- 
ment; vessels, 59 steamers (including one powerful ironclad of 5,200 tona 
burden); horse-power, 12,027; guns, J 93 5 seamen, etc., 3,927. The agricultural 
produce of Brazil is abundant, its forests immense, with the greatest variety of 
beautiful and useful woods, well adapted for dyeing, cabinetwork, or ship- 
building. The valleys in the interior are extremely favorable for the culture 
of sugar, coffee and cotton. The minerals are also very considerable and 
valuable, consisting of gold, silver, iron and precious stones. These, with, 
hides and the above mentioned, are the chief exports ; principal imports : cot- 
ton, linen and woolen goods, and wrought and un wrought iron. Brazil is the 
only country in America where slavery legally exists. In 1871 a law for 
gradual emancipation was passed. This immense country extends between 
lat. 4 30' N. — 33 45' S. and 34 45' — 72 30' W. long., and has a coast line 
on the Atlantic of 3,700 miles, with an area of 3,275,326 sq. miles. The 
population exceeds 10,000,000, of whom about 1,500,000 are slaves, and 500,. 
000 Indians. Capital, Rio de Janeiro, pop. (1872) 274,972. 

Chili.— President, Don Anibal Pinto, el. 1876. Constitution.— The ex- 
ecutive is exercised by a president, elected for five years through delegates, 
nominated by the people ; the Legislative is vested in the Senate, consisting 
of 20 members, returned for nine years; and the Chamber of Deputies, chosen 
for three years, one representative for every 20,000 of the population, Chili, 
possesses a comparatively large army and navy ; these are recruited by con- 
scription; the army numbers about 4,000 men; the navy consists of 10 small 
steamers and 2 powerful ironclads. The chief exports are copper, wheat, silver, 
ore, cotton and wool; imports, cotton and woolen fabrics, iron, hardwares and 
cutlery. Chili extends between lat. 24 — 56 S. and long. 68° 40'— 76 W., 
is about 2,200 miles long, with an average breadth N. of 41° of 100 miles, an4 






1120 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



is divided into 16 provinces. Area, 126,000 sq. m.; population 2,074,000. 
Capital, Santiago; pop. 150,000. 

Colombia — (United States of Colombia). President, Don Aguileo Parra, 
el. 1876. Constitution. — Executive is vested in a president, elected for two 
years ; Legislative in the Senate ; (3 members from each of the nine provin- 
ces), and the House of Representatives (66 members elected by universal 
suffrage). Each state has its own executive and legislature. The inhabitants 
rank first among South Americans in point of education. In 1875 there were 
2,113 public schools with 126,000 pupils, and 60 colleges. The United States 
of America in 1869 obtained from the Republic the exclusive right to con- 
struct an interoceanic canal across the Isthmus of Darien. The chief exports 
are cotton, caoutchouc, indigo and Peruvian bark; the imports, cotton, linen, 
and woolen goods. United States of Colombia extend between o° 36' — 12 
25' N. lat.. and 69 14' — 83 W. long.. Area, 320,750 sq. m. ; population 
about 3,000,000. The seat of government is at Bogota; pop. 46,000. 

Costa Rica. — President, Don Anicito Esquibel, el. 1875. Constitution. 
— Executive in a president, elected for four years by electoral assemblies, 
which are chosen by universal suffrage; Legislative in a congress of two 
chambers (congress constitutional) returned for four years in the same manner 
as the president. The army consists of about 7,500 men. Two-thirds of the 
population are Indians, or of mixed race. The exports are chiefly coffee; 
imports, cotton goods. Costa Rica is situated between 8° 20' — n° 10' N. 
lat., and 82 30' — 85 45' W. long., area, 21,495 sq. m. ; population about 185,- 
000; capital, San Jose; pop. 14,000. 

Ecuador. — President, Dr. Antonio Borrero, el. 1875". Constitution.— 
Executive vested in a president, elected for four years by 900 electors chosen 
by the people; Legislative in a Senate (18 member f) and House of Deputie? 
(30 members) both elected by universal suffrage. There is an army of 1,200 
men, with -*. navy of three small steamers. Chief exports, cocoa, caoutchouc, 
Peruvian bark ; imports, cotton goods- Ecaucfer extends from i° 50' N. to 
4 50' S. lat, and from 70 to 8i° W. long.; area, 248,380 sq. m.; population, 
1,300,000. Capital, Quito; pop. variously estimated from 35,000 to 80,000. 

Guatemala. — President, General Rufino Barrios, el. 1874. Constitu- 
tion. — Executive vested in a president, elected for four years; Legislative in 
the Council of State and the House of Representatives. Both chambers are 
elected for four years, the House of Representatives by the people, and the 
Council by the House. The bulk of the population are aborigines. Chief ex- 
ports, coffee and indigo ; imports, cotton goods. Guatemala extends between 
14 — 1 7 20' N. lat, and 88° 15' — 92 30' W. long.; area, 40,776 sq.m.; popu- 
lation about 1,200,000. Seat of government, New Guatemala; pop. 40,000. 

Haiti. — President, General Boisroud Canal, el. 1876. Constitution. — 
The executive is vested in a president, elected for a term of four years by the 
people ; the Legislative in the national assembly consisting of a Senate and a 
House of Commous, the latter elected for three years by the people, the mem- 
bers of the Senate nominated for two years by the House. But these provi- 
sions of the constitution of 1867 has not been adhered to in recent years, the 
elections of presidents having been made either by the troops or the delegates 
of parties. The population almost entirely consists of negroes and mulattoes. 
Chief exports : coffee, cotton, mahogany, logwood, and guano ; imports, cot- 
ton and linen goods. Haiti, the western portion of the island of San Domino, 
lies between 17 37' — 20 N. lat., and 68° 20' — 74 28' W. long.; area (Haiti) 
9, 232 sq. m.; population, 572,000. The capital is Port-au-Prince; pop. 21,000. 

Donduras. — Provisional President Don Jose Maria Medina, el. 1876. 
Constitution. — Executive rests in a president elected for four years ; Legis- 
lature in Senate and Chamber of Deputies elected annually. The bulk of the 
population are aborigines. Chief exports : mahogany, hides, tobacco, cattle 
and indigo; imports: cotton goods, silks and hardware. The resources of the 






THE NATIONS OF THE WOELD. 1121 

country are at present wholly undeveloped. Honduras lies between 13 10' — 
16 N. lat, and 83 10' — 89 50' W. long.; area, 47,000 sq. m.; population, 
350,000. Capital town, Comayagua; pop. 9,000. 

Mexico. — President, Don Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, el. 1872. Constitu- 
tion. — Mexico is a federative republic composed of 27 states and 1 territory, 
each of which manages its own local affairs. The executive is vested in a 
president, elected for four years by the congress of the states ; Legislative in 
the Congress, consisting ot a House of Representatives and a Senate. Rep- 
resentatives are returned for two years by each state at the rate ot one mem- 
ber for 80,000 inhabitants. Senators are chosen, two for each state, by popular 
vote. The Legislatures of the states are similar to that of the Republic. 
More than half the population are pure Indians, the rest comprising a mix- 
ture of various races and European-descended inhabitants. Chief exports : 
silver, copper ores, cochineal, indigo, hides, and mahogany ; imports : cotton 
and linen fabrics, wrought iron, and machinery. More than two-thirds of the 
trade is with the United States Mexico is situated between 15 — 32 30' N. 
lat., and 87 — 117 W. long., comprising one of the richest and most varied 
zones in the world, but through its unsettled condition her resources have 
never been fairly developed. Area, 741,820 sq. m.; population, 9,158,250 
The city of Mexico is the seat of government; pop. 205,000. 

Nicaragua. — President, Don Pedro Joaquin Chamorrs, el. 1875. Consti- 
tution. — Executive in a president, elected for four years; Legislative in a 
Senate and a House of Representatives, returned by universal suffrage for six 
and four years respectively. The mass of the popul" tion consists of Indians, 
negroes, and mixed races. The chief occupation is the rearing of cattle. The 
commerce is very small. Nicaragua, the largest State of Central America, is 
situated between io° 45' — 15 N. lat., and 83 20' — 87 30' W. long.; area, 
58,170 sq. m. ; population, about 250,000, of whom probably 20,000 are whites. 
Chief exports : medicinal herbs. Capital, Managua, pop. 8,000; chief town, 
St. Leon, pop. 25,000. 

Paraguay. — President, Don Joao Baptista Gill, el. 1874. Constitution. 
— Executive in a president, elected for six years ; Legislative in a Congress of 
two Houses, a Senate and a House of Deputies, similar to that of the Argen- 
tine Republic. The chief exports are Yerba mate, or Paraguayan tea, tobacco, 
hides, timber, fruit, and bark for tanning ; imports : cotton, linen and woolen 
fabrics, haberdashery, silks, groceries, etc. Paraguay is situated between 22 
4' — 27 35' S. lat, and 54 32' — 58 40' W. long.; area, 56,700 sq. m.; popu- 
lation, 221,079. Capital, Asuncion, pop. 10,000. 

Peru. — President, General Mariano Ygnacio Prado, el. 1876. Constitu- 
tion. — The executive is exercised by a president, assisted by two vice-presi- 
dents, who are, with him, elected by the people for four years. The legislative 
is vested in a Senate and Chamber of Deputies, the former consisting of four 
senators from each department of eight or more provinces, three from each of 
less than eight and more than four, and one from each department of four or 
less provinces. The deputies are nominated by electoral colleges at the rate 
of one member for 20,000 people. Peru possesses an army of about 8,000, 
besides 6,000 gendarmes ; and a navy of 20 ships, including 6 ironclads and 
carrying 109 guns. 57 per cent, of the inhabitants are aborigines; 23 per cent, 
mixed races ; barely 2 per cent, are Europeans. The mountain valleys are 
very fertile; and the Cordilleras are rich in silver, quicksilver and copper. The 
medicinal productions are very valuable. Guano is the great staple product. 
The chief exports are: guano, nitrate of soda, sheep, alpacca wool, sugar ? 
silver, and cinchona; imports: textile fabrics, hardware, and machinery. Peru 
lies between 3 — 22 10 S. lat, and 68° 30'— 8i° 20' W. long.; it is divided 
into 19 provinces; area, 503,380 sq. m.; population, 3,199,000. Capital, Lima, 
pop. about 150,000. 

San Domingo. — President, Don Ulysse Espaillat, el. 1876, Constitution. 



1122 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

— Executive vested in a president, chosen by indirect election for four years ; 
Legislative in the National Congress of two Houses, the Consego Conserva- 
dor (5 members) and the Tribunado (15 members) chosen by indirect election 
with restricted suffrage. The population mainly consists of negroes and mulat- 
toes. Commerce is small. Customs duties highly prohibitory. Exports : coffee, 
dyewoods, tobacco, guano. The rights of the U. S. company, to whom in 1873 
the Bay of Samana was ceded, were in 1874 confiscated for non-payment of rent 
San Domingo, the eastern portion of the island, is the oldest settlement of 
European origin in America; having been founded in 1494 by Bartolomeo 
Columbus. It is divided into five provinces, mutually independent, compris- 
ing an area of 18,045 sq. m., with a population of 136,500 ; capital, San Domingo ; 
pop. 15,000. 

San Salvador. — Provisional President. Dr. Rafael Saldirar, nominated, 
according to Treaty of Chalchuagua, by government of Guatemala, May 1876. 
Constitution. — Executive in president, elected for four years ; Legislative 
in a Senate, composed of 12, and a House of Representatives of 24 members. 
Aboriginal and mixed races form the bulk of the population, which is largely 
engaged in agriculture, in various branches of manufactures, and recently in 
working iron mines. Chief exports : indigo, coffee and balsam (Balm of Peru). 
San Salvador, the smallest of the Central American republics, though second 
in point of population, extends 170 miles along the Pacific, with an area of 
9,594 sq. m., and a population variously estimated at from 450,000 to 600,000. 
Capital, New San Salvador ; pop. 20,000. 

Uruguay. — Provisional President, General Lorenzo Latorre, nominated 
1876. Constitution. — Executive is in the hands of the president, elected 
for four years, and ineligible for re-election till after the lapse of four years ; 
Legislative in a Parliament of two Houses, viz., Senate and Chamber of 
Representatives. The army in 1875 consisted of 573 officers and 2,800 men. 

The chief exports are hides, tallow, bone, sheepskins, wool, and Liebig's 
essence of meat ; the imports : cotton goods, coals, iron, petroleum, lumber, 
and refined sugar. The flow of immigration is considerable, but of late years 
foreign commerce has been stationary. Uruguay is situated in lat. 30 — 35 S., 
and long. 53 10' — 58°22'W.; area, 73,500 sq. m.; population, 450,000, 
Capital, Monte Video; pop. 105,000. 

Venezuela. — President, Don Antonio Guzman Blanco, el. 1873. Con- 
stitution — (amended 1874). — The executive is exercised by a president, 
elected for two years, and assisted by a council of ministers. He possesses no 
veto power. The legislative is vested in the Congress of the whole Repub- 
lic, consisting of Senate and Chamber of Deputies. Senators are elected in 
some states by universal suffrage, in others are appointed by the state's legis- 
lature. Deputies are in all cases elected by universal suffrage. The 21 states 
composing the Republic possess each independent legislature and administra- 
tion, the alliance between them being mainly for self-defence ; the states' con- 
gresses are chosen by universal suffrage. The agricultural and mineral re- 
sources are vast, and' trade of recent years is considerably on the increase. The 
chief exports are coffee, cocoa, cotton, bark, hides, and dyewoods ; imports, 
manufactured goods, provisions, and zinc. Venezuela lies between i° 10' — 
12 12' N. lat, and 59 52' — 73 15' W. long.; area, 403,276 sq. m.; pop. i,< 
784,194. Capital, Caraccas; pop. 49,000. 

British Dependences: i. Canada. — Rt Hon. Frederick Temple 
Blackwood, Earl Dufferin, Governor-General, ap. 1872. Salary $50,000. 
Constitution. — The Dominion of Canada consists of the Provinces of 
Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba, British Columbia, 
and Prince Edward Island. The executive authority is vested in the sovereign 
of Great Britain and Ireland, and carried on in her name by a Governor-gen - 
eral and Privy Council. The legislative power is exercised by a Parliament 
of two Houses, namely, the Senate and the House of Commons. Senators 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 1123 

{78) are nominated for life by the Governor-general; the House, (206 mem- 
bers) is elected by the people for five years at the rate of one member for 
«very 17,000 souls. Church. — No state church; complete religious equality. 
Education. — No compulsory law; public schools supported partly by gov- 
ernment, partly by local taxation ; in Quebec and Ontario school laws are 
adapted to prevalent religious elements. Canada is divided into 11 military 
districts; in addition to 2,000 imperial troops, all male British subjects in the 
Dominion between 18 and 60 years of age are liable to military or naval ser- 
vice. The militia is divided into an active and a reserve force. The active 
militia has been reduced (1875) for purposes of drill and pay, to 30,000 men 
and officers. The navy consists of 8 armed screw steamers (H. P. 838; guns, 
18), and two unarmed fast steamers for coast service. Area, 3,483, 953 sq. m.; 
population, 3,602,321 in 1871. Chief exports, breadstuffs and wood; imports, 
wrought and unwrought iron, cotton, linen and woolen goods. Seat of gov- 
ernment, Ottawa; pop. 22,000; chief town, Montreal; pop. 107,225. 2. New- 
foundland. 3. Bermudas. 4. Bahamas. 5. Honduras. 6. Jamaica and 
Turk's Islands. 7. Leeward Islands. 8. Windward Islands. 9. Trinidad. 
10. Guiana. 11. Falkland Islands. 

Danish Possessions. West Indies. St. Croix, St. Thomas, St. John. 

Dutch Possessions. — Surinam, and (W. I. Islands), Curacoa, Aruba, St. 
Martin, Bonaire, St. Eustache, Saba. 

French. — Cayenne, Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Pierce and Miquelon. 

Spanish. — Cuba and Porto Rico; combined area, 49,480 sq. m.; combined 
population, 2, 025,000. 

Swedish. — St. Bartholomew. 

Austria-Hungary (Oesterreich-Ungarische Monarchie). — Franz 
Joseph I, Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, born 1830; succeeded, 
184S. Civil List, $3,650,000. Constitution. — Since 1867 Austria and Hun- 
gary form a bipartite State, each country having its own parliament and gov- 
ernment, the connecting ties being a common sovereign, army, navy and di- 
plomacy, and a controlling body called The Delegations. The Delegations 
form a Parliament of 120 members, 60 chosen by the Legislature of Aus- 
tria and 60 by that of Hungary. On subjects affecting common affairs then- 
vote is decisive; their jurisdiction is limited to Foreign Affairs and War. 
Austria: Double legislature, namely the seventeen provincial Diets, com- 
petent to make laws concerning local administration, etc. ; and the Central 
Diet, called the Reichsrath. This consists of an Upper and a Lower House. 
The former (Herrenhaus), 189 members in 1875, is formed of imperial princes 
{14), nobles (56), prelates (17), and life-nominees of the Crown (102); the lat- 
ter (Abgeordnetenhaus), 353 members, elected by direct vote of all citizens of 
full age, with a small property qualification. Hungary: The legislative 
power rests conjointly in the King and the Diet, or Reichstag, composed of 
the House of Magnates, 731 members (princes, prelates and nobles) and the 
House of Representatives, 444 members, elected by vote of all citizens of full 
age, paying direct taxes to the amount of four dollars per annum. The pas- 
sage of all bills requires the consent of both Chambers and sanction of the 
Sovereign. The Executive, in each State, is vested in the Emperor-King, as- 
sisted by responsible ministers. The common expenditure of the whole em- 
pire is defrayed by Austria and Hungary at the respective rates of 70 and 30 
per cent. Army. — Universal military obligation; term of service: 3 years 
in active service, 7 in army of reserve, and 2 years in Landwehr; total 
strength (fixed for ten years), 800,000 men, of which Austria contributes 470,- 
368, Hungary, 319,632. Navy. — Recruited by conscription from among sea- 
faring population ; term of service, 8 in navy, 2 in reserve ; total strength, 49 
steamers and 10 sailing vessels; armament, 526 guns; tonnage, 114,407; 
sailors and marines (war footing) : 13,500. Church. — The state religion is 
Roman Catholic; complete religious toleration. Roman Catholics 66 per 



1124 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

cent. Greek Catholics n per cent., Protestants 10 per cent., Byzantine Greeks 
9 per cent, of population. Education. — Compulsory and general. Seven 
Universities attended by about 10,500 students. The chief productions are 
wines, agricultural produce, sheep and horned cattle. The mineral riches are 
also great. Principal imports : raw cotton, cotton, woolen, and silk fabrics ; 
exports: glass, hardware, grain, leather, wool, wood, wine and salt. The Aus- 
tro-Hungarian Empire is situated between 42 ° — 51 ° N. lat. and o°3o' — 26°20' 
E. long. Austria, area, 105,000 sq. m.; population, 20,394,980; chief town, 
Vienna; population, 833,855. Hungary, area, 125,045; population, 15,509,- 
455; chief town, Pesth; population, 200,476. Capital of the Empire, Vienna. 

Belgium. — Leopold II, King of the Belgians, b. 1835, sue. 1865. Civil 
List, $660,000. Constitution. — Executive is vested in King and a respon- 
sible ministry; Legislative in King, Chamber of Representatives and the 
Senate. The members of these two bodies are returned for 4 and 8 years 
respectively, by direct vote of all citizens of full age, with a small property 
qualification. The number of representatives amounted, in 1875, to 124, and 
is fixed by law not to exceed one member for every 40,000 inhabitants. The 
Senate is composed of exactly half the number of representatives. The pas- 
sage of bills requires the consent of both houses and the sovereign. No act 
of the King is effective without counter-signature of one of the ministers. 
Army. — Universal military obligation; term of service, eight years, two- 
thirds of which are generally allowed on furlough; strength (fixed by law), 
100,000 on war footing, 40,000 in peace. Besides the standing army, there is 
a National Guard, numbering 125,000 without, and 400,000 men with the re- 
serve. Belgium has no war navy. Church. — Complete religious equality; 
the State pays part of income of ministers of all denominations ; Roman 
Catholicism is professed by nearly the entire population. Education. — No 
compulsory law; about 30 per cent, of inhabitants illiterate; three Universi- 
ties, Louvain and two State institutions. Agriculture has been carried to 
very great perfection, little more than one-eighth of the whole area being un- 
cultivated. Belgium is rich in minerals, and its manufactures are varied and 
extensive. Chief imports; colonial produce, and wool and cotton fcr man- 
ufacture; exports: carpets, linens, woolens, cottons, paper, glass, hardware, 
machinery and firearms, butter and flax. Belgium lies between 49°3o' — 51 
30' N. lat. and 2°3o' — 6°5' E. long.: area, 11,372 sq. m. : population, 5,253,- 
821. Capital, Brussels: pop. 314,000. 

Denmark. — Christian IX, King of Denmark, b. 1818, sue. 1863. Civil 
List, $277,775. Constitution. — Executive in King and a responsible min- 
istry ; Legislative in King and the Diet or Rigsdag. Upper House (Lands- 
thing) consists of 12 members, nominated tor life by the Crown, and 54 re- 
turned for 8 years by electoral bodies of the people. The Lower House 
(Folksthing), 101 members, elected directly by universal suffrage. — Iceland 
has its own constitution and administration ; a responsible minister, appointed 
by the King, is at the head of the government; the highest local authority is 
vested in a governor (Stiftamtmand) ; the legislative power rest in the Aiming, 
consisting of 30 members, elected by popular suffrage, and 6 nominated by the 
King. Army. — Universal military obligation ; term of service, 8 years ii the 
regular army and 8 in the reserve; total strength (1875), 52,610. Navy. — Re- 
cruited by naval conscription; vessels, 31 steamers; horse-power, 6,875; arma- 
ments, 314 guns ; 1,008 officers, seamen, etc. Church. — State religion is the Lu- 
theran, which is professed by 99 per cent, of the inhabitants, and of which the 
King must be a member ; complete religious toleration. Education (elemen- 
tary) widely diffused, gratuitous and compulsory. Besides the University of 
Copenhagen, there are 13 public colleges, affording classical instruction, and 
a number of middle class schools. The soil of Denmark is greatly subdivided, 
the law not allowing the union of farms into large estates ; about 40 per cent. 
of the people are wholly engaged in agriculture. Principal exports : agricul- 



THE NATIONS OF THE WOELD. 1125 

Uiral produce and live stock ; imports : textile fabrics, hardware, iron, wine and 
colonial produce. European Dependencies. — Iceland, Faroe Islands and 
Greenland. Denmark Proper is situated between 54°35' — 57°45' N. lat, and 
B°5' — 12 '40' E. long.; area, 14,763 sq. m.; population, 1, 86 1,000. Capital, 
Copenhagen (Kjobenhavn) ; population, 193,000. 

France (Republique Francaise). — President, Marshal Marie Edme 
Patrick Maurice de MacMahon, Due de Magenta, b. 1808, el. 1873. Con- 
stitution (Feb. 1875). — Executive authority rests in a president nominated 
for seven years and eligible for re-election ; election made by majority of votes 
of Senate and Chamber of Deputies united in National Assembly. The pres- 
ident possesses right of legislative initiation concurrently with the two cham- 
bers ; is assisted by a responsible ministry of nine members, who are appoint- 
ed by him, and by one of whom every act of his must be countersigned. 
The president is responsible only in case of high treason. The legislative is 
vested in the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Senators, 300 members, 
namely, 225 elected for 9 year? from the departments by electoral colleges, 
and 75 nominated for life by the National Assembly and subsequently by the 
Chamber of Deputies. The Deputies, 582 members, are elected for six years 
by universal suffrage, at the rate of one deputy to each arrondissement; if the 
population of an arrondissement exceeds 100,000, an additional representative 
tor each 100,000 or fraction thereof. The requirements for an elector are to 
be a citizen of 2 1 years of age : for a deputy, to be at least 25 years of age. 
Army. — Universal military liability, but with various exemptions; term ot 
service : 5 years in the Active Army, 4 years in the Reserve of the Active 
Army, 5 years in the Territorial Army, and 6 years in the Reserve of the 
Territorial Army; total effective force (peace footing) in 1875, 430,703, which 
may be raised to a war footing of 1,200,000. Navy. — Recruited partly by 
conscription, partly by enlistment; term of service, same as the army; vessels: 
63 iron-clads, 326 unarmored steamers, and 113 sailing vessels ; horse-power, 
93,727; guns, 3,073; seamen, etc., 47,000. The total cost of the war and oc- 
cupation of 1870-73 amounted to 9,287,882,000 francs. Church. — All relig- 
ions are equal in law, but only Roman Catholics, Protestants and Jews have 
state allowances; 98.02 per cent, of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics, 
about 1.60 per cent. Protestants, the remainder being Jews and members of 
other forms of belief. Education. — Public instruction is entirely under 
governmental supervision; about 30 per cent, of population are illiterate. 
A great difference exists in degree of education between the 87 departments, 
the percentage of ignorance ranging from 6 to 60. Abundant means are af- 
forded for the purposes of higher instruction in the University, Lycees, Ecole 
Polytechnique, etc. Chief imports : raw silk, raw cotton, wool, breadstuffs 
and'coal ; Exports : silk and woolen manufactures, wines, haberdashery and 
millinery, refined sugar, leather, jewelry, etc. The colonial possessions of 
France, exclusive of Algeria, are dispersed over Asia, Africa, America and 
Polynesia, and embrace an area of 463,827 sq. m. Algeria (see Africa) has 
a different government from the other colonies. France extends from 42°2o' 
to 5i°5' N. lat. and from 7°45' E. to 4°45' W. long.; area, 201,900 sq. m. pop- 
ulation, 36,102,921. Capital, Paris: population (1872), 1,851,792. 

Germany (Deutsches Reich). — Wilhelm I (King of Prussia) Emperor, el. 
1 87 1. Constitution. — Supreme direction of political and military affairs is 
vested, with the title of Deutscher Kaiser, in the King of Prussia. Legisla- 
tive functions are in the Federal Council (Bundesrath), 59 members appointed 
each session by governments of the individual States ; and the Diet of the 
Empire (Reichstag) 397 members, elected for 3 years by universal suffrage 
and ballot. Bills require consent of both houses and the Kaiser, with counter- 
signature of the Chancellor of the Empire. To declare war, if not merely 
defensive, the Kaiser must have the consent of the Bundesrath. The Bun- 
desrath represents the individual States of Germany, and the Reichstag the 



1126 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

German nation. Excess of imperial expenditure over imperial revenue is de- 
frayed pro rata by the confederated States. Army. — Universal military lia- 
bility ; term of service : 7 years in standing army, 5 in Landwehr, then until 
42 years of age in first class of the Landsturm, the second class, which is not 
yet organized, comprising all able-bodied men over that age ; strength (peace 
footing), 401,659 men; (war footing) 1,273,346, which by addition of the first- 
class Landsturm would be increased to about 1,800,000. Navy. — Conscrip- 
tion from among seafaring population ; vessels, 1 1 ironclads, 62 unarmored 
steamers, 4 sailing vessels ; tonnage, 83,342; horse-power, 70,400; guns, 478. 
Church. — Complete religious equality ; by census of 187 1 the religious di- 
vision of population showed as follows: Protestants, 25,579,709; Roman 
Catholics, 14,867,463; sects of other Christian denominations, 82,155; Jews,. 
512,158. Education. — General and compulsory throughout the Empire. 
All the recruits, it was found on the formation of the united German army 
in 1870, could read and write. There are 21 Universities, with 1,729 profes- 
sors, and attended by 16,359 students. The trade and commerce of the Em- 
pire, except of the two free "ports," Hamburgh and Bremen, are under the 
direction of the Zollverein, or Customs League, which had, previous to 1871, 
a double representation — that of governments, the Zollverein Council; that 
of populations, the Zollverein Parliament. The functions of the latter have 
under the constitution of 1871, merged in the Reichstag of the Empire. All 
the receipts of the Zollverein are paid into a common exchequer and distrib- 
uted pro rata among the League. Chief exports : corn, live stock, hides, furs,. 
and numerous other articles; imports: coals, textile fabrics, and metals, 
wrought and unwrought. Germany, situated in lat. 47°i8' — 55°52' N. and 
long. 5°5o' — 22°50' E., comprises 25 States and the recently conquered prov- 
inces of Alsace and Lorraine. These two provinces (Reichslande) are under 
the special administration of the Chancellor. 

German States. I. Prussia. Wilhelm I, King, b. 1797, sue. i86i» 
Civil List, $3,079,820, besides vast private property. Constitution. — Exec- 
utive in King ; Legislative in King and Parliament, viz. : (1) Herrenhaus : royal 
princes, 16 chief of princely houses, 50 territorial nobles, life-peers,( unlimited) 
nominated by crown, burgomasters of large towns, heads of universities and 
chapters; (2) Abgeordnetenhaus : 432 deputies returned by electors (Wahl- 
manner) chosen by universal suffrage to represent electoral circles of 250 
souls (Uhlmanner.) Church. — Religious equality; royal family, United 
Evangelic. 65 per cent, of inhabitants are Protestant, 33 Roman Catholics. 
Education, — Elementary, compulsory. There are 10 universities attended 
by 9,610 students. Army. — Peace footing, 319,824; war footing, 700,000. 
Nearly half the population are engaged in agriculture. The mineral 
resources are very considerable. Area, 137,060 sq. m.: population, 24,689,252. 
Chief City, Berlin ; population about 920,000. 

II. Bavaria. — Ludwig II, King of Bavaria and Count Palatine of the 
Rhine, b. 1845, sue. 1864. Civil List, $1,378,865, besides large revenues from 
private domains. Constitution. — Executive vested in the King, assisted by 
a responsible ministry. The Legislative exercised jointly by King and Par- 
liament, the latter consisting of an Upper House Reichsrathe, composed of 
princes, prelates, nobles and an unlimited number of Crown life-nominees; 
and of a lower House, or Chamber of Representatives, 154 members, chosen 
indirectly by the people, through "Wahlmanner," as in Prussia. Church. — 
Religious equality ; more than seven-tenths of inhabitants are Roman Cath- 
olics. Education. — Compulsory and general. Bavaria has three Universi- 
ties, which were attended, in 1875, by 2,166 students. The soil is highly pro- 
ductive; many important manufactures are carried on; the hop-plant is most 
extensively cultivated, and the brewing of beer is brought to great perfection, 
262,000,000 gallons being produced annually. Area, 29,347 sq. m. ; populate** 
(1871), 4,863,450. Chief city, Munich (Munchen) ; population, 169,693. 



THE NATIONS OP THE WORLD. 1127 

III. Wurtemberg. — Karl I, King of Wurtemberg, b. 1823, sue. 1864. 
Civil List and royal allowances, $459,550. Constitution. — Executive in 
King and Privy Council ; Legislative in a Diet (Landtag) of two Chambers, 
namely, Upper Chamber (Standesherren) similar in formation to the Prus- 
sian Upper House: and the House of Deputies (Abgeordneten), consisting of 
13 noble deputies, 6 deputies from Protestant clergy, 3 from the Roman Cath- 
olic, the Chancellor of the University, and 71 deputies from towns and rural dis- 
tricts. Church. — (state) Evangelical Protestant ; religious equality. Protest- 
ants form 68 per cent., Roman Catholics 30 per cent, of the population. 
Education. — Compulsory ; not an individual in the State, over the age of ten, 
unable to read and write. There is one University, attended by about 800 
students. The country is rich in cultivated and pasture lands; minerals are 
abundant. The manufactures are chiefly of textile fabrics, leather, porcelain 
and iron goods, with many breweries and brandy distilleries. Area, 7,675 
sq. m.; population, 1,818,484. Chief city, Stuttgart; population, 91,623. 

IV. Saxony. — Albert I, King of Saxony, Field Marshal in German Army, 
b. 1828, sue. 1873. Civil List and appanages, $762,950. Constitution. — 
Executive in King and a Council of Ministers : Legislative jointly in King 
and a Parliament of two Chambers, namely, the Upper House, similar in 
formation to that of Prussia, and the Lower Chamber, made up of deputies 
from — landowners, 20; towns and cities, 25; rural districts, 25; commerce and 
manufactures, 10. Church. — Complete religious equality ; the royal family 
are Roman Catholics, but the vast majority of the inhabitants are Protestants. 
Education. — Compulsory ; education has reached the highest point in Sax- 
ony ; every child, without exception, partaking of its benefits. The University 
(Leipsig) is the second largest in Germany, and is attended by nearly 3,000 
students. More than half the soil is in a high state of cultivation ; the forests 
supply abundance of valuable timber; the minerals are another great source 
of wealth. Manufacturing industry has been greatly developed, employing 
three-fifths of the population ; manufactures, chiefly of linen, cotton, woolen 
and silk goods, muslins, laces, embroidery, pottery and porcelain, the "Dres- 
den China" having been long famous. Area, 6,777 sq. m. ; population, 2,556,- 
244. Chief city, Dresden; population, 177,089. 

The following are the remaining States of the German Confederation: 

Area. Eng. Population, 
sq. miles. Dec. 1, 1871, 

5. Baden 5> 8 5* 1,461,562 

6. Mecklenberg-Schwerin 4> 8 34 557> 8 97 

7. Hesse 2,866 852,894 

8. Oldenburg 2,417 316,614 

9. Brunswick i,5 26 3 IJ >7 6 4 

10. Saxe-Weimar i,4 2 * 286,183 

11. Mecklenburg-Strelitz 997 96,982 

12. Saxe-Meiningen 933 l8 7>957 

13. Anhalt 869 203,437 

14. Saxe-Coburg 816 I74>339 

15. Saxe-Altenburg 5 C 9 142,122 

16. Waldeck 466 56,224 

17. Lippe 445 "M35 

' 18. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 34° 75>5 2 3 

19. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 318 67,191 

20. Reuss-Schleiz ». 2 97 89,032 

21. Schaumburg- Lippe 2 i2 3 2 >°59 

22. Reuss-Greiz M 8 45,°94 

23. Hamburg H 8 33 8 >974 

24. Lubeck 127 52,158 



1128 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



Area. Eng. Population, 
eq. miles. Dec. 1, 1871. 

25. Bremen 106 122,402 

Reichsland of Alsace Lorraine 5>58o 1,549,587 

Imperial Navy and foreign stations 2,054 

Total 212,091 41,060,695 

The central seat of the Imperial Government is at Berlin, the capital of 
Prussia. 

Great Britain and Ireland (United Kingdom of). — Alexandrina 
Victoria, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and Empress of India, b. 1819, 
sue. 1837. Civil List, $1,925,000, with about $200,000 from the Duchy of Lan- 
caster. Annuities to members of the royal family, $710,000. Constitution, 
— The executive authority is vested nominally in the crown, but practically in 
a responsible ministry, called, the Cabinet, of which the First Lord of the 
Treasury is the Premier. The Cabinet is virtually appointed by parliament. 
its existence being dependent on possession of a majority of the House of 
Commons. The Cabinet, though an essential part of the institutions of Great 
Britain, is unknown to law ; the names of its members are never officially an- 
nounced. The supreme legislative power is given to parliament, which is 
composed of the Sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons 

I. The House of Lords consists of peers who hold their seats — 1st. Bj 
hereditary right; 2d. By creation of the sovereign; 3d. By office (English 
Bishops); 4th. By election for life (Irish Peers); 5th. By election for 
duration of Parliament (Scottish Peers). The present number on the 
roll is 492. The crown is unrestricted in its power of creating peers. 

II. The House of Commons consists of 652 representatives from 
cities, boroughs, counties and universities — namely, from England and Wales, 
487; from Scotland, 60; from Ireland, 105. These are chosen by secret vote 
and ballot of all male citizens of full age, possessed of a small property quali- 
fication, who are not under legal disability. The qualifications for member 
of parliament are to be a native of the United Kingdom, to have attained 2 1 
years, and not be under legal disability. The powers of parliament are 
politically omnipotent within the British dominions, and the House of Com- 
mons has exclusive control over taxation and supplies. The passage of bills 
requires the consent of both Houses and the sanction of the crown. Army. 
— Recruited by voluntary enlistment; strength (of all ranks): regular army, 
129,281; militia, 139,952; yeomanry cavalry, 15,130; volunteers, 161,150; en- 
rolled pensioners, 32,000 ; total, 456,315. Army estimates (1875-76) $73,388,500, 
Education in the army is compulsory. Navy. — Voluntary enlistment; vessels, 
61 ironclad steamers, of total indicated horse-power 236,000; 181 other steam- 
ers and sailing vessels; 60,000 sailors and marines. Navy estimates (1875-76) 
$53,923,220. Church. — All religions are tolerated and free. In England, the 
established Church is Protestant Episcopalian, which is professed by 12,700,- 
000 of the population, leaving about 11,000,000 to other creeds, of which about 
2,000,000 are Roman Catholics. In Scotland, the established Church is 
Presbyterian, from which there are numerous seceders, the largest bodies being 
the Free Church and the United Presbyterian Church. These thrree Presbyte- 
rian Churches almost divide the Scottish nation among them ; Episcopalians, 
about 65,000; Roman Catholics have largely increased of late years. In Ire- 
land there is no established church. In 1871 the Roman Catholics numbered 
4,141,933; Episcopalians, 683,295; Presbyterians, 558,238; Methodists, 41,815; 
Independents, Baptists, Quakers, about 4,000 each; Jews, 258; other denom- 
inations, 19,035. Education.— Primary education is, in England, compulsory ; 
no compulsory law exists in Ireland and Scotland, but ample means are 
afforded for public instruction. There are 4 universities in England, 4 in 
Scotland, and 3 in Ireland. The agricultural resources of the United King- 



THE NATIONS OP THE WORLD. 1129 

dom are very great, but its chief wealth depends on the richness of its 
minerals, especially iron, tin, copper, and coal, and its numerous manufactures. 
More than half the imports come from six countries — United States, France, 
India, Russia, Germany and Australasia ; and more than half the exports go to 
the United States, Germany, France, India, the Netherlands and Australasia. 
The six principal imports are cotton, corn, sugar, wool, wood and tea; the six 
chief exports, cotton fabrics, woolens, iron, linen, coals, and machinery. The 
British Isles lie between the 49th and 61st degrees N. lat, and 2d E. and nth 
•degrees W. long.; total area, 121,129 sq. m.; population, 31,628,328 — namely, 
England and Wales, 58,320 sq. m. ; population, 22,712,266; Scotland, 30,685 
sq. m.; population, 3,360,018; Ireland, 31,874 sq.m.; population, 5,411,416; 
Isle of Man and Channel Isles, 300 sq. m.; population, 164,638. The colonial 
possessions of Great Britain embrace over one-third of the surface of the 
globe and more than one-fourth of its population, comprising in Asia, Africa, 
America and Australasia about 8,500,000 sq. m. The European dependencies 
are Gibraltar, Heligoland and Malta. The central seat of government is at 
London; pop. 3,885,641. 

Greece. — Georgios I. King of the Hellenes (Wilhelm of Denmark), b. 
1845, elected 1863. Civil List, $200,890, to which the governments of Great 
Britain, France and Russia add $20,000 each. Constitution. — Executive in 
King and a responsible ministry; Legislative in a single Chamber of Deputies 
(Boule), elected by manhood suffrage by ballot for four years. Army and 
Navy. — Recruited by conscription; the army consisted (1875) °f I 4>°63 offi- 
cers«and men ; the navy, of 1 ironclad, 7 screw steamers, 6 sailing vessels, 
with 653 officers and men. Church. — (Established) Greek Orthodox; pres- 
ent King allowed, by exception, to adhere to Lutheran faith; complete religious 
toleration. Education. — Not compulsory : sufficient public school system. 
Greece is mainly an agricultural country, though cultivation is generally in a 
backward state. Chief exports, currants, lead, olive oil and silk ; imports, 
cotton fabrics. Greece is situated in lat. 36 8' — 39 53' N. and long. 19 20' 
— 26 10' E. Area, 19,353 sq. m.; population, 1,457,894. Capital, Athens; 
pop. 48,107. 

Italy. — Vittorio Emanuele II, King of Italy, b. 1820, sue. to Sardinian 
throne, 1849; procl. King of Italy, 1861. Civil List, $3,250,000; allowances 
to members of the royal family, $340,000. Constitution. — Executive vested 
in the King and a responsible ministry; Legislative in King and Parliament: 
(1) Senate, royal princes, and an unlimited number of life-members nominated 
by the crown ; (2) Camera de Deputati, returned through electoral bodies, by 
vote of all male citizens over 25 years of age, with a small tax qualification, 
at the rate of one deputy to every 40,000 souls. The duration of Parliament 
is five years. Army. — Universal military liability, as in Germany ; time of 
service (standing army), 3 in the infantry and 5 years in the cavalry, and 9 
years further in the army of reserve; strength (peace footing), 199,557; (war 
footing) 445,509, which may be increased to 750,000. Navy. — Vessels, 9 iron- 
clads; horse-power, 6,950; guns, 346; screw steamers, 46; horse-power, 12,256; 
guns, 693; paddle steamers, 32; horse-power, 6,810; sailing vessels, 8; guns, 
104; total, 95 ships, 1,256 guns; officers, seamen, etc., 14,760. Cpiurch. — The 
Roman Catholic is the state religion; perfect religious freedom to all creeds: 
99^ P er cent - of population are Roman Catholics. Education. — Great aids 
are being provided for instruction, yet education is still at a low ebb, 64.27 per 
cent, of inhabitants being without the rudiments of education. Italy possesses 
22 universities, attended by 11,000 students. The great majority of population 
is agricultural. Staple productions, silk, spirits, oils, chemicals, brimstone, 
hemp, wine and fruit ; imports, cottons, woolens, wrought and unwrought 
iron, corn and coals. Church of Rome. — Pio IX, b. 1792, el. 1846, 257th 
Pope: The Pope is elected by ballot of Cardinals, who must be present Two- 
thirds vote, at least, necessary. Pio IX was unanimously elected. By royal 



1130 



FOOTPKINTS OF THE AGES. 



decree. 1870, the Pope was constituted Supreme Head of the Church, pre- 
serving all his dignities and prerogatives as an absolute independent sovereign. 
Italy is situate between lat. 36 40' — 46 40' N., and long. 6° 30' — 18 30' 
E.; area, 112,677 sc l- m -» population, 26,796,253. Capital, Rome; pop. (1872) 
256,022. 

Netherlands. — Willem III, King of the Netherlands, b. 181 7, sue. 1849. 
Civil List, $250,000, besides very large private fortune. Constitution. — Ex- 
ecutive in King and responsible ministry ; Legislative in the "States-general": 
(1.) Upper House, 39 members returned by provincial states for six years 
from among the highest taxpayers ; (2) Lower House, deputies, one for every 
45,000 souls, elected for four years by ballot of all male citizens of full age, 
with a small tax qualification. The King has a full veto power, but this is 
seldom brought into practice. Army. — Recruited partly by conscription, 
partly by enlistment ; term of service, regular army, 5 years ; active militia, 
all men from 25 to 34 years of age ; resting militia, all men from 35 to 55 
years of age ; strength, regular, 60,000, active militia, 40,000, resting militia, 
71,000. Navy. — Recruited by enlistment; vessels, 17 ironclads; horse- 
power, 4,400; guns, 64; 37 screw and 11 paddle steamers; horse-power,. 
8,798; guns, 514. Church. — Entire liberty of conscience; royal family are 
of Reformed Church; 2,074,734 persons of Dutch Ref. Church, 1,313,052- 
Roman Catholcs, 68,000 Lutherans, and 68,000 Jews. Education 
is spreading, but has not yet reached the lower classes ; large provision has 
been of late made for public instruction. More than one-fourth of rural popu- 
lation are illiterate. There are 3 universities, attended by 1,350 students. 
Chief exports, butter, live stock, sugar and cheese; imports, cotton yarn, 
wrought and unwrought iron, and woolens. Holland possesses large colonies 
in the East and the West Indies and derives considerable revenue from the 
products, chiefly coffee, sugar and tin. The Netherlands are situate in lat. 50 
46' — 53 34' N., and long. 3 22' — 7 14' E., and comprise 11 provinces, in- 
cluding part of the Duchy of Limburg; area, 20,527 sq. m. ; population, 3,- 
674,402. Seat of government, The Hague; pop. 94,895; chief town, Amster- 
dam; pop. 281,905. 

Portugal. — Luis I, King of Portugal, b. 1838, sue. 1861. Civil List, $410,- 
000. Constitution. — Executive in King and a responsible ministry ; Legis- 
lative in the Cortes: (1) Camara dos Paros, unlimited in number, named for 
life by the crown ; (2) Camara dos Deputados, 99 members elected for four 
years by all citizens, with annual income of about $110. Laws relating ta 
army and taxation originate in the Deputies. Cortes meet and separate with- 
out intervention of the sovereign, nor has he veto on laws passed twice by 
both Houses. Army. — Recruited partly by enlistment, and partly by con- 
scription; term of service, 5 years in regular army, 3 years in militia; strength 
(peace footing), 30,128; (war" footing), 68,450, actual strength, 18,185. Navy. 
— Vessels, 24 steamers, H. P. 4,906 guns; 170, and 18 sailing ships. 
Church. — (State) — Roman Catholic; religious toleration. Education. — 
Compulsory, but the law is little enforced. There is one university, that oi 
Coimbra, which is attended by about 900 students. Chief export, wine; im- 
ports, cotton and woolen fabrics, wrought and unwrought iron. Portugal has 
numerous colonies in Asia and Africa, aggregating in area 713,225 sq. m., and 
a population of 3,872,959. The Azores and Madeira form an integral part of 
the kingdom. The kingdom of Portugal lies in 36 55'— 42 ° 8' N. lat. and 
6° 15' — 9 30' W. long.; area, 36,510 sq. m.; population, 4,367,882. Chief 
town, Lisbon ; pop. 284,000. 

Russia. — Alexander II, Emperor of Russia (Tsar), b. 1818, sue. 1855. 
Crown revenue, $10,000,000. Constitution. — An absolute, hereditary 
monarchy. The whole legislative, executive, and judicial power is united in, 
the Emperor. The right of succession is by primogeniture, with preference 
of male over female heirs. The sovereign, his consort, and heirs must belong 



THE NATIONS OF THE WOELD. 1131 

to the orthodox Greek church. The administration of the empire is entrusted 
to four great Boards, viz.: (i) Council of the Empire (Legislation, Civil Ad- 
ministration and Finance) ; (2) Directing Senate (High Court of Justice and 
Appeals, Auditors of Public Revenue and Expenditure); (3) Holy Synod 
(Religious Affairs) ; (4) Council of Ministers. These all centre in the Private 
Cabinet of the Emperor, in which lies the whole executive authority. The 
empire is divided into 14 vice-royalties, under governors representing the 
monarch. The Grand Duchy of Finland retains its national parliament of 
the four estates : annexed countries are in general allowed their own institu- 
tions. Army. — Recruited by conscription ; term of service, six years in active 
service, nine years in the reserve; strength (peace footing), 846,424; (war 
footing) 1,213,257. The Cossacks give military service in lieu of taxation; 
their available force amounts to about 130,000. Navy. — Recruited partly by 
conscription, partly by enlistment; term of service, 7 years in active service, 
2 in the reserve; vessels, 108 men-of-war (including 29 ironclads, 184 guns, 
H. P. 9,210); 1,477 officers and 7,217 seamen. Church. — The Greco-Russian, 
with the Emperor as Head, is the established religion ; Jews are not allowed 
to settle in Russia proper. All other religions tolerated. Greek Catholics 
(European Russia) 55,000,000, Roman Catholics 7,200,000, Protestants 2,500,- 
000, Jews, 2,600,000, Mohammedans 2,400,000. Education. — The mass of 
the population are illiterate. In Finland, education is almost universal. The 
rest of" the empire is divided into nine educational districts, each with a uni- 
versity. There are in all 23,623 places of education in the empire, these being 
attended in 1870 by 924,353 pupils. Population mainly agricultural. Serfdom 
was abolished in 1863. Chief exports, grain, flax, wood, hemp, tallow, furs, 
cordage, isinglass and tar; imports, iron (wrought and unwrought), coal, cot- 
ton and woolen stuffs, yarn. The empire of Russia comprises one-seventh of 
the territorial surface of the globe; area, 8,404,767 sq. m. ; population, 82,172,- 
022 ; it is situate between 38 — 77 30' N. lat., and 17 40' — 190 30' E. long. 
Capital, St. Petersburg ; pop. 670,000. 

Spain. — Alphonso XII, King of Spain, b. 1857, procl. king, 1874. Civil 
List, $600,000. Constitution. — The law resides in the king and the Cortes, 
which latter consists of a Senate and Congress equal in faculties. Article 20 
of the Constitution of 1875 treats of the Senate. Three classes of Senators 
are to compose it. 1st. Senators by their own right (royal princes, grandees 
of $12,000 a year, captains-general, admirals, the Patriarch of the Indies, 
archbishops, the presidents of the council of State, of the Supreme Tribunal, 
and of the Tribunal of Cuentas del Reino); 2d. 100 life Senators nominated 
by the crown (renewed by half every five years, by totality every time the 
king dissolves that part of the Senate); and 130 Senators elected by the cor- 
porations of State, and by the largest payers of contributions. The deputies 
are elected for five years at the rate of one member to every 50,000 inhabitants. 
The king and each of the legislative chambers take the initiative in the laws. 
The king is inviolable, but his ministry are responsible, and all his decrees 
must be countersigned by one of tbem. Army. — Universal military obliga- 
tion, after the model of the French army ; term of service, four years ; reserve, 
four years; actual strength, 151,668; nominal strength, 180,000. Navy. — Re- 
cruited by conscription ; vessels, 63 screw steamers (including 7 ironclads), 686 
guns; 18 paddle steamers, 106 guns; 18 sailing vessels, 122 guns; 399 officers, 
15,250 seamen and marines. Church. — The national Church of Spain is 
Roman Catholic, and the whole population of the kingdom, with the excep- 
tion of 60,000 persons, adhere to that faith. Education. — Until recently the 
mass of the population were completely illiterate, but since the government 
has taken that department under its own direction, a great improvement has 
arisen; in 1868, the private and public schools were attended by 1,251,653 
pupils; middle-class instruction was given by 757 professors to 13,881 pupils; 
and in receipt of first-class education were 6,181 students. The chief exports 






1132 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



are wine, fruit, lead, iron ore, esparto grass, and olive oil ; the imports, linens, 
and linen yarn, iron (wrought and unwrought) and coals. The colonial 
possessions of Spain in America (Cuba and Porto Rico), in Asia (Philippine, 
Caroline and Marian Islands) and in Africa (Fernado de Po and Annspon) 
amount in area to 115,773 sq. m., and in population to 6,419,339. Cuba, the 
principal colonial possession of Spain, has a population of 1,500,000, and is 
divided into three provinces, the S. E. and central being the richest and most 
populous, containing 22 cities and towns and 204 villages. Spain extends 
from 36 to 43 45' N. lat, and from 3°2i' E. to 9 20' W. long.; it is 
divided into 49 provinces, including the Canary and Balearic Islands ; area, 
182,758 sq. m.; population, 16,835,506. Spain is the only European nation 
which still permits the existence of slavery in its colonies. Capital, Madrid ; 
pop. (1871) 332,024. 

Sweden and Norway. — Oscar II, King of Sweden and Norway, b. 1829, 
sue. 1872. Civil List, $586,165. Constitution. — The two kingdoms have 
separate parliaments, armies and navies. Executive is vested in the King and 
responsible ministries; Legislative in the parliaments, viz.: The Swedish 
Diet, which consists of two chambers. (1) The First Chamber, deputies, one 
for every 30,000 souls, elected for nine years by provincial representations 
(landstings) ; (2) The Second Chamber, members^ one for every 10,000 of the 
urban, and one for every 40,000 of the rural population, elected for three years 
by ballot of all male citizens, over 21 years, with a certain property qualifica- 
tion. In the Norwegian legislative assembly (Storthing), members are re- 
turned for three years by electoral deputies chosen at the rate of one to every 
fifty urban, and one to every hundred rural voters, by vote of all citizens of 
full age with a small property qualification. Army. — (Sweden) Four distinct 
classes, namely, enlisted troops, national militia, militia of Gothland, and con- 
scription troops; total strength, 132,755. There are besides about 21,000 vol- 
unteers. (Norway.) Recruited partly by enlistment, partly by conscription; 
term of service, 7 years in the line and the reserve, and 3 years in the Land- 
vsern, or militia; strength, line, 13,000; reserve, 19,000; Landvsern, 11,000. 
Navy. — (Sweden), 14 ironclads, H. P. 1,013; and 117 steamers and sailing ves- 
sels; total guns, 394; 216 officers; seamen, &c, 4,693. (Norway,) 20 steamers; 
including 4 ironclads; H. P., 2,780; guns, 149; seamen, &c, 2,051. Church. — 
The State religion is Lutheran, which is professed by the great majority of the 
inhabitants ; other creeds are tolerated, but only members of the Lutheran 
church are admitted to office. Education. — Compulsory and gratuitous. In 
Sweden (1871) there were about 8,000 teachers in primary schools, and 97 per 
cent, of the children between 8 and 15 years were in regular attendance. In 
Norway, also, education is equally advanced. Both countries are especially 
agricultural. Mining, in particular iron, is one of the most important of 
Swedish industries. The principal exports are wood and timber, oats and iron ; 
imports, cotton manufactures, wrought iron and coals. Sweden and Norway 
are situate between lat. 55 22' — 71 12' N., and long. 4 50' — 31 E.; area 
(Sweden), 171,750 sq.m.; population, 4,297,972 : area (Norway), 122,280 sq. 
m. ; population, 1,780,000. Capital (Sweden) Stockholm ; pop. 147,249 ; (Nor- 
way), Christiania; pop. 75,000. 

Switzerland. — President, M. Scherer. The Swiss Republic is a united con- 
federacy. Constitution. — Supreme legislative and executive authority is 
vested in the two chambers, viz. : (1) State Council, two members from each 
of the 22 cantons; (2) National Council, by direct election, one deputy for 
every 2o,ooo souls. Every citizen over 20 years has a vote, and, if not a clergy 
man, is elligible for election. Both chambers united form the Federal Assem- 
bly ; the supreme government and the chief executive power is deputed to 
seven members (Federal Council) chosen by the assembly for three years. 
The president of the Federal Council is the first magistrate of the republic, 
Army. — The laws of the republic forbid the maintenance of a standing army, 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 1133 

but to provide for the defense of the country every citizen has to bear arms, 
in the management of which the children are instructed at school. The troops 
are divided into 3 classes, viz. : (1) The federal army, consisting of all men 
able to bear arms, from the age of 20 to 30; (2) The reserve, all men from the 
age of 31 to 40; (3) The Landwehr, all men from the age of 41 to 44; total 
strength, 201,257. Church. — Complete religious equality; Protestants, 1,- 
566,347; Roman Catholics, 1,084,369; other denominations, 18,431. Educa- 
tion. — Compulsory and widely diffused. There are three Universities,, 
attended in 1874 by 739 students. The soil of the country is very equally 
divided among the population. Switzerland is in the main an agricultural 
country, though with a strong tendency to manufacturing industry, especially 
in silk and cotton goods, embroidery, watches and jewelry. It is situated be- 
tween 45 ° 50' — 47 48' N. lat., and 5 58' — io° 30' E. long.: area, 15,233 sq. 
m. ; population, 2,669,147. Capital, Berne; pop. 36,000. 

Turkey. — Ottoman Empire). — Abdul Hamid, Sultan of Turkey, b. 1842, 
sue. 1876, on the deposition of his brother, Sultan Murad V. Civil List about 
$8,000,000; the court expenses of the late Sultan, Abdul- Aziz, have been esti- 
mated on good authority to have amounted to $22,500,000. Constitution.— 
Fundamental laws are based on the Koran. The Sultan's will is absolute, unless 
when in opposition to the accepted doctrine of the Mohammedan religion. Legis- 
lative and executive authority is exercised, under direction of the Sultan, by 
two high dignitaries appointed by him, viz. ; (1) The Grand Vizier (Sadrazam), 
the head of the temporal government, and (2) the Sheik-ul-Islam, head of the 
Church. All children born in the imperial harem, whether of free women or 
slaves, are legitimate and equal, but the Sultan is not succeeded by his eldest 
son, unless where there are no uncles or cousins of greater age. The whole 
of the empire is divided into Vilayets or governments, each under a Vali, or 
general governor, representing the Sultan. Army. — Recruited by conscrip- 
tion from the Mussulman population, and also by enlistment; NomMussul- 
mans pay a military exemption tax; term of service, 6 years in active army, 
6 years in reserve, and 8 years in "sedentary" army ; total force, 460,000. 
Navy. — Recruited in like manner as the army ; term of service, 8 years ; ves- 
sels, 20 ironclads, H. P., 10,450, guns 169, and 70 other steamers. Church. 
— State religion is Mohammedan; the religious division of the population, ex- 
clusive of Egypt, is estimated at Mussulmans, 17,300,000, Greeks and Arme- 
nians, 11,000,000, Catholics, 900,000, other persuasions 450,000. Education. 
( — In 1869 a law of public instruction, providing for five classes of public 
schools, primary, superior primary, preparatory schools, lyceums, and special, 
schools, was issued by the government, but there has been no attempt up to 
1874 to execute the law. The Empire comprehends all the countries under 
the authority of the Sultan — Turkey in Europe, Turkey in Asia, Turkey in 
Africa (Tripoli), Tributary Provinces in Europe (Roumania, Montenegro, and 
Servia), in Africa (Egyptian territory and Tunis) comprising in all 1,812,048 
sq. m., with a population of 35,350,060. The principal exports of Turkey are 
corn, goat's hair, valonia, and opium ; the imports, cotton and woolen goods, 
wrought and unwrought iron. The soil is for the most part fertile, but little 
progress has been made with agriculture. European Tributary States. I. 
Roumania (Moldo-Wallachian Provinces). Karl I, Prince of Roumania, b. 
1839, el. 1866. Constitution. — Executive is vested in the reigning prince; 
the legislative in a senate, (76 members,) and a Chamber of Deputies, (157 
members, both chosen by indirect election. Army. — Recruited by conscrip- 
tion; divided into four classes, namely, the permanent army and its reserves; 
the territorial army and its reserves; the militia; and the national guard; 
strength, 17,306 regular, and 35,751 irregular forces. Navy.— 2 steamers and: 
6 gunboats, with 400 men. Chief exports, grain, rock-salt and cattle ; imports, 
manufactured goods of western Europe. Area, 45,642 sq. m. Population,. 
4,605,510, nearly all of whom profess the Greek Catholic faith. Capital, Bu- 



1134 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



charest; pop. 221,150. II. Servia. — Milan Obrenovic IV, Prince of Servia, 
b. 1855, suc - I 868. Constitution. — Executive is vested in the Prince, as- 
sisted by a responsible ministry; legislative, in the Senate, (17 members nom- 
inated by the Prince,) and the "Skoupschina," or House of Representatives, 
chosen by the people at the rate of one deputy to every 2,000 electors. The' 
finances are in a well-regulated condition, and" there is no public debt. Army. 
— Regular, consists of 4,000 men, besides a militia of 70,000. The chief trade 
of Servia is with Austria, the main article of export being live animals, par- 
ticularly pigs. The soil is fertile, but little of it is under tillage. Area, 12,- 
600 sq. m.; population, 1,098,281. Capital, Belgrade; pop. 14,600. III. 
Montenegro. — Nicholas I, Prince of Montenegro, b. 1841, procl. i860. The 
surface of the country forms a series of lofty mountain ridges, covered gener- 
ally with forests. Agriculture is the principal occupation. Area, 1,710 sq. 
m.; population, about 120,000. Capital, Cetigne. 

Andorra. — A small Republic in the Pyrenees ; A. Queradra, 1st Syndic; 
area, 190 sq. m.; population, 20,000. Capital, Andorra. 

Monaco. — Charles III, prince of Monaco. Monaco is situated in the N. 
W. of Italy, near Nice. Area, 6 sq. m.; population, 3,127. Capital, Sa^ 
Carlo. 



AFRICA, 

Egypt. — Ismail Pasha, Khedive, b. 1830, suc. 1863. Nominally a pashalik 
of the Turkish Empire, Egypt is virtually an independent power. A firman 
of the Sultan in 1873 granted the Khedive rights raising him to the rank of 
absolute sovereign. The tribute to the Sultan is $3,525,000. The succession 
is direct from father to son. Administration is carried on by a Council of 
State of four military and four civil dignitaries appointed by the Khedive. 
The army is raised by conscription, and consists of 26,000 men. The navy, 
also manned by conscription, comprised, in 1875, 7 ships of the line, 6 frigates, 
9 corvettes, 7 brigs and 18 gunboats. The principal product for exportation 
is cotton. Egypt has no metals. The large commerce arising out of the 
transit trade has of late years greatly declined, owing to the opening of the 
Suez Canal. The manufactures are chiefly confined to the potteries. The 
imports are mainly articles of British manufacture, especially cotton goods. 
The Suez Canal, which was opened for navigation in 1869, connects the 
Mediterranean with the Red Sea, extending a distance of 92 miles, from Port 
Said to Suez. Vessels 430 ft. in length, and drawing 25 ft. 9 in. of water, 
have passed safely through the canal. In 1874, 1264 vessels (tonnage, 2,423,. 
672), passed through ; of these two-thirds sailed under the British flag. The 
actual cost of the Canal was $87,503,645. The territories under the rule of 
the sovereign of Egypt are estimated at about 1,406,250 sq. m., with a popula- 
tion of 16,952,000. Egypt proper is situate between 24 10' — 31 35 ' N. lat. and 
25 E. long.; area, 212,600 sq. m.; population, 5,250,000. Capital, Cairo; pop. 
350,000. 

Liberia. — President, Joseph Jenkins Roberts, re-el. 1874. Constitution. 
Executive in president elected for two years, Legislative in Senate (8) elected 
for four years, and House of Representatives (1 3) for two years. Liberia, 
founded in 1822, was declared independent in 1847. Chief exports, palm oil, 
coffee, sugar, camphor, and indigo ; imports, cotton goods, arms, ammunition. 
Liberia occupies that portion of North Guinea between lat 4 45 ' — 7 35 ' N- 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 1135 

and long. 6° 40' — 12 20' W., a distance of 500 miles, with an average breadth 
of 50 miles. Population, 625,000. Capital, Monrovia; pop. 11,000. 

Morocco. — Muley Hassan, Sultan, b. 183 1, sue. 1873. The government 
is an absolute despotism, unrestricted by laws civil or religious. The sultan 
has no regular advisers. Morocco is divided into 28 provinces, each ruled by 
a Kaid or governor, liable to instant dismissal or death at the Sultan's will. 
The bulk of the population is deeply imbued with fanaticism and sunk in 
ignorance. Trade is small, but increasing. Exports, maize, oil, wool, hides, 
and esparto ; imports, cotton, linen and muslin goods, coffee, sugar, and hard- 
ware. The majority of the population are Mohammedans ; Jews are numer- 
ous, especially in the cities. The army consists of about 15,000 men, and a 
sort of militia amounting to 180,000 men. The navy no longer exists. Mo- 
rocco is situate between 27 — 36 N. lat, and i° E. — n° 40' W. long.; area,, 
about 219,000 sq. m.; population, (probably) 2,750,000. Capitals: Fez, pop 
88,000; Morocco, pop. 70,000; Mequinez, pop. 56,000. 

Other Independent States. 

Abyssinia. — Johannes I, King; area, 175,000 sq. m ; population, 4,000,000; 
capital, Magdala. 

Ashantee. — Koffi, King; population, about 1,000,000; inhabitants especial- 
ly skillful in the manufacture of cottons, earthenware, and excellent sword- 
blades ; area, not with certainty denned ; capital, Coomassie. 

Dahomey. — Adahoonzon II, King; area, about 36,000 sq, m.; population, 
300,000; capital, Abomey. 

Madagascar. — Kanovalomanjaka II, Queen; area, 228,570 sq. m.; popu- 
lation, about 3,000,000; capital, Tananarive 

Orange Free State. — J. H. Brandy LL.D., President; area, 42,470 sq. 
m.; population, about 50,000; capital, Bloemfontein. 

South African Republic (Transvaal). — Hon. Thos. Burgers, President; 
area, 114,363 sq. m.; population, 300,000; capital, Pretoria. 

Zanzibar. — Sayyid Barghash bin Sa'eed, Sultan; area, (Zanzibar proper) 
630 sq. m.; population about 200,000; capital, Zanzibar; population, 80,000' 
The Sultan has also a large territory on the mainland coast. 

British Dependencies. — Cape Colony; area, 201,000 sq. m.; population, 
692,000; Capital, Capetown. Natal; area, 11,172 sq. m.; population, 301,247; 
capital, Pietermaritzburg. West African Settlements ; (Sierra Leone, Gam- 
bia, Gold Coast, and Lagos). Grigualand West. Mauritius. St. Helena. 
Ascension. 

French. — Algeria; area, 669,015 square kilometers, of which 12,343 are 
under the civil government; population, 2,500,000; capital, Algiers. Senegal 
Settlements. Gold Coast and Gaboon. Reunion. St. Marie. Mayotte and 
Nossi Be. 

PoRTUGUESE.-^Cape Verde Islands. Settlements in Senegambia and Gui- 
nea. St. Thomas and Principe. Angola- Benguela and Mossamedes. Mo- 
zambique and Sofala. 

China. — Tsaitien, Emperor, b. 1871, sue. 1875. Prince Kung, uncle to the 
•Emperor, acts as Regent Constitution. — The fundamental laws of the 
empire are laid down in the Ta-tsing-hwei-tien, or " Collected Regulations of 
the Great Pure Dynasty." The emperor is spiritual as well as temporal sove- 
reign. The administration is under the supreme direction of the " Interior 
Council Chamber." consisting of two Tartar and two Chinese members, with 
two assistants from the Han-lin or Great College. Under their orders are the 
Li-poo, or six boards of government, each presided over by a Tartar and a 
Chinese. Independent of the government is the Board of public censors, one 
of whom must be present at the meetings of the Li-poo. Church. — (State) 
— The Confucian. The army, divided into two classes, the first composed of 
Tartars, the second of Chinese, is said to number 850,000 men. The effective 



1136 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



navy consists of about 20 steam gunboats. Chief exports, tea and raw silk, 
imports, cotton and woolen goods. China proper is included in 18 15' — 43* 
15 ' N. lat., and 98 — 102 40' E. long., comprising an area of about 1,500,000 sq 
m., and a population stated to be over 400,000,000. Capital, Peking ; popula- 
tion, 1,000,000 to 1,500,000. 

Japan. — Mutso Hito, Mikado, b. 1852, sue. 1867. Constitution. — The 
Mikado is absolute ruler in temporal as well as spiritual matters. He acts 
through an executive ministry of eight departments, with two advisory 
bodies, the " Sain," or Senate, and the " Shoin," or Council of State. The work 
of government is carried on by the Great Council, divided into centre, rig' * 
and left. The imperial army numbers about 80,000. Education is very 
general. Commerce exists mainly with Great Britain and the United Staies. 
Chief exports, raw silk, tea, lacquered ware, tobacco, rice, wax ; imports, cot- 
ton and woolen goods, and wrought and unwrought iron. The several islands 
comprising the Empire of Japan lie between 31 — 45 30' N. lat., and 128 
40' — 149 E. long. Area, 156,000 sq. m.; pop. 33,300,675. Capitals: Tokio, 
pop. 800,000; Yedo, pop. 780,000. 

Persia. — Nasr-ed-Din, Shah, b. 1829, sue. 1848. Constitution. — The 
Shah is absolute in so far as not opposed to the precepts of the Koran. The 
whole revenues are at his disposal. The executive government is carried on 
by a ministry of seven departments, with the grand vizier (army and foreign 
affairs), and the lord treasurer (home affairs and revenue) at their head. The 
vast majority of the population are Mohammedans. Education is in a com- 
paratively advanced state. The army, about 105,000, is organized by quotas 
from different districts. The most important manufacture is that of silks. 
Exports, raw silk, cotton, tobacco, opium, wool, furs, etc. ; imports, cottons 
woollens, cutlery, tea, jewelry, etc. Persia, called by the natives Iran, lies be- 
tween 25 10' — 39 50' N. lat, and 44 15' — 63 E. long,; area, 648,000 sq 
m. ; population about 5,000,000. Capital, Teheran ; pop. 85,000. 

Siam. — Phrabat Somdetja Phra Paraminthara, First King, b. 1823, sue. 
186S; Kroma Pharatscha Chau, Second King (son of First King), b. 1842, 
sue. 1868. The government is feudal; general legislative and executive 
power is in the two Kings, the First being real sovereign. No standing army ; 
every male inhabitant from 21 years of age liable to service; a numerous fleet 
of junks and galleys. Thai, or "The Free," is the native name for Siam. The 
principal manufactures are gold-embossed silver vases, gold-beating, and pot- 
tery. Exports, rice, teak, indian oak ; imports, machinery. Siam is situate 
between 4 — 21 30' N. lat, and 97 30' — 107 E. long.; area, estimated at 
about 300,000 sq. m.; population. 11,800,000. Capital, Bangkok; pop. 255,000^ 

Afghanistan, Shere Ali, Shah ; area, 300,000 sq. m. ; population, 7,000,- 
000. Capital, Candahar. Anam (Cochin China), Tu Due, King; area, 6oo r - 
000 sq. m. ; population, 13,500,000. Capital, Ketcho. Beloochistan, Mir Nasa^ 
Khan ; area, 160,000 sq. m. : population, 2,000,000. Capital, Kelat. Bokhara,. 
Mozaffar, Khan ; area. 235,000 sq. m. ; population, 2,000,000. Capital, Bokha- 
ra. Borneo, Abdul Mumein, Sultan; area, 290,000 sq. m.; population about 
1,750,000. Rather more than two-thirds of the island is included in the Dutch 
East Indian possessions. Burmah, Mendoonmen, King ; area, 200,000 sq. m. ■ 
population, 8,000,000- Capital, Monchoboo. Muscat (Oman), Seyyid Toorkee 
bin Said, Imaum; area, 176,000 sq. m.; population, 1,500,000. Capital, Mus- 
cat Sarawak, Charles Johnson Brooke, Rajah ; a district on the West coast 
of Borneo ceded by the Sultan to Sir James Brooke, uncle to the present 
rajah ; population about 200,000. Capital, Kuching. Thibet, the Dalai Lama 
and the Teshu Lama, Rulers ; area, 700,000 sq. m. ; population, 6,000,000. 
Capital, Lassa, which is also the sacred capital of all Buddhistic nations. 

British Empire in India. — Executive authority is vested in a governor- 
general, appointed by the Crown, and acting under orders of the Secretary ofr 



THE NATIONS OF THE WOELD. 1137 

State for India. Gov.-Gen., Rt. Hon. Edward Robert Bulwer-L/ytton, Baron 
Lytton, appointed 1876. The government in India is exercised by the council 
of the governor-general, consisting of five ordinary members and the com- 
mander-in-chief. For administrative purposes British India proper is divided 
into 9 provinces, viz. : the Governorships of Madras and Bombay, and the 
Lieutenant-governorships of Bengal, North-western Provinces, the Punjab, 
Oudh, the Central Provinces, British Burmah, and Assam. The land tax 
forms two-fifths of the public revenue; next in importance is the opium 
monopoly. The royal troops amount to 66,000; Indian forces, 152,000. Area, 
950,919 sq. miles; population, 191,307,070. Under control of the Indian gov- 
ernment are also several native states to the extent of 646,147 sq. miles, with 
population of 46,250,000. The British-born population (exclusive of the army) 
amounts to about 64,000. Chief exports, cotton, rice, indigo, tea; imports, 
cotton goods and iron. Seat of central government, Calcutta; pop. 447,600. 

British Colonies. — Ceylon, area, 24,700 sq. m.; population, 2,500,000. 
Capital, Colombo. Aden. Hong Kong. Labuan. Perim. Straits Settlements. 

Dutch Possessions. — Java (including Madura); area, 51,336 sq. m.; popu- 
lation, 17,855,840; numerous other settlements in the East Indian Archi- 
pelago. 

French Possessions consist of settlements in India and Cochin-China to 
the extent of 57,000 sq. miles, and population 1,206,000. 

Portuguese settlements at Goa, Salcete, Macao, etc., comprise a popula- 
tion of about 1,500,000. 

Spanish Possessions. — Philippine Islands, Caroline Islands, Marian 
Islands ; population, 4,400,000. 

Australasia. — British Colonies. 

I. New South Wales; area, 323,437 sq, m.; population, 504,000. Staple 
product, wool. Capital, Sydney; pop. 154,494. 

II. Queensland: area, 678,600 sq. m. ; population, 163,000. Staple product, 
wool. Capital, Brisbane; pop. 24,000. 

III. South Australia; area, 760,000 sq. m.; population, 192,500. Staple 
products, wool, corn, copper. Capital, Adelaide; pop. 85,000. 

IV. Victoria; area, 88,198 sq. m. ; population, 797,049. Staple products, 
wool and gold. Capital, Melbourne; pop. 191,254. 

V. Western Australia; area, 978,000 sq. miles; population, 24,700. Staple 
products, wool, jarrah timber, and lead ore. Capital, Perth; pop. 5,400. 

VI. New Zealand; area, 102,000 sq. m. ; pop. (European) 256,000; (native) 
39,000. Staple products, wool and gold. Capital, Wellington; pop. 8,000. 

VII. Tasmania; area^ 26,215 sc l- m -; population, 99,500. Staple product, 
wool. Capital, Hobart Town ; pop. 22,000. 

The executive in each of these colonies is in the hands of a governor, ap- 
pointed by the crown. Western Australia has a legislative council, composed 
of six appointed and twelve elected members; the others have, each, a parlia- 
ment of two chambers: the legislative council nominated by the crown, the 
assembly elected by the people, except in south Australia, Tasmania and Vic- 
toria, where the councils are also elected. 

Polynesia. — Sandwich Islands. David Kalakaua, King;b. 1836; elected, 
1874. The chief imports are manufactured goods; the exports, whale oil, 
sugar, coffee, rice, and hides. Area, 6,500 sq. miles; population, 73,000. 
Capital, Honolulu; pop. 14,850. Navigators' and Friendly (Samoan) Islands. 
Governed by hereditary chiefs. Combined area, 1,562 sq. m.; population, 
58,000. Chief town, Apia. Society Islands, Komare, Queen; area, 213 sq. 
m. ; population, 4,000. Capital, Papieta. 

British Possessions. — Fiji Islands. 

French. — New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, Marquesas Islands ; (protected) 
Tahiti, Tonamatou Island, Gamb.er, Touliouai and Vavitou. 
72 



1138 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



RAILWAYS OF THE WORLD. 



States and Tebbitobial Divisions. 



Year. 



Length, of 

railways open 

for traffic. 



One mile of rail- 
way to square 
miles of area. 



Belgium 

Great Britain and Ireland. 

Netherlands 

Germany 

Switzerland , 

France 

A ustria-Hungary 

Denmark 

Italy. 



Jan. 1. 

1877 



United States of America. 

Spain 

Portugal 

Sweden and Norway 

Britisn India 

Chili 

Russia .- 

Uruguay 

Argentine Confederation.. 

Costa Rica 

Honduras 

Peru 



Dominion of Canada 

Turkey in Europe and Asia 

Egypt 

Paraguay 

Australasia 

Mexico 

Brazil 

Colombia 

Length of railways in the world,197,617 miles. 



English miles 
2,208 
17,092 

18,471 

1,341 

14,708 

10,946 

819 

4,849 

79,208 

4,712 

709 

2,900 

6,937 

977 

13,229 

231 

1,466 

29 

56 

1.744 

4,929 

1,246 

1,163 

47 

2,665 

403 

J ,324 

42 



Eng'sh sq. milea 

5 

7 
11 
13 
14 
16 
22 
25 
27 
40 



114 
146 
160 
174 
312 
510 
620 
748 
832 



876 
991 
1,279 
2,068 
3,057 
4,140 
9,100 



TELEGRAPHS OF THE WORLD. 



States and TekritobiaIi Divisions. 




Length of 
Telegraph Lines 



One mile of 

Telegraph Line 

to square miles o! 

area. 



Great Britain and Ireland. 

Belgium 

Switzerland 

France 

Italy 

Austria-Hungary 

Netherlands 

Germany 

Denmark ,. 

Greece 

Portugal 

Spain 

Sweden and Norway . 

United States of America. 

British India — 

Chili 

Uruguay 

Tursey 

Costa Rica 

Argentine Confederation 

Australasia 

Egypt 

Mexico 

Guatemala 

Dominion of Canada 

Russia 

Colombia 

Peru 

Brazil 



Jan 1. 

1877 



English miles. 
25,206 

3,160 

4,015 
33,895 
45,557 
28,148 

2,166 
24,103 

1,591 
992 

2,190 

7,510 
10.921 
94,714 
15,705 

2,650 

1,300 

17,618 

220 

5,339 
22,039 

3,980 

0,760 

1 226 
10,995 
57,338 

1227 
608 

3 510 



English sq. mile* 

2 

4 

5 

7 

9 

9 

10 

11 

12 

17 

18 

24 

32 

36 

60 

61 

77 

105 

118 

123 

160 

163 

178 

272 

316 

330 

534 

825 

970 



THE NATIONS OF THE WOULD. 1139 

PRINCIPAL ARMIES AND NAVIES OF THE WORLD. 



Countries. 



Austira-Hungary 

Belgium 

Denmark 

France 

Germany 

Great Britain and Ireland 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Portugal 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden and Norway 

Switzerland 

Turkey 

Brazil 

Chili 

Peru 

United States 



Armies. 



Peace 
Footing. 



278,470 

40,000 

36,000 

43 >703 

4 J 9,739 

129,281 

189,541 

90,174 

18,185 

765,872 

175,775 

149,000 

16,055 

3,516 

13,200 

25,000 



War 
Footing. 



838,700 
100,000 

50,000 
583,128 
1,304,541 
473,ooo 
335,870 
161,174 

68,500 
1,214,000 
151,668 
196,450 
202,000 
460,000 

32,000 



Ironclad Steamers. 



No. of 

Vessels. 



6 

63 
11 
61 
9 
17 

29 

7 
18 

20 

17 

2 

6 

27 



Total Indicated. 
Horse power. 



8,150 

2,355 

29,250 

32,300 

246,143 

6,950 

4,400 

9,210 

4,800 
1,613 

10,450 

2,660 

5,000 

Not stated. 

26,895 tonnage. 



THE MERCANTILE NAVIES OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES. 



States. 



Great Britain and Ireland 

United States 

Germany 

Dominion of Canada. . . . 

Norway 

France 

Italy 

N etherlands 

Greece 

Austria-Hungary. 

Spain 

Sweden , 

Russia 

Denmark 

Portugal 

Chili 

Turkey 

Belgium 

Mexico 



Year. 



1874 
1874 
1874 
1874 
1874 
i873 
1874 
1874 
i873 
1874 
1872 

i873 
1874 
1875 
1872 

1875 
1873 
1874 
i873 



Total 

Number of 
Vessels 



Total 

Tonnage of 
Shipping 



Number. 

25,497 

3^923 

4,495 

6,930 

7,447 

14,750 

17,665 

1,827 

6,142 

7,203 

4,326 

1,865 

2,512 



2,C 



813 
7 8 

277 

58 

36l 



Tons. 
5,978,831 
4,595,884 
1,033,725 
1,158,363 
1,220,000 
1,064,379 

949,8i3 
511,982 
420,210 
332,005 

359,765 

366,370 

521,008 

212,600 

88,510 

19,164 

43,36o 

3i,792 

29,500 



Average 

Tonnage pr 

Vessel. 



Tons. 
235 
147 
230 
167 
164 
72 

2 4 
280 

68 

* 

196 
207 

75 
109 
246 

5 t 



1140 



FOOTPKIXTS OF THE AGES. 



ESTIMATED NUMBER OF ALL CREEDS. 



Buddhists . . 
Christians. . 
Moham'dRs 



Number. 



405,600,000 
399,200,000 
204,200,000 



Proportion 

to Total 

No per ct. 



31-2 

15-8 



Brahmanists.. . 
Nondesc't H'th' 
Jews 



Number. 



174,200,000 

TT 1,000,000 
5,000,000 



Proportion 

to Total 

No. per ct. 



I3H 
8-3 
o-6 



RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS AMONGST ENGLISH- 
SPEAKING COMMUNITIES. 

Episcopalians 17,250,000 

Methodists of all descriptions 13,250,000 

Roman Catholics 10,000,000 

Presbyterians of all desc'pt'ns .0 10,000,000 

Baptists of all descriptions 8,600,000 

Congregationalists 7,000,000 

Unitarians 1,000,000 

Minor religious sects 1,500,000 

Of no religion in particular 6,900,000 

English-speaking populat'n 75,500,000 



Area of United States in 1800. .sq. m 827,844 

" " " 1876.. " 3> 6o 3 844 

Population of United States, in i8co 5,308,483 

" " (estimated). 1876 42,856,000 

Under Cultivation — 1876. 

(Grain, potatoes, &c.,) 66,282,863 acres 

(Tobacco,) 356,762 acres; (hay,) 10,002,000 " 

Cotton crop in 1876 3,100,000 bales 



REVENUES AND EXPENDITURES.— 1879. 



REVENUES. 

Customs ., $ 1 37,2 50,047 70 

Internal Revenue 113,561,610 58 

Public Lands 924,781 06 

Miscellaneous Sources 20,585,697 49 

$272,322,136 83 

EXPENDITURES. 

Civil List $576,4/8 53 

Navy Department 15,125,126 84 

War " 40,425,6(0 73 

Pensions _ 35,121,482 30 

Indians 5,206,109 08 

Miscellaneous 1, 142,95 7 08 

Interest J 05,327,949 °° 

$202,925,763 65 

We pay tax on spirits 56,284,887 49 

We pay tax on fermented liquors 9, 562,420 1 2 

We pay tax on tobacco 29,726,338 87 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 1141 

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS' OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Year ending June 30. Exports. Imports. 

1862 $16,869,466 $205,771,729 

1863 __ 26,123,584 252,919,920 

1864 20,256,940 329,562,895 

1865 32,114,157 248,555,652 

1866 14,742,117 445,512,158 

1867 20,611,508 417,833,575 

1868 22,601,126 371,624,808 

^69 25,173,414 437,314.255 

1870 30,427,159 462,377,5«7 

1871 28,459,899 541,493,708 

1872 22,769,749 640,338,766 

1873 28,149,511 663,617,147 

1874 23,780,338 595,861,248 

i875 -- 22,433,624 553,906,153 

1876 21,270,035 476,677,871 

1877 25,832,495 492,097,54° 

1878.. 20,832,638 466,872,846 

1879 19,541,057 466,073,77$ 



PRINCIPAL WARS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

LENGTH. COST. 

War of the Revolution 7 years, 1775-1782 $ 1 35>i98,703 

War with Great Britain 3 years, 1812-1812 107,159,003 

vVar with Mexico 2 years, 1846- 1848 66,000,000 

War of the Rebellion 4 years, 1 861-1865 3,000,000,000 



CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. 

U. S. Centennial Commission, Joseph R. Hawley, President. 

Centennial Board of Finance, John Welsh, President. 

Estimated cost of buildings, &c, $8,500,000. 

Estimated number of visitors, from the opening, May 10th to November 
10th, 10,000,000; probable number, about 8,000,000. 

Number of exhibitors, 60,000. 

The Centennial buildings were erected on ground belonging to West Fair- 
mount Park, Philadelphia. The five principal buildings were : 

The main Exhibition Building, 1,880 by 464 ft. Area, 20.02 acres. 

Machinery Hall, 1,402 by 360 ft, with an annex. 208 by 210 ft. Area cov- 
ered, 12.82 acres. 

Horticultural Hall, 383 by 193 ft. Area, 1.5 acres. 

Agricultural Hall, ground plan a parallelogram, 820 by 540 ft. Area, 10 
acres. 

Memorial Hall (Art Gallery), 365 by 210 ft. Area, 1.5 acres. The Art Gal- 
lery, a substantial and beautiful structure, will be preserved as a memorial of 
the Centennial. 

NEWSPAPER STATISTICS. 

At the present day it would seem that the United States publish more 
newspapers than all the other nations in the world. Their growth has been 
••apid even in proportion to the increase of population. In 1776 we find we 
*vad but 37 papers — all weeklies. By the American Newspaper Directory fiof 



1142 



FOOTPRINTS OP THE AGES. 



the year 1876, there appear to be now published in the United States and Ter- 
ritories, 738 daily, 70 tri-weekly, 121 semi- weekly, 6,235 weekly, 33 bi-weekly, 
105 semi-monthly, 747 monthly, 13 bi-monthly, and 67 quarterly publication^ 
making a total of 8,129 °f a ^ kinds. These figures show that whilst, 100 years 
ago, we printed one newspaper for every 30,000 souls, we now print one foi 
every 5,000. 



STATISTICS OF THE LIQUOR TRAFFIC. 

The extent of the liquor traffic, its magnitude and its effects, can be appre* 
ciated by understanding something of the statistics. As yet we can only ap- 
proximate in many cases. 

The following are from the best authorities, and are under rather than over 
the actual facts. Many of them are official figures : 

There were 69,572,062 gallons of spirits distilled in the United States in 
1874, anc * at least 100,000,000 in 1875. The production of beer in 1876 was 
279,746,044 gallons, or 7 ]^ gallons for each person. The imported wines, 
about 10,700 gallons for each year. This would give for ten years, at present 
prices, about as follows : 

Cost of spirituous liquor $6,300,128,100 

Cost of beer 3,145,064,912 

Cost of wines 418,754,650 

$9,863,947,662 
This would make in one hundred years a sum equal to the present real and 

personal property of the nation. 

There are about 393,405,201 bushels of grain used in manufacturing liquor 

every ten years, valued at $/ 0,954,842. The present consumption of grain 

in this nation a year is nearly 50,000,000. 

It is estimated that about $230,000,000 is invested in buildings, machinery^ 

land, and labor to supply the demands of the liquor traffic. 



INTERNAL REVENUE STATISTICS. 

The following table is the official statement of the United States Internal 
Revenue Department of revenue received on distilled spirits, fermented liq- 
uors, and tobacco for the fiscal years ended June 30, 1875 and 1876: 

SOURCES OF REVENUE. 

FISCAL YEAR FISCAL YEAR 
SPIRITS. 1875. 1876. 

Brandy distilled from apples, peaches, or 

grapes $1,265,86676 $592,16659 

Spirits distilled from materials other than ap- 
ples, peaches, or grapes 45,612,071 34 5°>798,3 2 3 8 4 

Wine made in imitation of champagne, etc. . 18 00 

Rectifiers' special tax 2 49>59* 1 1 252,241 96 

Dealers, retail liquor 4,086,393 77 3)99 x >945 °6 

Dealers, wholesale liquor 534,855 00 5°4>° 2 9 93 

Manufacturers of stills, and stills and worms 

manufactured 4>7 2 7 92 3,683 35 

Stamps for distilled spirits intended for export 78260 1,80510 

Stamps, warehouse, rectifiers', and dealers'. .. 312,356 80 282,169 30 

Other sources, formerly taxed, but now exempt I5,3 2 7 82 

Total $52,081,991 12 $56,426,365 13 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 1143 
TOBACCO. 

Cigars, cheroots, and cigarettes $10,205,827 53 $11,105,272 45 

Manufacturers of cigars 150,72892 153,07526 

Snuff. 1,067,03303 1,061,46764 

Tobacco of all descriptions 24,133,726 58 25,694,312 56 

Stamps for tobacco or snuff intended for export 6,981 10 6,694 3° 

Dealers in leaf tobacco 85,582 51 109,650 45 

Retail dealers in leaf tobacco 6,942 49 3,3 12 51 

Dealers in manufactured tobacco 1,596,167 61 1,616,318 85 

Manufacturers of tobacco 9,822, 20 10,169 39 

Peddlers of tobacco 40,627 91 35,066 50 

Other sources, formerly taxed,but now exempt 22 00 

Total $37>303>4 6 i 88 $39,795,339 91 

FERMENTED LIQUORS. 

Fermented liquors, tax of $1 per barrel on. . . $9,743,744 62 $9,159,075 95 

Brewers' special tax 226,423 44 222,553 68 

Dealers in malt liquors 173,836 35 189,051 03 

Total $9,144,004 41 $9,571,280 66 

One Company of Chicago distillers, in 1877, paid to the government a tax 

on whisky of $8,640 per day, or about two and a half million dollars a year. 



THE COST OF LIQUOR, 

Dr. Young, Chief of the Statistical Bureau of the United States, estimated 
sales of liquor, 1871, to be $600,000,000, nearly one-sixth of the entire value 
of all the manufactures, and $9,059,539 more than all food and food prepara- 
tions. 

Dr. Hargreaves gives total quantity and cost of intoxicating liquors from 
i860 to 1872 inclusive, 6,780,161,805. Total war expenses of the United States 
and loyal States, 1861 to 1866, 6,165,237,000, being less than the drink-bill for 
thirteen years. This is the direct cost. What is the indirect cost of drink ? 

Careful estimates show 505,260 persons engaged in liquor-selling, and 40,- 
364 making liquors. This labor is a direct and total loss to the nation. 

Services of same at $500 per year $272,812,000 

600,000 drunkards lose half their time each year 150,000,000 

90,000,000 bushels of grain, worth 40 cents per bushel 36,000,000 

458,812,000 

The premature deaths caused by alcohol, as estimated by Dr. Hitchcock, 
President of Michigan State Board of Health, amount annually to 1,127,000 
years. Counting each year to be worth $500, it amounts to $563,500,000. 
The same authority estimates constantly sick from the use of alcohol, 98,000; 
services, at $500 per year, worth $49,000,000. Number made insane through 
alcohol annually, 9,339 ; at a loss of 98,259 years of effective life, $500 per year, 
worth $49,129,500. Number of idiots from same cause, an annual loss 01 
319,908 years of effective life, $500 per year, worth $159,954,000. Making, 
on the above basis, an annual loss to the wealth of the nation of $1,280,395,- 
000, to say nothing of the cost of taking care of these afflicted people. In loss 
of value of labor alone, $16,611,497 more than the entire income of the labor 
of the United States, as reported by the census of 1870. 



1144 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Stating the account on the above basis, it stands : 
United States, 

IN ACCOUNT WITH INTOXICANTS. DR. 

To loss on labor from use of liquor $1,244,395,000 

" " in grain wasted 36,000,000 

$1,280,395,000 
CR. 

Receipts of Internal Revenue for 1875 $61,225,995 53 

Receipts of 500,000 licenses to retail granted under State laws 

at $100 each 50,000,000 00 

Annual loss to the nation 1,169,169,004 47 

$1,280,395,000 00 



RUM AND RELIGION. 

Dr. Hargr eaves, gives official figures from revenue reports and census 
returns, showing that the United States spent the enormous sum of $735,- 
720,048 in 1872 for intoxicating liquors. 

In the same year there were 72,450 religious organizations in the United 
States, with a membership of 11,452,534, and 83,637 ministers. All the con- 
tributions for benevolent purposes amounted to $47,636,495. That is, while 
we pay one dollar to support benevolent and religious enterprises, we pay 
fifteen dollars for spirituous and fermented liquors. 

LIQUOR-TRAFFIC IN THE TERRITORIES. 

There are eight Territories. They are Arizona, Dakota, Idaho, Montana, 
New Mexico, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. Arizona in 1875, at the 
close of the last fiscal year, had 6 brewers manufacturing fermented liquors, 
167 retail and 20 wholesale liquor- dealers, who paid into the national treasu- 
ry an aggregate of $6,812. (Colorado as a Territory had 27 brewers, 879 re- 
tail and 39 wholesale liquor-dealers, who paid $50,143.) Dakota had 7 brew- 
ers, 179 retail and 6 wholesale liquor-dealers, who paid $7,095. Idaho had 9 
brewers, 273 retail and 12 wholesale liquor-dealers, who paid $8,994. Mon- 
tana had 25 brewers, 404 retail and 33 wholesale liquor-dealers, who paid 
$14,025. New Mexico had 9 brewers, 494 retail and 33 wholesale liquor- 
dealers, who paid $15,846. Utah had 18 brewers, 435 retail and 18 whole- 
sale liquor-dealers, who paid $14,053. Washington Territory had 14 brew- 
ers, 219 retail and 9 wholesale liquor-dealers, who paid $8,100. Wyoming 
had 9 brewers, 204 retail and 12 wholesale liquor-dealers, who paid $6,646. 

THE DRINK BILL OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

The following exhibit was prepared by William Hoyle, Esq., the distin- 
guished English statistician. The expenditure is given for each of the five 
years ending 1861 and 1875: 

1857. — £92.319,147 1871. — £118,906,066 

1858. — 88,148,335 1872. — 131,601,402 

1859-— 9 2 ^92,557 1873.— 140,014,712 

i860— 86,897,633 1874.— 141,342,997 

1861.— 94,942,107 1875. — 142,876,669 

455,199,829 -674 471,846 

Showing an increased expenditure during the latter period as comparec 
with the former of £219,272,017. 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. II45 

WHITHER WE EXPORT OUR BREADSTUFFS. 

It will be interesting to the public generally, and especially to Western 
farmers, to learn the destination of our exported breadstuff's. We employ the 
figures of fiscal year ending June 30, 1876, to illustrate the character and 
extent of the foreign demand. The total exports were as follows : 

Barley, 317,781 bu $210,586 

Bread and biscuit, 12,066,469 lbs 633,580 

Corn, 49,493,572 bu 33,265,280 

Corn meal, 354,240 brls 1,305,027 

Oats, 1,466,228 bu 588.583 

Rye, 543,841 bu 480,083 

Rye flour, 7,553 brls 39>°54 

Wheat, 55,073,122 bu 68,382,899 

Wheat flour, 3,935,512 brls 24,433,470 

Other breadstuff's 1,843,993 

Of barley, England took 170,832 bushels, or more than half; British 
Australasia 68,547, and Peru. 35,000. The demand is limited to a few 
countries. 

Our largest customer for bread and biscuit is found in the British West 
Indies, which took 6,547,614 pounds, or over half. British Guiana received 
"the next largest quantity, or 1,541,340 pounds. We sent 429,077 pounds to 
Porto Rico ; 328,961 to British Possessions in Africa ; 279,449 to Venezuela, 
and 122,144 to Mexico. Nearly all the exports are limited to the American 
continents and the adjacent islands. 

As corn is one of our great staples, and finds a constantly augmenting de- 
mand abroad, we give the exports in detail : 

Countries. Bushels. Values. 

To Brazil 45.103 $31484 

To Denmark 111,831 72,023 

To France 246,629 147.277 

To French West Indies 35.321 28,714 

To Germany 741,176 502,109 

To England 18,980,005 12,957,776 

To Scotland 2,416,390 1,762,385 

To Ireland 21,055,845 14,073,782 

To Gibralter 55-047 45,500 

To Nova Scotia 123,932 92,99° 

To Quebec, Ontario, etc 3,902,506 2,256,465 

To British West Indies 237,642 195.59° 

To British Guiana 34,45© 27,435 

To Mexico 93.487 75,495 

To Netherlands - ; 22,504 16,718 

To Dutch West Indies 27,979 22,646 

To Portugal 666,345 469.129 

To Azores 20,947 16,970 

To Spain . 42,552 30.383 

To Cuba 539.264 368,902 

To Sweden and Norway 18,030 11,275 

To Venezuela 46,377 36,344 

Other countries ' SQ.^o 23,432 

Total : • • 49.493,572 $33,265,280 

Corn meal goes to twelve designated countries, and in small quantities to 
some others. The bulk of the export is taken by Nova Scotia, 139,544 bar- 
rels, and by the British West Indies, 126,132 bairels. To the Danish West 
Indies goes the next highest quantity, 27,311 barrels. 



1 146 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



Oats were sent to ten principal countries, over three-fifths of all going to 
Quebec, Ontario, etc., which took 1,011,821 bushels ; 171,018 bushels went to 

the British West Indies, 150,083 to France, 47,309 to Cuba, and 18,442 to 
England. 

Rye found a market in Belgium for 25,891 bushels ; in Germany, for 
464,860 ; in Quebec and Ontario, 32,585 ; in Sweden and Norway, for 19,505, 
and in other countries for 1,000 bushels. 

Rye flour, was taken as follows: Danish West Indies, 3,891 barrels; 
Dutch West Indies, 2,437 J Cuba, 295 ; Venezuela, 550 ; and other countries, 
380 barrels. 

Wheat and wheat flour, as representing the most extensive and valuable 
among our exports of breadstufis, we give in detail, as follows : 

EXPORTS OP WHEAT. 

Countries. Bushels. Values. 

To Belgium 2,190,287 $2,860,259, 

France 521,041 682,477 

French West Indies 20,327 28,988 

Germany 516,156 615,651 

England 25,417.310 31,777.79° 

Scotland 3,345,417 4,099,267 

Ireland 13,493,925 16,838,061 

Gibralter 233,919 288,880 

Quebec, Ont. etc 5,520,304 6,297,422 

British Columbia 8,274 8,530 

British West Indies 4,256 6,635 

Netherlands 2,380,260 2,948,607 

Portugal 1,412,988 1,919,521 

Azores..' , 5,365 7,110 

Other countries 3,298 4>495 

Total 55,073,122 $68,382,899 

EXPORTS OF WHEAT FLOUR. 

Countries. Barrels. Values. 

To Argentine Republic 3,550 $23,746 

Belgium 22,806 117,776 

♦Brazil , 536,180 3,871,189 

Central American States . 57,125 349,639 

Chili 2,384 11,605 

China 4,757 3»,99 6 

♦Danish West Indies 39,677 247,206 

♦French West Indies 80,662 523,471 

Miguelon, etc t 9,409 62,567 

French Possessions, all other. . . ..... 7,684 43,185 

^Germany .., 14,113 85,055; 

♦England 914,579 5,267,022 

♦Scotland 392,213 2,495,224 

♦Ireland 28,393 155,164 

Gibralter 1,270 7,520 

♦Nova Scotia 195,074 1,285,637 

♦Quebec, Ontario, etc , 159,991 939,496 

♦British Columbia ... . 28,723 142,396 

Newfoundland 154,453 829,502 

♦British West Indies 444,155 2,665,101 

♦British Guiana 91,648 546,149- 

♦HongKong. 133,197 701,765 

•British Possessions in Africa * 3,373 26,099. 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 1147 

•Hayti... 161,987 1,105,620 

Japan 9,181 56,244 

Liberia 2,789 20,315 

♦Mexico ~ 15,048 108,952 

♦Dutch West Indies 33.169 217,278 

Peru 11,329 64,578 

Portugal 12,885 83,480 

Azores 5.644 38,037 

San Domingo 24,286 178,232 

Sandwich Islands 11,076 63,381 

*Cuba 91,050 559,410 

♦Porto Rico 46,510 303,953 

Spanish Possessions in Africa 1,912 13,356 

Spanish Possessions, all other 10,400 59,000 

♦United States of Columbia 44,275 282,529 

Uruguay 17,160 126,240 

♦Venezuela 107,818 702,555 

♦Other countries. 3,577 22,820 

Totals 3.935.5 12 $24,433,470 

As is seen, our customer countries which take flour are very much more 
numerous than those which take wheat, though the export value and quantity 
of the latter are vastly greater than the former. It will surprise many of our 
readers to learn that Brazil, next after England, is the best customer for our 
flour, without taking any of our wheat. 

Other small grain and preparations of breadstuffs, as maizena, farina, and 
the like, are taken by the British Possessions in Australasia, in addition to all 
the countries marked with an asterisk in the table of wheat flour exports. 
Nearly half, or to the value of $721,506, goes to England. Scotland takes 
$224,676 Jworth ; Cuba, $341,884; and British West Indies, $162,449. A11 
the rest is taken by the other countries in yarious much smaller values. 

Without going into details, it may gratify curiosity to show how small, 
comparatively, were our exports of breadstuffs during fiscal year 1857, twenty 
years ago. Here are the figures : 

Bread and biscuit $563,266 

Corn, bu 7,505,3*8 5,184,666 

Corn meal, brls 267,504 597.791 

Rye, oats, etc 680,108 

Rye flour, brls , 27,023 115,828 

Wheat, bu 14,570,331 22,240,857 

Wheat flour, brls 3,712,053 25,882,316 

Then we exported no barley, maizena, farina, and the like. Flour whether 
representing quantity of wheat or aggregate value, exceeded the exports of 
wheat. Now this condition is reversed. We do not export nearly so much 
flour per capita now as we did then, but the exports of grain have grown to 
vast proportions. 

INTERNAL COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. 

IN the first annual report on the internal commerce of the United States, 
by Joseph Nimmo, Jr., Chief of Division of Internal Commerce, Bureau of 
Statistics, the remark is made that the railroads of the country are the most 
important avenues of internal commerce. During the year 1876 83 per 
cent, of all the grain receipts of the Atlantic sea-ports was by rail, and it is 
estimated that over 90 per cent, of all the commerce between the West and 



1 148 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



the seaboard is now carried on over the great trunk railways. The relative 
importance of internal and of foreign commerce may be inferred from the fol- 
lowing comparative statements : 
Estimated value of shipping (American and foreign) employed 

in our foreign trade , $ 200,000,000 

Estimated value of the railways of the United States 4,600,000,000 

The value of the commodities embraced in our foreign commerce, and the 
estimated value of commodities transported on railroads, are as follows : 

Value of imports and exports (foreign commerce) $ 1,121,634,277 

Estimated value of commodities transported on rail (internal 

commerce) 18,000,000,000 

From these figures it is estimated by Mr. Nimmo that the value of the rail- 
roads is about twenty-three times the value of the shipping engaged in our 
foreign trade, and that the value of our internal commerce on railroads is 
about sixteen times the value of our foreign commerce. 

In France, out of a population of 36,000,000 only 2,000,000 people live on 
the revenue of accumulated wealth, while 34,000,000 of the entire population 
live on the produce of labor. Of these 18,000,000 arc exclusively engaged in 
agriculture. 

In America we have 6,000,000 farmers, 1,200,000 trades people, 2,700,000 
mechanics, 2,600,000 professional men. 43,000 clergymen, 40,000 lawyers, 
128,822 teachers, 62,000 doctors, 2,000 actors, 6,200 journalists, 1,000,000 la- 
borers, and 975,000 domestic servants. 

DON'T KILL THE BIRDS. 

In the course of a recent lecture in Paris regarding the use of birds, an es- 
timate was formed of the damage to crops by the robbery of a nest containing 
five eggs. During the first month each young bird eats an average of about 
fifty-eight flies or other insects in a day. The aggregate, multiplied by thirty, 
for the month makes 7,500 insects to every nest. Every insect eats daily from 
blossoms and leaves, an amount equalling its weight till it reaches maturity. 
It was calculated that in thirty days each insect would damage thirty blos- 
soms, and thereby destroy thirty fruits, and that 7,500 insects would kill 
225,000 fruits. It will be well, therefore, for farmers' sons to reflect upon the 
damage done to their parents by the wanton robbery of a single nest. 

WARS OF THIS CENTURY. 

The wars of this century have been the most bloody and costly since the 
palmy days of Rome and Greece. For its ten great bloody peiiods, viz : the 
Napoleonic, Grecian, Crimean, Italian, Danish, Austrian (1866), Brazilian, 
American, Abyssinian, and Franco-Prussian wars — leaving out minor expe- 
ditions and skirmishes — the figures foot up $38,967,600,000 expended, and 
11,708,600 men destroyed from 1800 to 187 1. Two-thirds of this aggregate 
outlay of men and money are to be charged on the ledger to Napoleon I., up 
to his closing battle fought at Waterloo. 



BOOKS AND BOOK-MAKING. 

Solomon wrote, " of making many books there is no end, and much study 
is a weariness to the flesh." What would be his comments on book-making 
in this age? Among the great achievements of this enlightened century we 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. II49 

must class the art of book-making as among the foremost, and most import- 
ant in its results. What our progenitors enjoyed under privation, and as 
luxuries, we receive for the simple asking as common comforts, scarcely 
thankful to the toilers of the dead ages who have brought to our libraries the 
wealth oi thought in the " wonder world " of books. The term " book " under 
the old English law comprised all parchments and rolls of manuscript. The 
word book is from the Saxon boc, or buch, as " the Saxons usually wrote upon 
bechen boards." The Latins used the word liber, the inner bark of a tree, 
which was used for the same purpose. The Romans got the word libraria, 
and the English library, from the same source. They usually printed on long 
strips, and wound upon rollers, and the Latins called them voluminse, from 
whence comes the English volume. During the middle ages the plan of rolls 
was dispensed with, and leaves sewed together substituted. The skins of 
goats, skeep, and deer furnished a parchment, upon which the writing was 
made, inclosed in boards, and completed the book. The art of paper-making 
was known as early as the ninth century, yet it was slow in taking the place 
of parchment in book-making. The book-making during all the earlier cen- 
turies was exclusively in the hands of the scribes, and the monks in the mon- 
asteries. In the solitude of their cells, under the strictest surveillance, letter 
by letter they copied the scriptorium and the volumes of history, and to them 
the world to day owes a great debt of gratitude it can never repay. We are 
astonished at how much they accomplished, not only in the sacred word, but 
in books of romance, history, poetry, legends, and the classics. To the monks 
and nuns of the early centuries belongs the honor of not only supplying the 
monasteries with books, but the libraries, and men of learning were supplied 
from the same source. During that period a library of five hundred volumes 
was a wonder. Those having twenty or thirty books boasted of their great 
facilities. Going into the library the huge book could be found, chained and 
padlocked to the table, the most precious property owned. A most noted 
monk, Alcuin, occupied himself twenty-two years in transcribing a copy of the 
sacred Scriptures for the Emperor Charlemagne; this interesting relic is now 
in the British Museum, and is valued at ^750. Even so late as 1471, Louis 
XL was compelled by the Faculty of Medicine at Paris to give a large secur- 
ity and an indorser before he was loaned a celebrated work of the Arabian 
physician Rhazes. King Alfred gave 960 acres of land for one book. The 
Countess of Anjou traded 200 sheep for a single volume. It is a wonderfu 
fact that even after the art of printing was discovered books were continued 
to be written with the pen, as if loth to give up the ancient custom with its 
exclusive honors. 

China and Japan, earlier than any other nations, printed books cheaply, but 
they have made but little progress in the art for generations past. England, 
Germany, France, and the United States are the literary fields from which to- 
day books come so rapidly that no mind can begin to grasp their wisdom 
except in specialties. In the year 1876 England published 2,920 new books. 
The average German publication annually is about 12,000. In the United 
States we vary from two to three thousand per annum. In 1820, which was 
about the period when the book trade sprung into active existence in this 
country, we published books to the estimated value of $2,500,000, In 1850 
it was $12,500,000. In 1871, over $40,000,000, and since that year a large 
increase. If a man or woman undertakes to comprehend current literature 
they will be impressed with the fact that Solomon's words, taken in the light 
of prophecy, are true of this age, and " Of making many books there is no 
end, and much study is a weariness to the flesh." The student who would 
read wisely must keep pace with the literary critic, and reject the common- 
place and poor, and cull assidiously if he would gather the golden grain from 
the chaff and straw. In the multitude of books every taste can be satisfied, 
whether it be poetic, scientific, historic, biographic, or romantic, and it can be 



1150 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



said, to the honor and credit of the civilization, never has the literature been 
so pure, so broad in culture, and so enthused with the grand precepts of love 
to God and humanity as now. With the grand lessons and wisdom of all the 
past, condensed and robed in beauty as in our modern books, so cheap as to 
come to the cottage as it does to the palace, we should make large strides for- 
ward, and accomplish still grander results in the work of human advance- 
ment. 



MEMORABLE FLOODS AND EARTHQUAKES IN 
HISTORY. 

In 1877, in Bengal, a number of islands lying about the estuary of the 
River Megna, which, in part of its course, is identical with the Brahmapoo- 
tra, were entirely submerged by a storm-wave, and nearly all their inhabitants 
were destroyed. As the wave swept onward for five or six miles inland, and 
as one island alone — Dakin Shahabazapore — had a population of 240,000 
souls, probably not less than 250,000 human beings were overwhelmed in tbe 
ca.tastrophe. With the exception of the great earthquake at Antioch, in 450 
A D., in which, according to Gibbon, 250,000 people perished, history affords 
nothing like so wholesale a destruction as this. The only other convulsion of 
nature which can be compared to these is the great earthquake of 1783. in 
Calabria, which probably caused the death of at least 100,000 people, and was 
felt distinctly in a large part of Europe. Originating under the center of 
Calabria the disturbance passed under the sea, and rolled up a mountain of 
water, which destroyed the city of Messina. On the morning of November 1, 
1755, an earthquake threw down the principal part of Lisbon ; the sea 
retired, leaving the bar dry, and then returned in a wave fifty feet high ; in 
six minutes 60,000 people perished. The battle of Actium was fought thirty- 
one years before the Christian era, while the ground rolled and rocked under 
the feet of the soldiers on land as they watched the sea-fight in which they 
could take no part. This convulsion of nature destroyed about 10,000 people. 
In 1812 10,000 persons perished in a similar manner at Caraccas. Of 
memorable inundations the following are noted down : In the early part of 
the fifteenth century the sea broke in at Dort, Holland, and drowned seventy- 
two villages and over 100,000 people, and about a hundred years afterwards a 
general inundation, caused by the failure of the dykes in Holland, is said to 
have destroyed 400,000,. It is not too much to say that within historic times 
recorded calamities by flood and earthquake have killed between 2,000,000 
and 3,000,000 people. Of all that have occurred in recent years, the flood in 
Bengal is by far the most disastrous. 



AZTEC SOCIETY. 

Three hundred years ago the heart of American civilization lay in a high 
valley, Anahuac, meaning "the region of waters," or "the lake country," 
whe re now the republic of Mexico has its capital. Less than sixty miles long 
and forty wide, it is somewhat comparable to the valley of Salt Lake in Utah, 
from the southern end of that sheet of water. Like that valley, it is sur- 
rounded by noble mountains, snow-capped. This seems a small area to be 
the home of several fiercely contending nations, but such it was in fact. 
There are misty accounts of a civilization there, and to the southward, from 
the sixth to the fourteenth century of our era, which was in some respects 
at least of higher grade than that of which we shall presently speak. But 
some cause swept that away, and the authentic part of American history 
begins in 1325, when the Aztecs, hard pressed by warlike neighbors, estab- 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. TI5I 

lished themselves on the swampy shores and on some iow islands in the lake 
In the midst of this swamp they built their first hut — a temple — and around 
it rose within three centuries a veritable Venice, though lacking a Venetian 
development of art. In Cortez's time it was said to contain sixty thousand 
houses and three hundred thousand people. Around the lake were fifty other 
towns, one of which is said to have been larger than Mexico. Aqueducts 
brought water from the hills of Chapultepec, fountains played in the squares, 
gardens and menageries gave the city lounging-places, and canals, threaded 
by thousands of canoes, contributed to its life. Palaces and temples literally 
rose on every hand, and though the architecture was not imposing, the extent 
of the former was such that the harem contained three thousand inmates, and 
one of the halls was large enough to receive an equal number of men. 

The means by which the Aztecs rose so rapidly from the position of a half 
fugative people to that of a dominant race' is not well understood, though a 
line of ambitious kings and the restless activity of the people must explain it. 
Their position in the midst of a lake made their capital secure, but otherwise 
they seem to have been on about the same footing as their neighbors. All 
were restless and warlike, all practiced cannibalism, and all sought the favor 
of their bloody gods with equal persistence. The most that can be said is 
that the tribes of the Mexican valley fought among themselves ; that in most 
fights some one is victorious, and that in Anahuac the Aztecs were the 
conquerors. 



BOOKS OF THE BIBLE. 

If children will commit these lines to memory, and repeat them occasion- 
ally, it will enable them during all their lives to keep in mind the order of 
the Books of the Bible. It is difficult to keep the order without some help 
of this kind : 

OLD TESTAMENT. 

The great Jehovah speaks to us 
In Genesis and Exodus ; 
Leviticus and Numbers see 
. Followed by Deuteronomy. 
Joshua and Judges sway the land, 
Ruth gleans a sheaf with trembling hand } 
Samuel and numerous Kings appear, 
Whose Chronicles we wondering hear j 
Ezra and Nehemiah now 
Esther the beateuous mourner show ; 
Job speaks in sighs, David in Psalms 
The Proverbs teach to scatter alms 
Ecclesiastes then come on, 
And the sweet Song of Solomon. 
Isaiah, Jeremiah then 
With Lamentations takes his pen. 
Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea's lyres 
Swell Joel, Amos. Obadiah's. 
Next Jonah, Micah, Nahum, come, 
And lofty Habakkuk finds room. 
While Zephaniah, Haggai calls, 
Rapt Zechariah builds his walls ; 
And Malachi, with garments rent, 
Concludes the ancient Testament. 



115a 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



NEW TESTAMENT. 

We love the Books of Matthew, 

Of Mark, and Luke, and John; 
The life of God our Savior 

Is what they dwell upon. 
The Acts and then the Romans j 

Two Corinthians you see ; 
Galatians, and Epheisans, 

Bring Christ to you and me. 
Phillippians and Colossians, 

Are next in order here ; 
Thessalonians, and Timothy, 

In twain they both appear ; 
Then Titus, and Philemon, 

And Hebrews, rich in truth, 
With James and two of Peter, 

Instruct all age and youth. 
John writes to little children, 

And gives epistles three ; 
While Jude discourses plainly 

Of what we all should be ; 
The last is Revelation, 

To all the nations sent ; 
And thus we have completed 
The whole New Testament. 



HABITS OF A MAN OF BUSINESS. 

A sacred regard to the principles of justice forms the basis of every 
transaction, and regulates the conduct of the upright man of business. 

He is strict in keeping his engagements. 

Does nothing carelessly or in a hurry. 

Employs nobody to do what he can easily do himself. 

Keeps everything in its proper place. 

Leaves nothing undone that ought to be done, and which circumstances 
permit him to do. 

Keeps his designs and business from the view of others. 

Is prompt and decisive in his dealings, and does not overtrade his capital. 

Prefers short credits to long ones, and cash to credit at all times, either in. 
buying or selling ; and small profits in cases with little risk, to the chance of 
better gains with more hazard. 

He is clear and explicit in all his bargains. 

Leaves nothing of consequence to memory which he can and ought to 
commit to writing. 

Keeps copies of his important letters, and has all letters, invoices, and busi- 
ness documents put away in an orderly manner, so that on any occasion 
they may be easily referred to. 

Is always at the head of his business, well knowing if he leaves it, it will 
leave him. 

Holds as a maxim that he whose credit is suspected is not one to be 
trusted. 

Is constantly examining his books, and sees through all his affairs as far as 
care and attention will enable him. 

Balances regularly at stated times, and then makes out and transmits all 
his accounts-current to his customers, both at home and abroad. 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 1153 

Avoid as much as possible all sorts of accommodation in money matters, and 
lawsuits where there is the least hazard. 

He is economical in his expenditure, always living within his income. 

Keeps a memorandum book in his pocket, in which he notes every particular 
relative to appointments, addresses, and petty cash matters. 

Is cautious how he becomes security for any person, and is generous when 
urged by motives of humanity. 

Let a man act strictly to these habits ; when once begun, they will be easy 
to continue in, and success will attend his efforts. 

Take pleasure in your business, and it will become your recreation. 

Hope for the best, think for the worst, and manfully bear whatever 
happens. 



HISTORY OF RECONSTRUCTION. 

One obvious effect of the Rebellion of 1861 was v the derangement of the 
normal relation of the southern states engaged in it, to the general govern- 
ment. The seceded states had been declared to be insurrectionary, and, of 
course, not entitled to representation ; but, as the war was waged on the part 
of the government, a practicable method of reconstruction claimed the atten- 
tion of the authorities at an early date. 

On the 8th of December, 1863, the President issued a proclamation of am- 
nesty to all persons participating in the rebellion, with the exception of those 
who held civil or diplomatic positions under the Confederate government ; all 
who had left seats in Congress or judicial stations to aid in the rebellion ; and 
all military or naval officers of the Confederacy, above the rank of colonel in 
the army or a lieutenant in the navy; granting them full pardon on condition 
that they would subscribe to an oath to henceforth faithfully support and de- 
fend the constitution of the United States and the union of the states thereun- 
der, and in like manner abide by all acts of Congress in reference to slaves, 
and" all proclamations of the President made during the war, with the same 
reference. This was the first practical movement toward reconstruction, but 
no immediate result followed the proclamation. Indeed, the military power . 
at the south would not permit a return to allegiance on the part of any of 
her people, so that until the union armies took possession of the territory of 
her seceded states, any recognition of the federal authority was impossible. 

During the year 1864, the work of reconstruction made no apparent prog- 
ress. In November of that year the presidential election was held, and Abra- 
ham Lincoln was chosen President for a second term. Soon after his inaug- 
uration the army under General Grant commenced active operations, which 
culminated in the surrender of General Lee, with the forces under his com- 
mand, on the 10th of April. The various Confederate forces surrendered 
shortly afterwards, and the war was brought to a final close. On the 14th of 
April, 1865, the president was assassinated, and Andrew Johnson, vice-presi- 
dent, became his successor. Hostilities having ceased, the new president 
promptly directed his attention to the restoration of the normal condition of 
affairs. August 29th he issued a final proclamation, removing all restrictions 
of every kind, from the ports of the insurrectionary states, and restoring the 
commercial intercourse between them and the other states to the freedom 
which existed before the war. May 29th, 1865, he issued his proclamation 
stating the terms by which the people of the southern states could be restored 
to their civil rights as citizens of the United States, thus : • 

Whereas, The president of the United States, on the 8th day of Decem- 
ber, A. D. eighteen hundred and sixty-three, and on the 26th day of March, 
A. D. eighteen hundred and sixty-four, did, with the object of suppressing the 
73 



U54 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



existing rebellion, to induce all persons to return to their loyalty, and to re- 
store the authority of the United States, issue proclamations offering amnesty 
and pardon to certain persons who had directly, or by implication, participated 
in the said rebellion ; and 

Whereas, Many persons who had so engaged in said rebellion have, since 
the issuing of said proclamation, failed or neglected to take the benefits offer- 
ed thereby, ; and 

Whereas, Many persons who have been justly deprived of all claim to 
amnesty and pardon thereunder, by reason of their participation, directly or 
by implication, in said rebellion, and continued in hostility to the Govern- 
ment of the United States since the date of said proclamation, now desire to 
apply for and obtain amnesty and pardon: 

To the end, therefore, that the authority of the government of the United 
States may be restored, and that peace, order and freedom may be established, 
I, Andrew Johnson, president of the United States, do proclaim and declare, 
that I hereby grant to all persons who have directly or indirectly participated 
in the existing rebellion, except as hereinafter excepted, amnesty and pardon, 
with restoration of all rights of property, except as to slaves, and except in 
cases where legal proceedings under the laws of the United States providing 
for the confiscation of property of persons engaged in rebellion, have been in- 
stituted ; but on the condition, nevertheless, that every such person shall take 
and subscribe the following oath or affirmation, and thenceforward keep and 
maintain such oath inviolate, and which oath shall be registered for perma- 
nent preservation, and shall be of the tenor and effect following, to wit : 

I, , do solemnly swear, or affirm, in presence of Almighty God, that 

I will henceforth faithfully support and defend the constitution of the United 
States and the union of the states thereunder ; and that I will in like manner 
abide by and faithfully support all laws and proclamations which have been 
made during the existing rebellion, with reference to the emancipation of 
slaves, so help me God. 

The following classes of persons are excepted from the benefits of this 
proclamation : 

1. All who are, or shall have been, pretended civil or diplomatic officers, or 
otherwise domestic or foreign agents of the pretended confederate government. 

2. All who left judicial stations under the United States to aid the rebellion. 

3. All who shall have been military or naval officers of said pretended con- 
federate government, above the rank of colonel in the army, or lieutenant in 
the navy, 

4. All who left seats in the congress of the United States to aid the rebellion. 

5. All who resigned or tendered resignations of their commissions in the 
army or navy of the United States, to evade duty in resisting the rebellion. 

6. All who have engaged, in any way, in treating otherwise than lawfully 
as prisoners of war, persons found in the United States service as officers, 
soldiers, seamen, or in other capacities. 

7. All persons who have been or are absentees from the United States, for 
the purpose of aiding the rebellion. 

8. All military or naval officers in the rebel service who were educated by 
the government in the military academy of West Point, or the United States 
naval academy. 

9. All persons who held the pretended offices of governors of states in in- 
surrection against the United States. 

10. All persons who left their homes within the jurisdiction and protection 
of the United States, and passed beyond the federal military lines, into the 
so-called confederate states, for the purpose of aiding the rebellion. 

11. All persons who have been engaged in the destruction of the commerce 
of the United States upon the high seas, and all persons who have made raids 
into the United States from Canada, or been engaged in destroying the com- 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. II55 

merce of the United States upon the lakes and rivers that separate the Brit- 
ish Provinces from the United States. 

12. All person who, at the time when they seek to obtain the benefits here- 
of by taking the oath herein prescribed, are in military, naval or civil confine- 
ment or custody, or under bonds of the civil, military or naval authorities or 
agents of the United States as prisoners of war, or persons detained for offen- 
ces of any kind, either before or after conviction. 

13. All persons who have voluntarily participated in said rebellion, and the 
estimated value of whose taxable property is over twenty thousand dollars. 

14. All persons who have taken the oath of amnesty as prescribed in the 
president's proclamation of December 8, A. D. 1863, or an oath of allegiance 
to the government of the United States since the date of said proclamation, 
and who have not thenceforward kept and maintained the same inviolate — 
provided that special application may be made to the President for pardon by 
any person belonging to the excepted classes, and such clemency will be lib- 
erally extended as may be consistent with the facts of the case and the power 
and dignity of the United States. The secretary of state will establish rules 
and regulations for administering and recording the said amnesty oath, so as 
to insure its benefit to the people, and guard the government against fraud. 

In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of 
the United States to be affixed. 

Done at the city of Washington, the twenty-ninth day of May, in the yeat 
of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-five, and the independence 
of the United States the eighty-ninth. Andrew Johnson 

At the same time, an order issued from the State Department, saying that 
the oath prescribed in the proclamation might be taken and subscribed to be- 
fore any commissioned officer, civil, military or naval, in the service of the 
United States, or any military or civil officer of a loyal state or territory, who, 
by the laws thereof, might be qualified for administering oaths. 

APPOINTMENT OF PROVISIONAL GOVERNORS. 

President Johnson, shortly after the issuance of his proclamation, appointed 
provisional governors for the states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Geor- 
gia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas, with authority to assemble in 
those states, respectively, delegates elected by the people who had taken the 
amnesty oath, or who had opposed secession in convention, and amend and 
alter their state constitutions, reappoint or designate local officers, and secure 
the election of state officers and legislatures and members of congress, under 
the amended constitutions. If this reorganizatiou was sustained and approv- 
ed by the mass of the people, the state civil governments became established 
in unison with the federal union. If it was not sustained, a military force was 
at hand to lend the necessary support. 

The plan of the president was not peacefully acquiesced in by those states. 

For the states of Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas and Louisiana, no pro- 
visional governors were appoiated. The measures taken for their 
reorganization during President Lincoln's administration, were regarded by 
his successor as having placed those states in their normal condition. The 
president approved of the restoration of the southern states into their 
former position in the union, without any surrender of their constitutional 
rights of local self-government, and without requiring them, with respect 
to the blacks, to do anything more than to acknowledge and respect the free- 
dom which has resulted from the exercise of force during a condition of civil 
war. 

At the same time the civil authority was required to be in the hands of 
men who could take and would observe the amnesty oath or who had 
been steadfast unionists. 



1 156 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGE*. 

The president soon after appointed provisional governors for tW Spates ojf 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi and 
Texas, with authority to assemble lawful delegates in the States, amend and 
alter the State Constitution, and secure the election of State olficers, a legis- 
lature, and members of Congress, under the amended constitution. The plan 
oi the President was not peacefully acquiesced in by those States ; and for the 
States of Virginia, Tennessee Arkansas, and Louisiana, no provisional gov- 
ernors were appointod, a requirement that the civil authority be placed i» the 
hands of men who could take and would observe the amnesty oath, being 
alone necessary for their government. 

On the 18th of December, 1865, the Secretary of War, Mr. Seward, officially 
announced from the State Department, that the amendment of the constitu- 
tion abolishing slavery, had been adopted. It was ratified by the legislatures 
of twenty-seven States, and therefore became a part of the constitution of the 
United States. On Feb. 20th, 1866, the following resolution was reported 
from the committee on reconstruction : 

Resolved, by the Hotise of Representatives (the senate concurring), that, in 
order to close agitation upon a question which seems likely to disturb the 
action of the government, as well as to quiet the uncertainty which is agitat- 
ing the minds of the people of the eleven states which have been declared to 
be in insurrection, no senator or representative shall be admitted into either 
branch of Congress from any of said states, until Congress shall have declared 
-'such state entitled to such representation, which was agreed to and passed by 
the senate. 

On the 13th of March, 1866, the Civil Rights Bill, was passed by the House 
of Representatives, and concurred in by the senate on the 15th. This bill 
had for its object the protection of all persons of the United States in their 
Civil Rights, and furnished the means of their vindication. 

The war, in its progress, emancipated large numbers of slaves, who were 
left in a state of great destitution on attaining their freedom. In December, 
1863, a communication was addressed to President Lincoln, by a committee 
representing the freedmen's aid societies in Boston, New York, Philadel- 
phia, and Cincinnati, urging the creation of a bureau of emancipation, 
charged with the execution of measures for guiding and aiding the blacks in 
their new condition of voluntary industry. The president submitted this 
communication to Congress, with the statement that their attention thereto 
was imperatively demanded. 

March 1st, 1864, the House passed a bill, to establish a bureau of freed- 
men's affiairs. On the 16th of January, 1865, General W. T. Sherman issued 
an order, setting apart the islands from Charleston, South Carolina, the 
abandoned rice-fields along the river for thirty miles back from the 
sea, and the country bordering the St. John's river, Florida, for the 
settlement of the emancipated negroes. 

The following bill passed both Houses of Congress in February, 1867, by 
a vote of more than two-thirds, and though vetoed by the President was 
enacted over the veto : 

, Whereas, No legal state governments or adequate protection for life or 
property now exist in the rebel states of Virginia, ^orth Carolina, South 
Carolina, Georgia, Alabama. Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida. Texas, and 
Arkansas; and whereas it is necessary that peace and good order should bs 
enforced in said states until loyal and republican state governments can b% 
legally established ; therefore 

Be it enacted, etc., That said rebel states shall be divided into military dis- 
tricts and made subject to the military authority of the United States, as 
hereinafter mentioned ; and for that purpose Virginia shall constitute the first 
district, North Carolina and South Carolina the second district, Georgia, 
Alabama and Florida the third district, Mississippi and Arkansas the fourth 
district, and Louisiana and Texas the fifth district. 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. II57 

Sec. 2. That it shall be the duty of the President to assign to the command 
of each of said districts an officer of the army not below the rank of brigadier- 
general, and to detail a sufficient military force to enable such officer to per- 
form his duties and enforce his authority within the district to which he is 
assigned. 

Sec. 3. That it shall be the duty of each officer assigned as aforesaid to 
protect all persons in their rights of person and property, to suppress insur- 
rection, disorder and violence, and to punish or cause to be punished all 
disturbers of the public peace and criminals ; and to this end he may allow 
local civil tribunals to take jurisdiction of and try offenders, or, when in his 
judgment it may be necessary for the trial of offenders, he shall have power to 
organize military committees or tribunals for that purpose ; and all interfer- 
ence under color of state authority with the exercise of military authority 
under this act shall be null and void. 

Sec. 4. That all persons put under military arrest by virtue of this act shall 
be tried without unnecessary delay, and no cruel or unusual punishment shall 
be inflicted, and no sentence of any military commission or tribunal hereby 
authorized affecting the life or liberty of any person shall be executed until it 
is approved by the officer in command of the district ; and the laws and regu- 
lations for the government of the army shall not be affected by this act, except 
in so far as they may conflict with its provisions, Provided, That no sentence 
of death under this act shall be carried into execution without the approval of 
the president. 

Sec. 5. When the people of any one of said rebel states shall have formed 
a constitution and government in conformity with the constitution of the 
United States in all respects, framed by a convention of delegates elected by 
the male citizens of said state twenty-one years old and upward, of whatever 
race, color, or previous condition, who have been residents in said state for 
one year previous to the day of such election, except such as may be dis- 
franchised for participation in the rebellion or for felony at common law, and 
when such constitution shall provide that the elective franchise shall be 
enjoyed by all such persons as have the qualifications herein stated for elec- 
tors of delegates, and when such constitution shall be ratified by a majority 
of the persons voting on the question of ratification who are qualified as 
electors for delegates, and when such constitution shall have been submitted to 
congress for examination and approval, and congress shall have approved the 
same, and when said state by a vote of its legislature elected under said con- 
stitution shall have adopted the amendment to the constitution of the United 
States proposed by the XXXIXth congress, and known as Article 14, and 
when said article shall have become part of the constitution of the United 
States, such state shall be declared entitled to representation in congress, and 
senators and representatives shall be admitted therefrom on their taking the 
oath prescribed by law, and then and thereafter the preceding sections of this 
act shall be inoperative in said state. Provided, That no person excluded 
from the privilege of holding office by said proposed amendment to the 
constitution of the United States shall be eligible to election as a member 
of the convention to frame a constitution for any of said rebel states, noi 
shall any such person vote for members of such convention. 

Sec. 6. And be it further enacted, That until the people of the said rebel 
states shall by law be admitted to representation to the congress of the 
United Sates, all civil governments that may exist therein shall be deemed 
provisional only, and shall be in all respects subject to the paramount 
authority of the United States, at any time to abolish, modify, control, and 
supersede the same, and in all elections to any office under such provisional 
governments all persons shall be entitled to vote under the provisions of the 
6fth section of this act. And no person shall be eligible to any office under 
such provisional governments who would be disqualified from holding office 
under the provisions of the third article of said constitutional amendment. 



n 5 8 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



In March and in July supplementary acts, each entitled "an act to provide 
for the more efficient government of the rebel states," were passed by 
congress. 

IV. — THE RECEPTION OF THE INSURRECTIONARY STATES IN ACCORDANCE 
WITH THESE ACTS. 

The state of Tennessee had been restored to the union by the thirty-ninth 
congress. 

Arkansas was restored in June, 1868, and North Carolina, South Carolina. 
Alabama, Louisiana, Georgia and Florida, by the following act, which was 
passed June 25, 1868 : 

An act to admit the states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, 
Georgia, Alabama and Florida to representation in congress. Whereas, the peo- 
ple of North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, Georgia, Alabama and 
Florida have, in pursuance of the provisions of an act entitled " An act for 
the more efficient government of the rebel states," passed March 2, 1867, and 
the acts supplemental thereto, framed constitutions of a state government, 
which are republican, and have adopted said constitutions by large majorities 
of the votes cast at the election held for the ratification or repealing of the 
same, 

Therefore, be it enacted, That each of the states of North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Louisiana, Georgia, Alabama and Florida shall be entitled and ad- 
mitted to representation in congress as a state of the union, when the 
legislature of such states shall have duly ratified the amendment to the consti- 
tution of the United States, proposed by the XXXIX Congress, and known as 
article 14, upon the following fundamental conditions : 

Sec. 1. That the constitution of neither of said states shall ever be so 
amended or changed as to deprive any citizen or class of citizens of the United 
States of the right to vote in said state who are entitled to vote by the consti- 
tution thereof herein recognized, except as a punishment for such crimes as 
are now felonies at common law, where they shall have been duly convicted 
under laws equally applicable to all the inhabitants of said state ; Provided, 
That any alteration of said constitutions, prospective in its effect, may be 
made with regard to the time and place of residence of voters ; and the state 
of Georgia shall only be entitled and admitted to representation upon this- 
further fundamental condition : That the first and third subdivisions of sec- 
tion 17 of the fifth article of the constitution of said state, except the proviso- 
to the first subdivision, shall be null and void, and that the general assembly 
of said state by solemn puplic act shall declare the assent of the state to the 
foregoing fundamental condition. 

Sec. 2. That if the day fixed for the first meeting of the legislature of 
either of said states by the constitution or ordinance thereof shall have passed, 
or so nearly arrived, before the passage of this act, that there shall not be 
time for the legislature to assemble at the period fixed, such legislature shall 
convene at the end of twenty days from the time this act takes effect unless the 
governor elect shall sooner convene the same. 

Sec. 3. That the first section of this act shall take effect as to each state, 
except Georgia, when such state shall, by its legislature, duly ratify article 14, 
of the amendment to the constitution of the United States, proposed by the 
thirty-ninth congress ; and as to the state of Georgia, when it shall, in addi- 
tion, give the assent of said state to the fundamental condition hereinbefore 
imposed upon the same, thereupon the officers of each state duly elected and 
qualified under the constitution thereof shall be inaugurated without delay ; 
but no person prohibited from holding office under the United States, or 
under any state, by section 3 of the proposed amendment to the constitution 
of the United States, known as article 14, shall be deemed as eligible to any 
office in either of said states, unless relieved from disability as provided in 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 1 1 59 

said amendment ; and it is hereby made the duty of the president, within 
ten days after receiving official information of the ratification of said amend- 
ment by the legislature of either of said states, to issue a proclamation 
announcing that fact. 

The following bill, also passed by congress, in July, 1868, was intended to 
obviate some difficulties in the organization of the legislatures of the recon- 
structed states, etc. : 

Be it enacted, etc., That the legislature of each of the states of Arkansas, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, Georgia and Alabama, elected 
under the constitution thereof framed and adopted in pursuance of the pro- 
visions of an act entitled, " An act for the more efficient government of the 
rebel states," passed March 2, 1867, and the acts supplementary thereto, be 
and is hereby authorized to meet on such day as may have been fixed, either 
in such constitution or by proclamation of any officer authorized to convene 
such legislature x by the convention which framed such constitution, and if no 
day shall have been fixed as aforesaid, or if the day so fixed for the meeting 
of the legislature of either of said states shall have passed or shall have so 
nearly arrived, before the passage of this act, that in the opinion of the 
governor elect that there might not be time for the legislature to assemble on 
the day so fixed, such legislature maybe convened within thirty days after the 
passage of this act by the governor of said state. 

Sec. 2. And be it further enacted, That whenever either of said states shall 
be admitted to representation in congress, the executive and judicial officers 
of such state, duly elected and qualified under the constitution thereof, may 
be inaugurated without delay, and the government of such states shall there- 
upon be transferred to the civil authorities thereof. 

Sec. 3. And be it further enacted, That it shall be the duty of ail civil and 
military officers exercising authority in either of said states to afford all prac- 
tical aid and protection to the officers of such state in carrying out the 
provisions of this act ; and any such officer who shall willfully withhold such 
aid and protection, or shall willfully prevent, hinder or delay the meeting of 
either of said legislatures or the inauguration of any of said state officers or of 
any other civil or military officer under either of said state authorities, shall 
be guilty of a felony, and upon conviction thereof before any federal or state 
court of criminal jurisdiction, shall be punished by imprisonment not exceed- 
ing ten years, or by a fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars, or both, at the 
discretion of the court. 



HISTORY OF POLITICAL PARTIES. 

The earBest parties in this country were the Whigs and Tories of the 
Revolution. Those who supported the principles of the revolution were 
called Whigs, and those who opposed them were called Tories or Royalists. 
The first parties under the present government had their origin in the con- 
vention which framed the constitution. While the constitution was before 
the people few consideration, one of the principal reasons urged by its friends 
in favor of its ratification by the states was, that the old plan was inadequate 
to the preservation of the Union ; that the federal union could be preserved 
only by the adoption of the constitution ; and its friends assumed the name of 
Federalists »nd their opponents were called anti-federalists. Among the 
federalists of that time whose names are most familiar to the American peo- 
ple were, General Washington, John Adams, James Madison, Alexander 
Hamilton, Joftn Jay and others. 



Il6o FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Notwithstanding the division of sentiment, General Washington was 
unanimously elected president, and notwithstanding the leading measures of 
his administration were regarded unfavorably, there seems to have been for 
several years, an organized opposition party, and his second election like the 
first was unanimous. The opponents of the federalists at length took the 
name of the Republican Party and at the fourth presidential election, 
obtained control of the government, having elected Thomas Jefferson presi- 
dent over Mr. Adams, who was candidate for re-election. The federal party 
now declined in power, and at the close of the second war with Great Brit- 
ain, had become extinct. One cause of its unpopularity and consequent 
disbandment was the passage of the alien and sedition laws during Mr. 
Adams' administration. 

The alien law authorized the president to order out of the country any 
alien suspected of treasonable purpose, or deemed dangerous to the peace and 
safety of the country, unless satisfactory proof should be given that no injury 
should arise from his residence here. The sedition law provided for the 
punishment of persons conspiring against governmental measures, hindering 
public officers in the discharge of their duties, or slandering the government, 
congress, or the president. These laws gave rise to the famed Virginia and 
Kentucky resolutions of 1798, which were adopted as the creed of the old 
republican party. They declared that the alien and sedition laws were in- 
fractions of the constitutions ; that the Union was a compact between the 
states, as states ; and as parties to this compact, they had no common judge, 
and nullification was the only remedy for the assumption, by congress, of 
powers not delegated. 

No favorable response to these resolutions was received from the states. 
Republican statesmen never unanimously advocated the doctrine of state 
sovereignty to the extent asserted in these articles. According to Mr. Madi- 
son's own exposition of the constitution not the states, as states, but the 
people of the several states, were parties to the compact ; and in 1830 he 
expressly repudiated " nullification as the right remedy." President Jack- 
son maintained the doctrine now generally received by American statesmen, 
that, instead of there being no common judge it is the prerogative of the 
Supreme Court of the United Stages to judge of the constitutionality of the 
acts of congress. Were each state at liberty to do so no general government 
could be maintained nor the union preserved. 

The transfer of power from the federal to the republican party was not 
followed by any great changes of policy, though the opposite feelings of the 
two parties were clearly manifest, especially during our commercial contro- 
versy with France and Great Britain and was with the latter. The federalists 
were opposed to the declaration of war, while the republicans maintained its 
justice and prosperity, and charged their opponents with hostility to their 
country. The retaliatory orders and decrees issued by these two powers 
greatly embarrased our trade, and it became necessary for the government to 
adopt measures counteracting the injurious effects of their policy. One of the 
measures was the laying of an embargo, during Jefferson's administration, by 
which all vessels bound to foreign ports were prohibited from leaving the 
ports of the United States. This measure of course, almost stopped our 
foreign trade, and was vehemently opposed by those engaged in such inter- 
ests. The New England States engaged in the shipping business, complained 
most loudly, declaring the act unconstitutional. A case however, was tried 
in the United States district court of Massachusetts, in which the act was 
decided to be constitutional. 

"^ he opposition of the federal party to the war rendered it still more un- 
popular ; and, as the return of peace between this country and Europe remov- 
ed the principal cause of party division, this party organization was soon af- 
ter abandoned. In 1816, and at his second election, in T820. Mr. Monroe, the 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. Il6r 

republican candidate, received the almost unanimous vote of the electors, an J 
'there became but one party, as no great political questions, on which the peo- 
ple were divided, existed. 

From the year 1804, it had been the practice of the republican senators to 
meet in caucus for the purpose of nominating a candidate. These caucus 
nominations had become unpopular with the party, and in 1824, a majority 
of the members, refused to go into caucus. The minority, however, persisted 
and a candidate was nominated. The people were much dissatisfied, and the 
republican nominee, consequently received little support. As a result of this 
division of opinion there was no choice of president by the electors, and Mr. 
Adams was declared president by the House of Representatives. Not long 
after his election parties were again organized. They were known as the 
.Adams or administration party, and the Jackson or opposition party. The 
latter proved successful at the next election. 

About this time arose a new party, based upon the principle of opposition 
to the institution of Free Masonry. William Morgan a seceding mason, 
published the secrets of the organization, for which he was abducted by mem- 
bers of the order and murdered. Other similar publications from seceders 
soon followed ; and renunciations of masonry became frequent. As the obliga- 
tions assumed by members of the order were deemed incompatible with the 
•civil obligations, the overthrow of the institution became an object of political 
action. The party acquired considerable strength in several states. General 
Jackson, being a Free Mason, the anti-masons were less hostile to the Adams, 
than to the Jackson partv. The organization continued until after the elec- 
tion of 1832, at which they supported candidates of their own. The Adams 
party was for a time distinguished as the national republican party, until a 
year or two after the presidential election of 1832, when the anti-masons 
joined them and the new party was called the Whigs, in opposition to the 
Jackson, or as it was then called the Democratic party. The principal ques- 
tion which had tended to increase party distinction since the disbandment of 
the federal party was the tariff. From 1816 the protective system became an 
object of discussion all over the country. The foreign demand for American 
breadstuffs almost entirely ceased on the restoration of peace in Europe, and 
with the view of creating a home market for surplus breadstuffs, an act for 
the encouragement of domestic manufactures was passed. 

No other action on the system succeeded until 1824, when after a vigorous 
contest the friends of protection were successful. The four candidates for the 
presidency this year were all friendly to the protective policy. 

During the whole history of this country great opposition to the imposition 
of duties has been exhibited. Even the system of moderate duties imposed by 
Washington was received unfavorably The tariff of 18 16 met with its 
strongest opposition from federal representatives of the New England States. 
In 1824, Maine, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire, together with most of 
the Southern States were unanimously opposed to the tariff. In 1828 the 
Eastern States changed their position and have since supported the protective 
tariff while the southern representatives have continued in opposition. The 
principal change of sentiment since 1828, has been in the middle and western 
states. This subject had not become a party issue at the first election of 
General Jackson. He received the support of the southern states, though he 
was in favor of the tariff and the internal improvement system. Soon after 
•his election a large portion of the southern Democrats became hostile to these 
measures, and to maintain the unity of the party, most of the tariff section, 
together with the president, became co-operators with the opponents of pro- 
tection. This defection was so gradual, however, that as late as 1832 the 
friends of the system passed a bill favorably to it. The people of South Caro- 
lina became strongly excited by this bill. They ordered arms and ammuni- 
tion and would not allow the collection of duties by United States officers. 



Il62 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

President Jackson issued a proclamation denying the right of any state to 
nullify a law of Congress and secede from the Union, and expressed the pur- 
pose of enforcing the collection of the revenue in that state, a bill for that 
purpose, called by some the "force bill" was passed, and became a law. A 
bill for the reduction of duties was at the same time pending in Congress. It 
contemplaced so great and sudden a reduction that another bill contemplat- 
ing a ten years gradual reduction was introduced, passed, and the South was 
pacified. 

A number of party issues of great interest arose during President Jackson's 
administration. In his first annual message he took ground against the 
renewal of the charter of the United States Bank. This act caused much 
dissatisfaction among his political friends, and controversy on the subject was 
continued until oppposition to the bank became a popular party measure, and 
the charter was allowed to expire by its own limitation in 1836. The bank 
was first incorporated in 1791, and was a federal measure. Its charter 
expired in 1811. Application for a renewal was successful, on account of the 
opposition of the federal party. At the congressional session of 18 15 and 
1816, national finances were in such a condition, that a bill for an establish- 
ment of a bank, met with the approval of President Madison, who had 
stronly contended against it before, and was passed. Thus we see that the 
second bank was a republican institution, the two great parties having changed 
sides on the question. 

Another material issue was the Indian question. The state of Georgia 
contemplated bringing the Indians of their territory under state jurisdiction. 
The Indians were unwilling to become subject to the state, claiming the 
peaceable possession of their lands and the right of self-government under a 
succession of treaties from our early period. After a great deal of trouble the 
difficulties were settled, and a treaty was made by which the Indians agreed 
to sell their lands and remove to the west. 

Another principle upon which the parties were divided, was that of inter- 
nal improvements. The power of the general government to make internal 
improvements had often been questioned. The difference between statesmen 
was not so much upon the question whether this power existed, as upon ques- 
tions whether the particular improvements asked for, were of such a character 
as to bring them within such power. 

With this administration originated the practice of a general removal of 
political opponents from office. The removal of men for opinions which 
could not interfere with the faithful discharge of their official duties, was 
pronounced by many, an abuse of executive power, tending to produce politi- 
cal corruption and to destroy freedom of opinion. But this practice was 
adopted by the opposing party, upon coming into power, and continued to be 
recognized by all parties until the Presidency of Mr. Hayes, who began a 
reform in the civil service, tending to produce a unanimity of feeling over the 
country, but which met with severe opposition from many leading members 
of his party. 

Mr. Van Buren, Democratic successor to General Jackson came into office 
March 4th, 1837, in the midst of great pecuniary depression, and only about 
two months before a general suspension of specie payment by the banks. A 
special session of congress was assembled, the disuse of banks was recom- 
mended, various bills were introduced and at last m 1840, the independent 
treasury was established. With the accession of President Harrison in 1841, 
the Whig party, for the first time obtained control of the government. The 
questions at issue between the two parties were the same that they had been 
for many years. One month after his inauguration the president died, and 
John Tyler the vice-president succeeded him. At the ensuing session of con- 
gress the Whigs succeeded in re-establishing a protective tariff, the principal 
measure they found themselves able to accomplish. 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. I163 

The roost important event of Tyler's administration was the annexation 
of Texas to the United States. The project of annexation originated with 
neither of the two political parties, nor did it become a party measure until 
about A'844. For the presidential campaign of this year Mr. Clay was nomi- 
nated as the Whig candidate. In the Democratic convention, Mr. Van 
Buren received a majority of the votes ; but as they had a rule requiring a 
majority of two-thirds, and the southern delegates insisted on having a 
candidate favorable to annexation, Mr. Polk was nominated. Although an- 
nexation was a southern measure most of the southern Whigs held the same 
views as their party candidate. The divisions of opinion in this party lead 
to the almost unanimous election of Mr. Polk, who was pledged to favor the 
annexation of Texas, and to maintain our claim to the whole of Oregon. 
Annexation was completed on the last days of Mr. Tyler's term, March 1845. 
As had been expected, Mexico considered the annexation of Texas as an act 
of war on the part of the* United States, and declared her intention to resent 
the injury and resort to arms. Hostilities were commenced in April ; and 
me»ns to prosecute the war were promptly appropriated by congress. 

The campaign lasted about three years and was but a series of brilliant 
victories on the part of the United States, culminating in the capture of the 
city of Mexico by General Scott, September 14th, 1847, after the storming of 
six almost invulnerable forts which guarded it, and the dispersion of an army 
of thirty thousand men. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was concluded 
February 2, 1848. New Mexico and California were ceded to the United 
States, and the boundary of Texas fixed at the Rio Grande. In return our gov- 
ernment paid $15,000,000, and assumed the debts due to American citizens 
by the Mexican government, to the amount of §3,000,000. 

This war had been disproved of by the entire Whig party, both in and out 
of congress. The nomination of General Taylor, by the national Whig con- 
vention in 1848, produced great dissatisfaction among northern Whigs. Un- 
willing to declare his political sentiments, and being a slaveholder, he was 
presumed to be favorable to slavery, to which the Whigs of the free states were 
opposed. Consequently many of them joined a convention which met in 
Buffalo, New York, and concluded in forming a new party on the general 
principle of opposition to the extension of slavery, Martin Van Buren was 
nominated for president and Charles Francis Adams for vice-president. The 
subsequent publication of some of Taylor's views, against the free use of the 
veto power, caused the larger portion of the bolting Whigs to return to their 
party, and thus secure the election of their candidate. The administration of 
President Taylor commenced the 4th of March, 1849, and was terminated by 
his death in about fifteen months. After his accession few party questions 
characterized as Whig or Democratic arose. The great subject of political 
agitation was the extension of slavery. This had been for several years 
obscuring party lines as between the Whigs and Democrats, In the declara- 
tion of principles of the two parties in the conventions of 1852, both took 
substantially the same ground, and as the Whig party became luke-warm on 
account of the attitude of he convention, in regard to the fugitive slave law, 
and other bills of 1850, the Democrats obtained an easy victory, and Mr. 
Pierce was almost unanimously elected. Upon his assumption of the presi- 
dential dignity, comparative calm reigned throughout the country. 

The agitation, however, was renewed at an early period. A bill was 
introdnced in congress for the establishment' of a territorial government in 
Nebraska, contemplating also the repeal ot the Missouri compromise. This 
compromise was a bill providing for the admission of Missouri into the Union 
as a slave state, and prohibiting the admission of any other state having slaves 
north of 36 deg., 30 min., north latitude. The opponents of this bill deprecated 
the violation of a compact which had long been regarded as inviolable, 
north and south. The passage of the bill produced an unprecedented excite- 



1164 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



merit. Its opponents formed a new political organization, on the general 
principle of preventing the extension of slavery into free territory. This party 
took the name of Republican, and was composed of the great body of the 
Whig party of the free states, and some portion of the Democrats. 

A new party had arisen a year or two before, called the American party, 
and had increased very rapidly. The leading principle of this party was that 
" Americans must rule America." They contended for the placing of native- 
born Americans in government offices, and the requirement that, in order to 
become citizens, foreigners should reside twenty-one years in the country. 
During the presidential canvass of 1856, the majority of Americans in several 
states co-operated with the Republicans. Local Republican organizations 
were first formed in 1855. In 1856 a convention was held, and John C. Fre- 
mont was nominated for president. Although the chief object of one of the 
two great parties was to keep the national territory open r and free to the 
entrance of slaveholders, with their slaves, and of the other to keep slavery out 
of it, there was upon several subjects a difference of sentiment, upon which 
the parties based their action. The Republicans maintained that slavery, not 
being recognized by the common law, could exist only where it was permitted 
by positive enactment; and that congress might establish governments for 
the people of any portion of such territory, and consequently had power over 
slavery therein. Moreover they held that it was the duty of the general gov- 
ernment to exclude it from all the public territory. The Democratic party 
on the other hand maintained, that congress had no constitutional power over 
slavery in the territories. And in 1854, they adopted the sentiment expressed 
in the Kansas and Nebraska act, declaring " the true intent, and meaning of 
this act is not to legislate slavery into any territory or state, or to exclude it 
therefrom ; but to leave the people thereof perfectly free to form and regulate 
their domestic institutions in their own way, subject only to the constitution of 
the United States." This declaration was termed " popular sovereignty," a 
term which was understood to mean, that the people of the territory had the 
right to make their own laws, and to allow or prohibit slavery. It was 
asserted by the administration, not only that the power to dispose of the ter- 
ritorial property conveys to congress no power to govern the people ; but that 
the constitution, by recognizing the right of property in slaves, carries with it 
into the territories the right to hold slaves therein ; and the people of the 
territory had not the power to exclude slavery by law. 

It was also declared by the president and seems to have had the assent of 
the party, that, under the constitution, no person of the African race was, or 
could be made a citizen of the United States. On March 4, 1857, Mr. 
Buchanan was inaugurated. In his address he emphasized the position of 
the Democratic party, which had already been foreshadowed by the Dred 
Scott decision, which declared that the negro had no rights which the white 
man was bound to respect. Kansas was now the territory upon which the 
great slavery agitation rested as on a pivot. A brief sketch of the state of 
affairs in Kansas is as follows : The pro-slavery and free-state men of the 
territory had come into fierce collision. The Topeka convention of 1855 had 
prepared a state constitution, anti-slavery in character, which received a 
majority of the popular votes. 

An election was held under it in 1856, which was attended by violence and 
bloodshed, and a free-state legislature assembled under it on March 4th. 
The proceedings which led to the formation of the Topeka constitution were 
without legal authority, and the legislature was forcibly disorganized by 
United States troops. A territorial legislature met soon afterwards and 
formed a state constitution, called the Lecompton constitution, which was ap- 
proved by President Buchanan, and a bill providing for the conditional 
admission of Kansas was passed. Much fierce discussion in the state, 
attended by bloodshed followed, and outside of congress the national politics 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 1165 

were greatly embittered, in spite of the popular sovereignty doctrine, so ably 
sustained by senator Douglas. This gentleman had a large and able follow- 
ing, and his action did much to modify the situation and strengthen the unity 
of the north in the struggle which was soon to come. The great debate in 
congress, between Messrs. Douglas and Lincoln in 1858, mainly hinged on 
the doctrine that congress had no right to sanction the introduction of 
slavery in the territories, or to prohibit it ; that this must be left to the 
people of the states. The feeling of hostility between the north and south was 
still more aggravated by the John Brown raid in Virginia for the avowed pur- 
pose of freeing the slaves. John Brown, a former settler in Kansas, had been 
one of the most active of the free-state party, and in his many conflicts with 
the pro-slavery men, many of his family had lost their lives, and his native 
hatred of the slave system had been aggravated to almost insanity. 
Inflamed with anger and zeal, he seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry and 
issued a proclamation of freedom to the negroes. His party, however, was 
soon disbanded, and suffered the penalty on the scaffold. This act served to 
feed the party feud, the southern politicians fixing its responsibility upon the 
Republican party. Through our whole political history, no discussions so 
fraught with mutual rage and bitterness are recorded, as those which took 
place on the floors of congress during the two years preceding the war. The 
culmination of sectional strife occurred in the presidential election of i860, 
which resulted in the choice of Abraham Lincoln the Republican candidate. 
The south was then in a state of open rebellion. Bills were passed in many 
of the states for the enrollment of volunteers, and it became evident that 
efforts to check the tide of secession would be in vain. In his last message 
Buchanan declared that the north alone was responsible for the trouble, 
though he denied that the election of Lincoln furnished any excuse for revolu- 
tion. He did not apprehend any overt act on the part of the south. On 
December 2ist, i860, a convention met in South Carolina, and passed a 
secession ordinance, which was received with rejoicing all over the south. 
News soon came that Major Anderson, who command at Charleston Harbor, 
had evacuated Fort Moultrie and fallen back to Fort Sumpter, The Star of 
the West, sent to proyision the garrison was fired into, but still the govern- 
ment, in accordance with the whole policy of Mr. Buchanan, declined to take 
any active step. 

On March 4th, 1861, Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated at Washington, and the 
war was prosecuted with zeal. Fort Sumpter was fired on April 12th, and 
after holding out three days surrendered April 15th, the president issued a 
proclamation calling for 75,000 men to enforce the execution of the laws. 
Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas, then passed ordinances 
of secession. Congress convened on July 4th, 1861, and passed several acts 
relative to the war, the principal ones being the immediate enrollment of 
400,000 volunteers, and raising the sum to 500,000,000. 

The military progress of the war need not be recorded. In the "History 
of Reconstruction," the close of the great conflict is described. 

The history of political parties from the war to the piesent time may be 
briefly described. The first great event was the empeachment of President 
Johnson, in the prosecution of which all were agreed. In 1869, the Republi- 
can party succeeded in electing their candidate, General Grant, who entered 
upon his duties the 4th of March. During the first term of his administration 
the fifteenth amendment was ratified by the states, the KuKlux bill, provid- 
ing for the protection of the black population of the south, and the white 
northern settlers therein, from the outrages of armed gangs of men who 
sought to cow into subjection or drive from the country, those who differed 
from them in political sentiment, a new system of taxation was adopted by 
which during the year 1871, $50,000,000 of the principal of the public debt 
was paid, the germ of specie resumption made its appearance and the settle. 



Il66 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

ment of the Alabama claims was effected. In 1870 he was re-elected by a 
close vote, as many of the republicans having become dissatisfied with him, 
had given their support to Greeley. A bill for specie resumption was passed 
in 1874, A little later the subject of the whisky frauds called for the atten- 
tion of the country through the investigations of secretary Bristow, which 
ended in a rupture between him and the president, and a resignation of the 
former. 

For the presidential campaign of 1876, after a long and spirited debate, the 
Republican convention found it necessary to compromise upon the least known 
of the candidates for nomination, Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio. The Demo- 
cratic convention nominated Samuel J. Tilden, of New York. The election 
took place in November, and resulted in giving Mr. Tilden a popular 
majority ; the electoral votes, however, after many disputes regarding the 
validity of the returns from several states, awarded to Mr. Hayes the major- 
ity. Several months were passed in settling the dispute in some of the states, 
and many believed, even then, that the presidency belonged to Mr. Tilden. 
As it was, the result showed but a majority of one for the republican candi- 
dates. This canvass was one of the most remarkable political events in the 
history of the country. The public interest was wound up to the highest 
pitch of excitement, and even after the results of the election were made 
known, congress found it necessary to constitute a board of judges to decide 
upon the validity of the returns. In conclusion let us say, that Mr. Hayes 
has clearly shaped a policy, so full of significance, as to be a veritable new 
departure. Though he was elected in the interests of a party, which had 
used vigorous and heroic remedies in the reconstruction of the Union, the 
plan of the new president declared itself, in the shape of mildness and recon- 
ciliation. 

The result of his measures, and the prosperity of the country, under his 
new departure at this writing (the winter of 1878), are yet to be determined. 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 

It must be apparent upon the slightest consideration, that no deliberative 
assembly, consisting of any considerable number of persons, can transact 
business with facility or dispatch, without some established rules of proceed- 
ing. These rules are in all bodies nearly the same, and, like many other 
institutions in this country, have come to us from England. From their hav- 
ing been originally practiced by the British parliament, they are called parlia- 
mentary rules. 

Before an assembly proceeds to business, it must be duly organized, that is, it 
must be put into a suitable form for the transaction of business. A chair- 
man must be first elected who shall conduct the meeting until the election of 
the permanent officers, who are generally a president, one or more vice-presi- 
dents, and one or more secretaries. The business of a vice-president is to 
take the chair in the absence of the president, or when he leaves the chair to 
take part in the proceedings as an ordinary member. 

Legislative bodies cannot do business without the presence of a quorum. 
The number of members constituting a quorum is fixed by the constitution or 
by law. 

The principal duties of a presiding officer are the following : To open each 
sitting by taking the chair, and calling the meeting to order ; to announce to 
the assembly the business in order ; to receive all communications, messages, 
motions, and propositions, and put to vote all questions which are to be de- 
cided by the assembly, and declare the result ; to enforce the rules of order, 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 1167 

and the observance of decorum among the members. The presiding officer 
may read sitting, but should rise to state a motion or put a question. 

// is the duty of a clerk or secretary, to take notes of all the acts and proceed- 
ings of the meeting ; to read all papers that may be ordered to be read ; to 
call the roll of the assembly, and record the votes when necessary ; to notify 
committees of their appointment and of the business referred to them ; and to 
take charge of all papers and documents belonging to the assembly. 

It is the duty of every member to treat all others with respect and decoium. 

When the?'e has been no previous arrangement of business the order in which 
the several matters are to be taken up, is left to the discretion of the presiding 
officer, unless the assembly, on a question, shall decide to take up a particular 
subject. When a meeting has been duly organized, and is open for business, 
any member may offer a proposition or make a motion. In order to do this 
he must first "obtain the floor." This is done by rising in his place, and 
addressing the presiding officer by his title. He, hearing himself addressed, 
answers the call, by speaking the name of the member, that the assembly may 
take notice who it is that speaks. If two or more rise to speak nearly to- 
gether, the presiding officer determines who was first up, and announces him ; 
whereupon he proceeds unless he voluntarily sits down and gives way to the 
other. A member introducing a proposition of his own puts it into the proper 
form, and moves that it be adopted by the assembly. A proposition thus 
moved is called a motion until it has been stated by the chair, and offered to 
the assembly, when it is denominated a question ; and when it is adopted, it 
becomes the resolution, order, or vote of the assembly. Motions are usually 
submitted in writing. In order to have the notice of the presiding officer, at 
least one member must give his approval to a proposed motion. This he does 
by rising and saying that he seconds the motion. After this, it is stated by 
the president to the meeting. It then becomes a question for the decision of 
the meeting. 

Communications, as memorials, petitions, remonstrances, from persons not 
members, are presented by members, as persons not members have no right to 
address the assembly. 

When it is desired to suppress a main question for a whole session without 
having it come to vote, the course is, to move that the question be postponed 
indefinitely. When a question is before an assembly, which is deemed proper 
to be acted upon, but on which members are not prepared to act, a motion is 
made to postpone the subject to some future day within the session ; or, if not 
thought proper to fix upon a certain day, the proper motion is, that the matter 
lie on the table. Such a motion is sometimes intended to make a final 
disposal of a subject. If a proposition is so imperfect in its form as to need 
more amendment than can be conveniently made by the assembly, a motion 
is made to commit it; that is, to refer it to a committee for amendment. 

When a proposition or a question contains more parts than one it may be 
divided into two or more questions. The mover of a proposition is sometimes 
allowed to modify it, after it has been stated by the presiding officer. And 
sometimes, after an amendment has been moved and seconded, the mover of 
the original proposition consents to the amendment and it is made. One 
way of amending a proposition, is by striking out certain words or paragraphs. 
Amendments are sometimes made by adding or inserting words or paragraphs. 
Words are sometimes stricken out, and others inserted in their place. 

Propositions are sometimes introduced with blanks to be filled with times 
and numbers by the assembly. In filling blanks the general rule is that the 
largest sum or number and the longest time are to be first put to the question. 

It is a general rule that the question first moved and seconded, shall be put 
first. But this rule gives way to what are called privileged questions. A 
motion to adjourn takes precedence of all others. But this motion cannot be 
received after another question is put. Orders of the day take precedence of 



1 1 68 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

all other questions, except for adjournment, and the incidental question, the- 
question of privilege. Another class of privileged questions are those which are- 
secondary to the principal question ; and as they are used to assist in disposing 
of a principal question, they are sometimes called subsidiary questions. 
These are motions for the previous question to lay on the table, to postpone, to 
commit and to amend. A motion to lie on the table takes precedence of and 
supersedes the other subsidiary motions. A decision to postpone a proposi- 
tion leaves no ground for another subsidiary motion. There is another class 
of privileged questions called incidental questions which must be put before 
the questions out of which they arise. These are questions of order, questions 
of privilege, questions incident to the reading of papers, questions for the 
suspension of a rule, on the withdrawal of a motion, and amendment of 
amendments. If action upon a subject cannot be had by reason of some 
special rule prohibiting it, a motion may be made to dispense with, or suspend 
the rule in order to permit the action desired ; and the motion to suspend 
must be first decided. 

The nature and general duties of committees in all deliberative assemblies 
are similar to those of legislative committees. In fixing upon the member of 
a committee, different numbers are sometimes proposed by different members, 
which are separately put to the question, beginning with the highest. 

The mode of selecting the members, is either by appointment by the pre- 
siding officer, by ballot, or by nomination and vote of the meeting. 

In appointing a committee to which a subject is to be referred, the com- 
mittee should be so constituted that a majority of its members shall be 
favorable to the proposed measure. 

The members of a committee have the right to appoint their chairman ;. 
but, as a matter of courtesy, the person first named on the committee is 
usually permitted to act as chairman. The order in which they are to con- 
sider papers referred to them is substantially the same as that practiced by the 
assembly. In making a report the chairman of a committee, standing in his 
place, informs the house that the committee to whom was referred such a bill, 
have had the same under consideration, and have directed him to report the 
result of their investigation. 

When the report of a committee is received, the committee is dissolved,. 
and can act no more without a new power. Standing committees, however, 
continue during the session, and are subject to be dissolved or revived. 

During the progress of a debate every member is to be seated when the 
president takes the chair. If a person means to speak, he must rise in his 
place and address the chairman. No member may digress from his subject 
or speak reviling or unmanly words to any other member. When a member 
speaks irrelevantly he may be interrupted by the chairman or called to order 
by a member. No member without the consent of the assembly may speak more 
than once on the same question, until all who desire to speak have spoken. 
No member is to disturb another in his speech by any disorderly behavior. 
If a member uses disorderly, offensive, or insulting language, he is interrupted 
by another member or by several members rising and calling him to order- 
Then he may either justify his words, explain the sense in which he used 
them, or apologize. 

When the debate upon a question is ended, and the final vote is to be taken,, 
the presiding officer states the question, and puts it, first in the affirmative, 
saying, " Gentlemen, all of you who are in favor of (repeating, as nearly as 
may be, the words of the question), say aye ; v and after this is answered, 
" All those who are opposed, say no," Then, judging by the sound which 
voice is greatest, declares that it is carried, or it is lost. 

In some places the members vote by holding up their right hands. The 
most convenient mode of dividing a house is to direct the members to rise, 
first those in the affirmative, and then those in the negative, and be counted. 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 



1169 



Another form is by taking the yeas and nays. The roll is called by the clerk, 
and those in favor of the proposed measure, answer in the affirmative, those 
opposed, in the negative. Except on the final passage of a bill, questions are 
not generally taken in this manner. 

According to a strict rule of parliament, a question once put and decided, 
cannot be brought up again at the same session, but must stand as the judg- 
ment of the house. A modification ol this is practiced in this country, whereby 
a vote on a previous question may be reconsidered. 

74 





™I|l|! 



xmmmm 













ALEXANDER II. -CZAR OF RUSSIA. 



1173 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 



THE WAR IN EUROPE. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION IN THE SPRING OF 1877. 

The causes of the trouble between Russia and Turkey are remote, and the 
many complications leading to existing difficulties cannot be easily understood 
without a close study of the political history of modern Europe. Primarily 
of a religious nature, what is now generalized as the Eastern question gradu- 
ally became a political problem involving the existence of some nations, the 
commercial supremacy of others, and the success or defeat of distinctive na- 
tional policies. 

The Christian Church was for many centuries a united body, with power 
centering at Rome. When Constantine made Constantinople the capital of 
the Roman Empire the bishop of the new capital became the rival of the Ro- 
man Pontiff, and aspired to exclusive dominion over the church. This led to 
a bitter quarrel, and finally to separation between the East and the West — be- 
tween the Greeks and Latins. Constantinople remained the actual capital of 
the Roman Empire and the head of the Eastern or Greek Church, while 
Rome was the head of the Latin or Roman Catholic Church. 

The western portion of the empire was overrun by the northern barbarians 
and several kingdoms were founded on the ruins. Charlemagne united these 
in one empire, of which France was the head, with recognition of Rome as 
the head of the Western Church. All this time the Eastern or Greek Em- 
pire had been in existence, with Constantinople as the head of the church and 
the seat of government. The West was hostile to the East, and church and 
national policies were shaped on this basis. The crusaders of the West even 
went so far as to turn aside from their attempts to recover Jerusalem from 
the Turks, to capture and pillage Constantinople, the capital of the Christians 
of the East. 

This blow was a serious one, and from it dates the decline of the Eastern 
or Greek Empire. The empire and the church went down with the capture 
of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. The Turkish policy was to trample 
out the religion of the East, as well as the political spirit, and centuries of 
cruel struggle ensued. The Christians of the Northern sections found a friend 
in young Russia. That nation adopted from the first the Greek faith and 
worship, and became its champion. The struggling nations of the East turned 
naturally to her, and she rose rapidly in power. She inherited the quarrel 
with the Catholic powers of the West, and all her people hated the Turk. 
Her natural policy was relentlessly aggressive. Her aim was to repossess the 
countries of the Eastern Empire, and, above all, to recapture Constantinople. 
That city was to the Russian the holy city, and, in rounding out the bound- 
aries of his empire, he, in the earlier stages of the struggle, never lost sight 
of the purpose to regain the old capital. This spirit, entering into a national 
policy, became threatening to Western Europe, and, as the government of 
Russia schemed for commercial as well as political ascendency, the commer- 
cial nations of the West shaped their policy to oppose any such consumma- 
tion. This feeling entered into all alliances and combinations, and the West, 
being strong politically and commercially, has prevailed. The West drove 
the Turk from her every state or nation, but she has resisted every attempt of 
the East to drive the same people from her old empire. This is one phase of 
the case. 

Politically, Russia has always been the friend and ally of every nation 
opposed to the Turk. She has been in sympathy with the rebels in every 
revolutionary or insurrectionary movement in Turkey, because the insurrec- 



FOOTPRINTS OP THE AGES. 1173 

tionists were Christians of the Greek Church. She early conquered Moldavia 
and Wallachia,, and compelled Turkey to grant concessions to the Christians 
of other northern provinces. The war of 1828-9 grew out of her interference 
in behalf of the Greeks in their struggle for liberty a few years before. She 
undertook this war, however, under pledges to Great Britain and France that 
it should not be a war of conquest. If Russia absorbed Turkish territory, 
gaining absolute control of the Black Sea, and valuable ports on the Mediter- 
ranean, the commercial interests of the Western nations would suffer, and on 
this around the Turk was better than the Russian. Russia made peace when 
she had virtually conquered Turkey, and this was " in the interests of Europe." 
Russia was content with treaty stipulations looking to the protection of the 
Christians. 

Kinglake contends that the origin of the Crimean war in 1853 was a quar- 
rel between the Greek and Latin Churches as to privileges at Jerusalem. 
Turkey, influenced by Louis Napoleon, favored the Roman Church, and the 
complications led to irritation and the irritation to war. Russia, taking up the 
old quarrel of the Greek Church, and claiming that existing treaties had been 
violated, invaded Turkey. Great Britain and France formed an alliance with 
Turkey, and Russia was compelled to make peace on their terms. 

While Russia made war in the name of persecuted Christians, England and 
France made war not so much in the interest of the Turk as in the interest 
of Western Europe. Their scheme, in the event of the dismemberment of 
Turkey, was to form an independent nation of the Christian provinces of 
Turkey' and thus remove the cause of Russian irritation. Russian influence 
was met on its own ground and counteracted. The result of the defeat of 
Russia at Sevastopol was the treaty of Paris, in which the Eastern question 
was taken out of her hands and committed to the great powers of Europe. 
All troubles as to the Christians in Turkey were to be considered in common, 
and no one nation was to act independently except under given circumstances. 
The Black Sea was opened to the fleets of all nations, but no war vessels of 
Russia or Turkey were to be allowed in its waters. Russia was to disarm, and 
the fortifications on the Black Sea coast were to be dismantled. The Chris- 
tian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia, lying between Austria and Turkey, 
were formed into the independent principality of Roumania, and placed under 
the guardianship of Europe. 

In 1870, when France was powerless and England embarrassed, Russia re- 
ceded from certain provisions of the treaty of Paris and placed a war fleet on 
the Black Sea. She began the work of putting her army on a war footing, 
and, under various pretenses, made ready for the coming struggle. 

The Herzogovinian insurrection of two years ago was the rebellion of the 
Christians of that province against Turkish taxation and persecution. Servia 
was drawn into the conflict. And as Servia was a creation of the treaty of 
Paris (made semi-independent under the rule of native princes and placed 
under the protection of the European powers, although tributary to Turkey), 
all Europe became incidentally interested. European interference compelled a 
truce, and negotiations were commenced looking to permanent peace. Rus- 
sia secretly assisted Servia in the struggle against Turkey, and demanded that 
the great powers should interfere in behalf of the Christians of the northern 
provinces. Certain reforms were demanded, and these met the approval of 
England, France, Germany, and Austria. Turkey adopted a new constitu- 
tion and announced her intention to carry out reforms herself. Russia held 
that this was a mere promise, and demanded that certain plans should be fol- 
lowed. Turkey rejected all plans and denied the right of any power to inter- 
fere. Russia proposed a protocol, suggesting a basis of peace. The great 
powers signed this, but Turkey rejected it, and, in rejecting it, denied the right 
of Europe to manage the Eastern question or to dictate any policy to the 
Turkish government. Russia, holding herself warranted in such action, pro- 



1174 



THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 



poses to enforce the demands for reform made by herself This leaves the 
other powers free to act, by the terms of the agreement or protocol, as they 
deem best. While Turkey clings to the treaty of Paris the other powers hold 
that she has practically ignored it. 

Montenegro has been for two centuries a bone of contention. The Turks 
claimed it as a part of the Ottoman Empire, but the Montenegrins resisted 
every attempt to subdue them, and as early as the beginning of the eighteenth 
century asked the aid of Russia. For many years Montenegro has been a 
semi-independent State under the protection of Russia. And whenever there 
has been a rebellion or insurrection in the Christian provinces of Turkey, 
Montenegro, with or without the encouragement of Russia, has plunged into 
the conflict. She was fighting in 1861, and she joined Servia in the late war 
with Turkey, and it is to be noticed that while the Servians were defeated the 
Montenegrins were not. The question of peace with Montenegro is now one 
of the elements contributing to present complications. 

As to the present attitude of the nations little can be said with certainty. 
The ancient Turkish policy was to crush and virtually enslave the Christians 
conquered. It meant neither toleration nor consideration. The interference 
of Russia and other nations has secured a modification 0; this policy, and now 
Turkey expresses a willingness to carry out all needed reforms. Her position 
is that she will do herself all that is asked, but she will not allow either Rus- 
sia or Europe to superintend it. 

Austria, lying to the north of Turkey, must shape her policy so as to not 
endanger Hungary and the part of Poland in her dominions. The Poles and 
Hungarians are anti-Russian in feeling, and bitterly so. Some years ago an 
alliance was formed between Russia, Austria, and Germany, but whether this 
had any bearing on the Eastern question is not known. While Austria is 
interested in maintaining a friendly attitude toward Russia, her interests as 
they appear on the surface will not permit her to join with Russia in a war 
against Turkey. 

Germany occupies an independent position, and is interested in maintain- 
ing her supremacy in Europe. Her attitude is friendly to Russia. Fiance 
has declared that she will remain Neutral. England is interested in keeping 
Russia as she is or in crippling her power, and if involved in war will throw 
her influence against the nation whose ascendency she fears. 

One scheme has been to form the Christian provinces of Turkey, north of 
the Balkan mountains, into an independent nation. But as the members of 
the Greek Church are to the Roman Catholics as ten to one, the independent 
nation would be in sympathy with Russia, and Austria would not tolerate 
such a nation on her southern borders. 

The Anglo-French Alliance of 1853 was too strong to allow interference on 
the part of other nations. If there is now a secret alliance between Russia, 
Germany, and Austria, it is too strong for the other powers of Europe. If 
these three nations agree on a settlement of the Eastern question it will be 
settled on their programme. If there is such an understanding, it will not be- 
come apparent until Russia has invaded Turkey, and Great Britain is com- 
pelled to show her hand. 

As it is almost impossible for a nation engaged in war to confine itself to a 
stipulated plan, innumerable pretexts for interference present themselves. 
Hence, although Russia and Turkey may be the only contestants for a time, 
there is possibility of a general war. As it is the Russian people, rather than 
the government, who demand war, so it is the Turks, rather than the Sultan, 
who defy Russia. On the one hand, Russia wages war in the name of perse- 
cuted people, and on the other Turkey struggles for national existence. 

Russia declared War against Turkey, April 24th, 1877. 




Dr. HENRY A. REYNOLDS. 




ABDUL-HAMID II. -SULTAN OF TURKEY. 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. II77 



THE TURKO-RUSSIAN WAR. 

RUSSIA. 

Long before the time of recorded history, the Scythians and Sarmations 
moved from the highlands of Asia toward the west. They afterwards called 
themselves Sclaves, and when spread from the Ural to the Danube and from the 
Black Sea to the Arctic Ocean, they founded the mighty empire now ruled by the 
Czar of all the Russias. Before the ninth century a strong government was 
established, with Novgorod on the Volkor river for its capital. Another pow- 
erful tribe had a capital at the city of Kief. As was usual with uncivilized 
people, dissensions arose, and Rurik, a Varangian chief, was invited to assist 
in the suppression of the belligerents. The result was, that Rurik came as a 
chief and remained as a conqueror. He was the first ruler who conceived the 
idea of a great kingdom extending from the Baltic to the Danube. 

The first of the Russian subjects to embrace Christianity was Queen Olga 
in the tenth century. The people themselves did not renounce paganism 
until the reign of Vladimir the Great, about 980. He married Anne, the sister 
of the Greek emperor, and Russia became subject to the Patriarchate of Con- 
stantinople. Joraslov the wise, came to the throne in 1026, and was the first 
to give Russia a code of laws. He established schools and caused the Scrip- 
ture to be translated into the Sclavonic tongue. 

The next great king was Vladimir II. or Monomachres, who reigned from 
11 13 to 1 126. He lived in the memory of his people, rfot for the glory of his 
wars, but for his peaceful and happy reign. He devoted his life to the ameli- 
oration of suffering and the moral improvement of his subjects. From his 
death until the accession of Ivan the great, in 1462, the history of Russia is 
an unintelligible story of numberless invasions and wars with hordes of Tar- 
tars who, for two-hundred years and more, constantly poured in hostile 
myriads, across the border from Asia, and laid waste the fields and cities of 
the Sclaves. The Northmen, the Germans and Lithunians also flung them- 
selves against the weakened Empire. Ivan beat back the Asiatic and Western 
invaders, and proclaimed himself the first Czar. He married Sophia, the 
daughter of the Greek Emperor, and changed the arms of Russia from St. 
George and the Dragon to the Black Eagle with two heads, the banner of the 
Empire to this day. He induced skillful artificers from abroad to come 
to his country to instruct his subjects in the fine arts, and in every other way 
possible aided the advancement of civilization. He built the celebrated 
Kremlin where Napoleon afterwards slept while the city of Moscow was 
burning around him. During the 45 years reign of this prince he added, by 
conquest, 19,000 square miles to Russian territory, and 4,000,000 souls to her 
population. 

Ivan the Terrible, the Russian Caligula, reigned from 1533 to 1584. After 
a reckless minority of blood and horror, he was crowned in his eighteenth 
year only to find his outraged subjects in the act of burning his Capital, in the 
fury of their desperation. He was obliged to flee for his life, and was so 
impressed with what he believed to be a visitation of Divine wrath upon him, 
that he became converted, and grew to be a zealous Christian. After thirteen 
years of wise and mild rule, he relapsed again into his old habits, suddenly, 
and with tenfold more fury than before. His most insane act was the delib- 
erate destruction of Novgorod, the most ancient city of Russia — a city larger 
than London at the time of its ruthless ruin It was a city dear to the memory 
of every Sclave — a thousand years old before St. Petersburg was reared upon 



1178 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

the Neva. Other smaller cities shared the same fate. The Tyrant aspired to 
the hand of Queen Elizabeth of England, and when refused by the haughty 
virgin, put the embassador to death who bore his message of love to her 
majesty. In a fit of frenzy he killed his own son and died soon after of regret. 
The character of this man is a puzzle, and can only be understood under the 
• hypothesis of insanity. 

The Kingdom was next reigned over by Feodor, the last of the house of 
Rurik, who was followed by Boris Godunof, a Tartar, and he in turn was 
succeeded by Druitri the Polish impostor. In November, 1612, the throne 
being vacant, the Boyars met in council, and elected Michael Romanoff to the 
seat of the Czars. The reign of this prince was one of peace. After a quiet 
rule of thirty-two years he died, leaving the throne to Alexis. Alexis and his 
son and successor, Feodor III., used every influence in their power to 
enlighten their people. When Feodor died, his half brother, Peter the Great, 
Russia's greatest ruler, came to the throne. This remarkable man assumed 
the reins of government at the age of seventeen, and at once set about organ- 
izing the army and navy of the Empire. He traveled in disguise over Europe, 
working as a common ship builder in Holland and England. St. Petersburg 
was founded by him, and to him more than to any other man does Russia owe 
her greatness, 

A number of short-lived, inglorious rulers followed till 1762, when Catharine 
the Great, one of the worst of all bad women the world ever produced, came 
to the throne. This woman, whom Voltaire called " the Semiramis of the 
North," reigned till 1796 with a hand of iron, and among other things, con- 
quered large possessions of the Turks, and conceived the idea of driving the 
Moslem out of Europe. 

The next Czar who played an important part in the history of Europe was 
Alexander I., who ascended the throne in 1801, and reigned till 1825. He 
abolished the inquisition, and took the first steps towards the liberation of the 
serfs. He was during his entire life possessed with the singular idea that he 
should abdicate the throne, all the time occupying it with a grace and power 
unknown to any predecessor. He joined the allies against Napoleon in 1805, 
and was present at the defeat of Austerlitz. At length, however, he became 
the ally of the great French Emperor, and proposed with him to divide the 
kingdoms of the world, but took the field against his confederate in 18 12, 
and after Waterloo, formed with Austria and Prussia, the " Holy Alliance," 
which was to manage the affairs of Europe on the basis of Christian charity. 
This great prince died leaving an unspotted record as a good man, and earnest 
Christian, and a conscientious monarch. 

Nicholas I. succeeded to the rule of the Empire in 1825, and reigned thirty- 
nine years. He mounted the throne on the steps of a bloody revolution, which 
he suppressed with great vigor. He was possessed of the hereditary desire of 
the Czars to occupy Constantinople, and thought the time had come when the 
barbaric Turk might be expelled from Europe forever, and the Moslem 
usurper driven back to Asia, from whence he came. But he was mistaken, 
and England, with France and Sardinia to help her, opposed him, with the 
well known result. 

Alexander II., the eldest son of the Czar Nicholas, succeeded to the throne 
of his ancestors in 1855, at the age of thirty-seven. He is at present, the 
autocrat of all the Russias, a true Romanoff. In April, 1841, he married 
Marie, the youngest daughter of the Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, a 
woman of most excellent character, who is still the Czarina. While still a 
young man, he set about in the most politic manner to win the affections of 
the dissatisfied subjects of Russia, and among others, of the Fins, who had 
never been in sympathy with their rulers. He was called to the throne by the 
sudden death of his father, while the Crimean war was still unfinished. He 
was compelled to make an ignominious peace, but he set about quietiy to 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. 1 179 

investigate the causes of the defeat of Russia, and remedy the defects. He 
found the state rotten to the core. Over 60,000,000 of his people were in 
bondage, the slaves of the soil, and corruption in every department of the 
government ran riot, and was working ruin to the nation. He at once deter- 
mined to abolish the serfs, and correct the evils in civil and military service. 
It took him nine years to accomplish the first object, opposed as he was on 
every hand by the bigoted nobility and by the serfs themselves. He brought 
home the captives from Siberia, and established schools throughout the 
Empire. 

In his relations with the other powers of Europe, he has maintained a dig- 
nified course, being strictly neutral in the wars that have convulsed the 
Continent. He protested manfully against the barbarities of the Turks, in 
the suppression of the insurrections in Montenegro, Herzegovina and Crete. 
In undertaking the war of 1877, the Czar was no doubt conscientious, and had 
it not been for the supposed interests of England and the other powers, which 
they choose to consider as menaced, the Russian would have had the sympathy of 
the civilized world in his attempt to beat back the followers of the Crescent to 
their native soil — to the continent where they were born and where they belong. 

The population of European Russia is about 80,000,000 ; of Asiatic Russia 
about 10,000,000. The army was enlarged and re-organized in 1871. Eully 
organized.it stands thus: Field army, 810,000; army of the first reserve, 
130,000; of the second reserve, 280,000; of the last reserve, 600,000; the 
-Cossacks, 180,000. As a naval power, Russia does not rank high. In 1876 
she had seventy-seven men-of-war, of which twenty-five were iron-clads, 
manned by 2,778 officers and men. The finances of the country are not in a 
good condition, there being an annual deficit of from $10,000,000 to $15,000,- 
000, with a public debt of $1,254,455,000. 

TURKEY. 

Turkey, or the Ottoman Empire, comprises not less than forty different 
states, and many ancient free cities. No government, counting so many and 
$0 varied nationalities among her subjects, exists. Her history is an anomal- 
ous one. Beginning with a small Turkish tribe in 1299, by one undeviating 
couise of conquest the empire Was fairly founded in 1453 by the capture of 
Con*u,ntinople. 

Tlit nations were simply annexed as they were conquered, and on the most 
libera] terms, involving the simple recognition of the Ottoman power. No 
amalgamation of nationalities was attempted ; consequently the Turks are a 
people but in name, without unity or common sympathy. As a government, 
the Empire is very weak, owing to the difference of religion among its sub- 
jects, the heavy taxes necessary to support a military power in the ascendancy, 
the difference of races already mentioned and the utter absence of loyalty to 
the Central Government on the part of a great majority of its subjects. 

The Turkish Empire in its widest extent stretches from east to west, 41 
degrees of longitude, and northward 37 degrees of latitude. The area, how- 
ever, is but about 1,900,000 square miles. Turkey in Europe includes the 
most northerly division of the Ottoman domains, and borders upon the Rus- 
sian possessions, and on the Austro-Hungarian territory. Within these limits 
are embraced what were known in former times as, Scythia Minor, Dacia. 
Mcesia (Inferior and Superior) Thrace, Macedonia, Thessaly, Empirus and 
part ©f Illyricum. 

Turkey in Asia is the largest division of the Empire, and extends from the 
Black Sea and the Trans-Caucasian possessions of Russia on the north, to Ara- 
bia ovi the south, and from Persia and the Tartar powers of Central Asia on 
tlw east, to the Mediterranean on the west. 

In Asiatic Turkey are embraced the following historic states of antiquity, 
•some of them at one time imperial, viz: Armenia, Assyria, Mesopotamia, 



Il8o FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

Babylonia, Chaldea, part of Elymais, Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, including 
the kingdoms of Judah and Israel as well as Philistia, or the land 
of Philistines, Arabia, Petraea, Commagene, Cappadocia, Armenia Minor, 
Pontus, Bythynia, Galatia. Lycaonia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Pisidia, Phrygia, 
Mysia, Lydia, Caria, Lycia, and the important island states of Cyprus, Rhodes 
and Samos, besides the many smaller islands along the coast of Asia Minor. 

Turkey in Africa comprises the three tributary states of Egypt, Tripoli and 
Tunis. 

The population of the Turkish Empire is placed at 44,000,000 ; of these 
16,500,000 are in Europe, 11,000,000 in Africa, and 16,500,000 in Asia ; 19,- 
000,000 are Mohammedans, 9,395,000 Christians, 200,000 Jews — the balance of 
miscellaneous belief. 

The physical advantages of both Turkey in Europe and in Asia are sur- 
passed by those of few countries on the globe. The country is traversed by 
several important mountain ranges, inferior only to the Alps or Himalayas. 
These ranges, with their many off-shoots and foot-hills, give the country a 
rugged appearance ; but it is interspersed everywhere by broad and fertile 
valleys and plains, well watered by numerous rivers. 

The Black Sea, the Balkan Mountains and the river Ister or Danube, have 
for centuries been inseparably connected with Turkey and its defenses. 

The most important city of Turkey is Constantinople, named from the Em- 
peror Constantine the Great, by whom it was built, A. D. 325 to 332. The 
Turks call it Stamboul. Its site has been famous since the beginning of his- 
tory. The present city was built upon the ruins of Byzantium, which had 
stood a thousand years, and was the successor of the old city of the Thra- 
cians that occupied the same position from the very dawn of civilization. The 
city is surrounded by a wall thirteen miles in length, and is entered by twenty- 
eight gates, 

Trajan's wall, which was mentioned frequently du?"mg the war, is a line of 
fortifications, the original construction of which is attributed to the Roman. 
Emperor, Trajan, about A. D. 102, It stretches across the Dobrudja, 
a distance of forty miles, from the great bend of the Danube to the Black 
Sea. The barrier comprises a double, and in some places a triple, 
rampart of earth, about ten feet high, but occasionally nearly twice as 
much, with a swamp and a chain of small lakes on the northern side. 
This valley, or marshy depression, was long supposed to have been an 
old channel of the river, but the theory has been disproved by closer and 
more scientific observation. 

The religious capital of the Empire is Mecca, the " Mother of Cities,'' in 
Asia. This is the holy city to all the faithful. Here was the birth place of 
the faith of Islam, and here from the ends of the world come all good Mo- 
hammedans to do penance and pray in the great Kaaba, the House of God. 
Mecca is all important, at such crises in Turkish affairs as the late war, for 
there is the sacred treasury where the pilgrims annually deposit $3,000,- 
000, for the defense of their faith. There the accumulated offering of 
centuries lies locked up in a sacred chest, which has was opened to aid 
in driving the Muscovite back to his northern home. 

The head of the Turkish Empire is the Sultan, who, as the successor of the 
Prophet, is the religious as well as political chief of state. He is sup- 
posed to reign by divine right and by some is held to be infallible. 

The Sultan is advised by a cabinet consisting of two great classes : one, 
who give their attention to the civil administration of the Empire, headed by 
the Grand Vizier ; the other, to the war department, headed by the Viceroy. 

The local government is administered by a great number of dignitaries of 
various rank and title. The territory is divided into vilayets under the valis, 
which, in turn, have a host of subdivisions and minor officers under theii 
direction. 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. Il8l 

The army of Turkey consists of three classes : the Active, the Reserve, and 
the Sedentary, besides auxiliaries. It numbers about 725,000 men. 

The Bashi-Bazouks belong to an irregular arm of the service. They are 
mere marauders and are possessed of the spirit of true Asiatic freebooters. 

The Turkish navy consists of about a hundred vessels of war fit for service. 
The steamships are about eighty in number, the iron-clads twenty. 

The present ruler of the Ottoman Empire is Abdul Hamed II., who suc- 
ceeded his brother Murad V., in August, 1876. He was born in 1843, and 
has been educated to western manners and prejudices. He is of studious 
habits and gives a large proportion of his time to public affairs. In religion 
he is an orthodox Turk of the old school, a devout Mohammedan, but with- 
out the fanaticism of most of his predecessors. 

THE PRUTH CROSSED. 

After two years of maneuvering in which Russia out-generaled the diplo- 
mats of united Europe, the war which each party had long known to be 
inevitable, and for which they had been making secret but mighty prepara- 
tions was begun by the following declaration of the Czar Alexander : 

Our faithful and beloved subjects know the strong interest we have con- 
stantly felt in the destinies of the oppressed Christian population of Turkey. 
Our desire to ameliorate and assuage their lot has been shared by the whole 
Russian nation, which now shows itself ready to bear fresh sacrifices to alleviate 
the position of the Christians in the Balkan Peninsula. The blood and 
property of our faithful subjects have always been dear to us, and our whole 
reign attests our constant solicitude to preserve to Russia the benefits of 
peace. This solicitude never failed to actuate us during the deplorable events 
which occured in Herzegovina, Bosnia, and Bulgaria. Our object, before all, 
was to effect an amelioration in the position of Christians in the East by 
means of pacific negotiations, and, in concert with the great European powers, 
our allies and friends, for two years we have made incessant efforts to induce 
the Porte to effect such reforms as would protect Christians in Bosnia, Her- 
zegovina and Bulgaria from any arbitrary measures of the local authorities. 
The accomplishment of these reforms was absolutely stipulated by anterior 
engagements contracted by the Porte toward the whole of Europe. Our 
efforts, supported by the diplomatic representations made in common with 
other governments, have not, however, attained their object. The Porte has 
remained unshaken in its formal refusal of any effective guarantee for the 
security of its Christian subjects, and has rejected the conclusions of the Con- 
stantinople conference. Wishing to essay every possible means of conciliation 
in order to pursuade the Porte, we proposed to the other Cabinets to draw up 
a special protocol comprising the most essential conditions of the Constanti- 
nople conference, and to invite the Turkish Government to adhere to this 
international act, which stated the extreme limits of our peaceful demands, but 
our expectation was not fulfilled. The Porte did not defer to the unanimous 
wish of Christian Europe, and did not adhere to the conclusions of the pro- 
tocol. Having exhausted pacific efforts, we are compelled, by the haughty 
obstinancy of the Porte, to proceed to more decisive acts, feeling that our 
equity and our own dignity enjoin it. By her refusal, Turkey places us 
under necessity of having recourse to arms. Profoundly convinced of the 
justice of our cause, and humbly committing ourselves to the grace and help 
of the Most High, we make known to our faithful subjects that the moment, 
foreseen when we pronounced the words to which all Russia responded with 
complete unanimity, has now arrived. We expressed the intention to act 
independently when we deemed it necessary, and when Russia's honor 
demanded it. In now invoking the blessing of God upon our valiant armies, 
we give them the order to cross the Turkish frontier. Alexander. 



Il82 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



Given at Kischeneff, this 12th day of April (old style), in the year of grace 
1877, and in the twenty-third year of our reign. 

Prince Gortschakoff in behalf of Russia issued a circular to the Powers, in 
which he claimed that his government had done all that was possible to avert 
the calamity, but the refusal of the Porte to accept the protocol had left no 
other way open than a resort to arms. 

The Prince also notified the Turkish Charge d' Affaires at St. Petersburg 
of the action of his august master, the Czar. 

The Grand Duke Nicholas, who commanded the army of the Danube, issued 
a proclamation to the Roumanians, in which he stated that, by order of the 
Czar, his army destined to combat the Turks must pass through their territory. 
He declared that they came as friends and would pass through swiftly, and 
asked that the natives pursue their usual avocations, furnishing the army 
whatever it needed by way of supplies, for which they should be paid. 

The Roumanians acceded to the demand and gave actual assistance to the 
army, thus making the invasion of all the country north of the Danube easy 
for the Russians. The operations of the invaders were very rapid. The first 
gun in the European campaign was fired on the 30th of April, at Ibrail. 
About the same time the Russians took possession of Kalafat, and 
closed the Danube, bringing their boats into its waters, down the Pruth. 
All this time England was much disturbed. Indeed active preparations were 
made to increase the army, and the navy was ordered to the Mediterranean 
stations, but apparently this was more than anything else intended to intimi- 
date Russia and Roumania, but it was of no avail. 

Earl Derby replied to Gortschakoff's circular in a note in which he said 
that it seemed to Her Majesty's government that the entry of Russian forces 
into Turkish territory would awaken fanaticism and prove an obstacle to the 
reforms for which the Powers had been praying. Russia had taken this step 
without the consent of the other Powers. 

As to the position of the other powers, it may be said that Germany and 
France seemed to take litle interest in the matter, while Austria was exceed- 
ingly jealous. Warlike little Greece was clamorous to begin the struggle at 
once against her enemy of a thousand years, and was pricked to the quick 
when England frowned upon her ardor. Hungary asked what was to be 
done about it, for the Hungarian hates the Sclave with a hatred that lasts 
from the cradle to the grave. Egypt showed great apathy in the cause, and 
did not seem disposed to participate unless called upon in the name of the 
Prophet. It was but a short time, however, before the Khedive was notified 
that the Emperor needed the Egyptian contingents. The Bey of Tunis 
received also a similar message from the Sultan. 

The army of Russia occupied the month of May in uninteresting operations 
along the Danube, quietly taking possession of the forts on the n rthern 
shore. The fortifications at Guergevo and Kalafat were strengthened, and 
Widin, opposite the latter, was nearly destroyed by constant bombardment 
from the Roumanian side. 

The Roumanians finally declared their independence in spite of the warn- 
ings of Austria, and acknowledged that they were at war with Turkey. 

The Sultan in order to incite fanatical bravery on the part of his subjects 
declared a "holy war" against Russia, and raised the flag of the Prophet 
The Russians also carried the holy banner of the Greek Church, 

A new element now seemed about to enter into the campaign in the action 
of Servia ; but she took no active part for several months. During the first 
week in June, the Czar visited the headquarters of the army at Ploejesti, and 
met with a most enthusiastic reception. Two hundred staff officers were 
present, and a number of distinguished military and diplomatic personages. 
On the the 8th of June, he visited Bucharest to meet Prince Charles, an event 
that was looked forward to with great interest. One hundred thousand people 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. I183 

were in the streets, having gathered from all the neighboring country to see 
the Czar. From all that could be gathered from headquarters a perfect under- 
standing was arrived at between the Czar and the Prince. 

During the early part of June, while the Russians were gathering upon the 
north bank of the Danube preparing to cross, Suleiman Pasha designed an 
expedition against Montenegro. Ever since the revolt of the state, Nicsics, 
a stronghold in Duga Pass had been in a state of siege. It was occupied by 
a Turkish garrison of 500 men who had existed in a most precarious manner, 
being supplied at long intervals by an invasion of Turks. 

Duga Pass is a long, narrow defile that winds through the mountains, along 
the northern boundary of Montenegro. At its mouth is situated the village 
of Kujsatz, which the Turks seized without much difficulty. This was the 
only available road leading through the pass, and the Turks sought to force 
it by sheer fighting. In one series of engagements which occurred, they lost 
over 6,000 men. At Plevna they met with a final repulse. It was estimated 
that 10,000 Bashi-Bazouks alone, were left dead in the mountain defiles of 
Montenegro besides large numbers of the regular army. 

On the 21st of June, at midnight, the passage of the Danube was commenc- 
ed by the Russians, and after some delay was completed on the 24th. The 
first engagement was that preceding the capture o.f Matchin, the key to 
Dobrudscha, on the 23rd, while the passage was in progress. The arrival of 
the Czar at Ibrail was the signal for beginning the conquest of Dobrudscha. 
The slaughter at all points during this all-along-the-line engagement, was 
appalling. The Turks were evidently surprised by the suddenness of the 
Russian attack, and were nowhere well prepared for it. It was a coup d' etat 
reflecting the highest credit upon the generalship of the Russian armies. The 
severity of the attack upon Nicopolis and Widin was greatly in excess of that 
employed against any of" the other points, for the reason that the Turks were 
better entrenched and offered a more determined resistance. Both cities 
were several times in flames. Widin was threatened with destruction from 
this cause,' which would have destroyed the Turkish stores and brought mat 
ters to a crisis in the garrison, even had it been able to hold out against the 
invaders, and the most heroic and daring efforts were made to subjugate the 
flames. 

In the meantime affairs around Sistova began to take on a serious aspect. 
The Russian position there was one of eminent strategical value, as it gave its 
possessors the command of the whole northwestern Danube portion of Bul- 
garia, rendering easy the circumvention of the chain of Turkish fortresses 
which reach to the Balkans. This fact made the Turks extremely solicitous 
to regain their lost stronghold, and they determined to make a bold assault 
for it. Therefore, troops from Rustchuk hastened to the support of those 
which had retreated from Sistova, and detachments from Shumla and Ras- 
grad made forced marches to the scene of the impending conflict. In gaining 
this position against such fearful obstacles, the Russians lost only 200 men 
killed, and nearly twice the number wounded. So rapid was the transit that the 
Turks were compelled to retreat before the force of numbers. On the 30th 
instant there were some 100,000 of the Russians at Sistova, a formidable force. 

The bombardment of Rustchuk still continued on the 30th, and the town 
was rapidly becoming untenable, though the southern defenses yet remained 
intact, and the railroad in fair condition. The abandonment of the Danube, 
by the Turks, was an hourly possibility, as it was thought they would attempt 
to retire to the Balkans. At this time, also, the Servians began to prepare for 
active hostilities, and ordered accoutrements for 50,000 men from Paris, in- 
tending to begin operations along the southern frontier as soon as the 
Russian army was decisively established in Bulgaria. 

Apprehending that it would be impossible for them to maintain their hold 
upon Bulgaria, the Turks upon retiring from any portion of the country, 



1 1 84 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

added to the horrors of war the atrocities of barbarism, and commenced a devas- 
tation of the country along their line of march, to prevent the Russians from 
provisioning their army. 

On Saturday the 30th the battle of Sistova began. It was a most destructive 
one, raging several days. Russian troops still kept up the passage, and 
having won the position securely, strong detachments were sent out upon the 
road toward Tirnova. The advance upon this place, the ancient capital of 
Bulgaria, was continued steadily. The chief object of this may be understood 
when it is asserted that about six days march south of the town, accessible 
both by Tirnova and by the route from Sistova to Malooch or Malkotcha, 
ties the town of Gabrova, whence commences the Schipka Pass, which figured 
to prominently in the war. 

After the Russians became masters of the Danube by those events, their 
headquarters were established at Baujassi. The success of these operations 
further fired the impatience of the patriotic Roumanians, who had long desired 
to take active part in the struggle against the abhorred Turks, and they would 
no longer be restrained. It was daily expected that events of the greatest 
importance would transpire, and it became necessary to accede to the demand 
of the Roumanian people, and their battalions were accordingly placed in the 
field. On the 29th, the long pent thunders of the cannon belched forth, and 
under Prince Charles, the work of reducing Widin was begun. Nor was the 
bombardment confined to this locality. Nicopolis, Sistova, Rustchuk, Tur- 
tukai and Silistria were attacked in the same furious manner. At Nicopolis, 
the Turks made a violent resistance, but the. Russians moved forward and 
though the ground was soon strewn with corpses they steadily pushed the 
Turks back. The eighth Russian Corps, under the command of General 
Radetsky, embarked behind the island of Vardin, some distance below the 
town of Simnitza. The Fourteenth division covered the embarkation with 
field artillery and sharpshooters. The Turkish force opposing this movement 
was soon reinforced but not in time to prevent the landing. The prepara- 
tions for crossing at Sistova began below Simnitza. 

The point selected for landing on the Bulgarian side was about two miles 
below Sistova. With feverish anxiety the men waited for the dawn when they 
began their perilous advance. As soon as the movement was observed from 
the Bulgarian side, a heavy fire was opened on the boats from the Turkish 
artillery ; but they pushed gallantly on. and as they ran in toward the enemy's 
position, returned the fire with good effect. As the first boats dashed into 
the bank, the men leaped ashore with a ringing cheer, and immediately formed 
a strong skirmish line to protect the landing. Boat after boat pushed 
in and company after company disembarked, and soon a sufficient force was 
assembled to justify an attack on the nearest Turkish position. The Turkish 
infantry were vigorously charged, and after a brief but desperate struggle 
were driven from the landing place at the point of the bayonet. By seven 
o'clock a whole brigade was across, and the movement was kept up without a 
moment's interruption or delay, Everything had been provided for with 
wonderful foresight, and the orders of the commanders were executed with 
the greatest promptness and precision. At noon a whole division was over, 
and another division ready to start at a moment's notice on the Roumanian 
shore. At nine o'clock in the morning a body of Turkish infantry, 3,000 
strong, was pushed forward and commenced an attack on the troops that had 
been landed. 

A sharp fight ensued, but the Turks were in a short time driven back. Sis- 
tova was occupied by the Russians on Thursday. The whole eighth corps 
then moved over to the Bulgarian side. The Grand Duke Nicholas with his 
staff arrived over latter on. The Island of Borcea was occupied, and this move- 
ment therefore took in the entire Turkish defense line of the Danube. The 
size of the camp indicated that there were 12,000 or 15,000 men in Matchin. 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. 1185 

The Russian advances were made with rapidity and decision, A force of 
18,000 crossed the Danube on the 25th, near Hirsova, and effected a junction 
with the force marching southward from Matchin along the right bank of the 
river. There was no opposition, and the united forces took possession of the 
country north of the river Seraij which covers Hirsova. This made an omi- 
nous outlook for Tulcha and Sulina in the Dobrudscha. It became evident 
that the Turks under Abdul Kerim, had determined to make a stand at the 
strongest position in Bulgaria by retiring within the quadrilateral. It was 
decided by the Russians to send one division along the Danube to Tcherna- 
voda, where the railway for Kustendjie begins, and another southeast into the 
interior of the Dobrudscha, to beleaguer the garrisons of the two towns. 

Almost at the same time of the passage at Galatz and Ibrail, the troops of 
the right wing encamped westward of Alexandria toward Slatina, advanced 
to the Danube and posted themselyes at Turnu-Magureli, Flomunda, Lissa, 
and Simnitza, led by the Ninth corps. This movement was chiefly directed 
against Sistova and Nicopolis. To cover the double flank movement and distract 
the attention of the Turks, who were already bewildered by the strategic ope- 
rations of their enemy, a vigorous cannonading was kept up all along the 
Danube from Kalafat to Oltenitza. One great result of the Russian combina- 
tion was to force the Turks to retire from Widin to a complete isolation from 
any support from the main army. The crossing of the Russian right wing cut 
the garrison off completely from any of the Eastern forces, and left the town 
easily accessible to the invaders. The town of Rustchuk was subjected to a 
continued and destructive bombardment from the batteries of Giurgevo. The 
cannonading continued for three days, and the scenes within the town were 
of unqualified horror. The Russians also suffered, and the town of Giurgevo 
was almost destroyed. The total number of Russians in Dobrudscha was 
now 30,000, with strong forces at Kirsova. 

Having been compelled to keep within Bjela, the Turks began concentrat- 
ing their available forces there, apprehending that the Russians would en- 
deavor to secure possession. The bombardment of Rustchuk was kept up 
without abatement. After being driven from Sistova, the Tnrks were gradu- 
ally forced back upon this place. The fighting was very severe at times, and 
after each engagement the Turks were forced further back, though showing 
great steadiness and determination. It now became manifest that the stock 
of provisions at Rustchuk was failing rapidly, and the Turkish authorities 
were reduced to a sore extremity. The province was almost drained of sup- 
plies, and the lack of proper commissariat arrangements told heavily against 
the Turks. It became a great problem how to provide for the large army in 
and around the town. To add to the perplexity of the dilemma in which they 
found themselves, they learned that the 120,000 Russians who had crossed the 
river at Sistova, comprising 20,000 cavalry and 250 cannon, had divided into 
three bodies, the principal of which was marching against them, and the other 
two toward the Balkans and Nicopolis respectively. About 80,000 more 
Russians were concentrated between Simnitza and Turnu-Magureli. A little 
encouraging news was received from Shumla. Here the Turks had been con- 
centrating in order to take the Russian advance to the Balkans on the flank. 
Here, on the fifth of July, a very severe battle was fought, which lasted twelve 
hours. The Russians were repulsed with great loss. Preparations were im- 
mediately begun to send the army in the Dobrudscha to the Balkans to co-op- 
erate with the army operating west of the quadrilateral. This left the Turks 
liable to attack in the front by the Russian army in Sistova, and in the rear 
by the corps advancing through the Dobrudscha. The Czarowitz announced 
his intention of taking command of the right wing operating around Dobrud- 
scha. In the meantime the Roumanian army still held its position around 
Nicopolis, waiting for a decided Russian victory before committing itself by a 
direct invasion of Turkish territory. 
75 



II 86 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

On Thursday the Russians made another attack upon Bjela, which proved 
disastrous and resulted in their repulse. This was claimed by them to have 
only been a feint, though large numbers of wounded were sent to Bucharest, 
reported at several hundred. The Turkish loss was considerable. The 
Turks evacuated the town on the following morning and fell back on the line 
of Rustchuk. Affairs immediately assumed a serious outlook, and on the 9th 
a number of movements were made. A battle appeared imminent at Tirnova, 
where it was thought the Russians would make another effort to occupy the 
town. Two corps went into Roumania to form a reserve. Abdul Kerim be- 
gan fortifying the line from Shumla to Jamboli to defend Adrianople. Twen- 
ty-thousand newly arrived Russians were marched from Jassay to Galatz. 
The Czar determined to cross the Danube and witness the war. 

To add to the confusion prevalent, reports came from Constantinople stat- 
ing that that city was under a reign of terror. This was supplemented by the 
news of the fight which had taken place at Tirnova. The town had been 
taken on the previous Saturday, after a severe and destructive fight by the 
Russians. 

Ninety thousand Russians advanced from Tirnova on Gabrova, while the 
cavalry reached Drenova, south of Tirnova, shortly before. At about the 
same time the Russians in Dobrudscha arrived in force before Kustenje which 
was cut off from the interior. It appeared that the length of Trajan's wall 
was the line behind which the army of the Dobrudscha were massing and was 
defensible for the Turks if they displayed proper activity. By the possession 
of Tirnova, the Russians completed a strong line from the Danube to the 
Balkans and pointed to a bright prospect under future developments. It be- 
came known that the muster of a new Russian army had been made, 
which was to advance to Sofia under command of the Grand Duke 
Vladimir, with General Zamoiski as chief of staff, which was a new source of 
anxiety to the already greatly harrassed and sequestered Turks. News on the 
nth, fully confirmed the former dispatches that the bridge at Bjela, had 
been captured and was held by the Russians. This was an important point, 
being on the river Jantra, on the main road between Tirnova and Rustchuk. 
Four days preceding the nth, the bombardment of the last named place had 
ceased and the Russians came, on that date, to within twenty-five miles south- 
west of the town. On the 13th, it was blockaded by the Russian soldiers, and 
on the same day the Czar anived in Fratesti, a station on the Bucharest and 
Giurgevo railroad, where he temporarily sojourned. By the sixteenth, by bril- 
liant forced marches a Russian advance guard of Cossacks had pushed through 
to Jeni Saghra, a railroad station, half way between Jamboli and Adrianople. 
They traversed the Hainkoi Pass through the Balkan mountains, to reach 
this station, which they immediately began to attack. The place was 
defended by two battalions of Turks, with Raouf Pasha expected at the head 
of a large force. The Russians numbered some 10,000, but were without 
artillery, and were eventually repulsed. 

In addition to the battle at Jeni Saghra there occurred, on Monday, a very 
severe engagement at Febitch, twelve miles from the first named place, in 
which the Turks were led by Liman Bey, who succeeded in driving the Rus- 
sians back into the Balkans, from whence they came, with heavy loss. 

At first the Russians seemed to be successful, but the determined fighting 
of the Turks afterward completely overwhelmed them. The Turks pursued 
the flying Russians until the mountain was recovered. It is impossible to 
estimate the loss. 

The Turks now became dissatisfied with Abdul Kerim, the commander of the 
Balkan army, and he was soon afterward succeeded by Mehemet Ali. 

On the 20th reinforcements were sent from Constantinople for the defense 
of Adrianople, it being known that the Russians were marching against it. 
The Russians advanced toward Kazanlik and Slwin 10 obtain possession of 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. Il8? 

the southern debouchment of one of the passes of the Balkans. To repel this 
invasion the Turks depended upon the arrival of Suleiman Pasha and his 
forces. The rapidity with which the Russians moved enabled them, however, 
to secure the capture of Kazanlik before the Turks could interfere. 

Having secured this position, the next natural move was upon Philliopolis, 
from whence there was a line of railroad leading to Adrianople. The Porte, 
at this juncture, abandoned all hope of saving the latter city in face of the 
overwhelming number of Russians who had succeeded in penetrating into that 
country on their way to Constantinople. 

There was general activity among all branches of the Russian lines now. 
The bombardment of Widin was resumed by the Roumanians at Kalafat, and 
50,000 Russians were dispatched from Nicopolis toward Widin for the purpose 
of preventing the advance of Turkish troops between Nisch and Sofia. The 
object of this Turkish advance was to establish a chain of communication 
with Sofia, in order to allow the garrison of Widin to retreat in that direction, 
if necessary. 

The passing of the Balkans by General Ghourka, was one of those strokes 
of military genius worthy of the Great Napoleon. That the Turks found 
themselves arrayed against a force which they were unable to overwhelm, soon 
became apparent. The next move was to direct a column against Schipka 
Pass, which was taken and occupied on the 19th, with no very great opposition. 
On the 20th, a battle was fought at Plevna, a town twenty-five miles south of 
Nicopolis. The engagement lasted some five or six hours and resulted in the 
'repulse of the Russians. 

To shut out the Turkish fleet from interference with Russian operations 
below Galatz, the Sulina branch of the Dauube was obstructed by the sinking 
of four vessels containing 260 cubic yards of stone, reducing the depth of the 
river to four feet. 

The encroachments upon Rustchuk had been going steadily on during the 
few days previous, and on the 22d the town was entirely surrounded, the Rus- 
sians being on the Danube seven miles above and eight miles below the town, 
with a line of communication between these two points. They were well 
provided with supplies and ammunition, the communications with their base 
of supplies on the north side being very satisfactory. The bombardment of 
the town commenced on Sunday the 23d, and was kept up with great persist- 
ency. The assault was terrific, but the Turks were not kept napping, and as 
has been amply demonstrated, were quite well prepared to meet the perils of 
the siege, for such it proved and a very persistent one. In the meantime, 
the preparations for the capture of Nicopolis, had about been perfected. It 
became necessary that the Russians should secure this point ; for a crossing 
at Nicopolis possessed many advantages over that of Sistova. The batteries at 
Turnu-Magureli, had reduced Nicopolis to ruins, but the two hills on which 
the town was built completely sheltered the Turkish forces from the Russian 
fire. Therefore, they decided to attack the town from the Bulgarian side of 
the river. 

Finally the order for the Russian advance was given, and after an arduous 
march around the lake and toward Nicopolis the contending forces came into 
collision. The Turks had taken the precaution to cover their position by 
double lines of pickets, supported, at intervals, by several companies of picked 
troops. This was to guard against the raids of the Cossacks, whose enterprise 
had "impressed itself thoroughly upon the Turkish mind. These lines of pick- 
ets made what might be termed a formal show of resistance, and slowly retired 
on the main body. As soon as the Russians came within effective range of 
the Turkish position they were met by a severe artillery fire, which, how- 
ever, did not check their advance, and to which they replied with a still more 
formidable fire. The Turks being posted on a commanding position had a 
considerable advantage, and, as the Russians approached, frightful gaps were 



n88 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



made in their ranks by the Turkish artillery. With surprising valor, how- 
ever, they continued to approach the heights, and as soon as they came with- 
in rifle range they opened a terrible fire on the Turks. For half an hour this 
musketry duel continued with unabated vigor. The Russians, in the mean- 
time, developed their front, so as to approach their left in the direction 
of the Osem River. This was a movement which threatened the Turkish line 
of retreat to the south-westward and westward. 

About midday on Sunday, the 15th, the order for the assault was given, and 
the whole Russian line, supported by several batteries of artillety advantage- 
ously posted, stormed the heights occupied by the Turks. During this 
awful climb, in the face of a deadly fire, the Russians suffered terribly; while 
the Turks, stubbornly defending their position, sustained equal losses. But the 
onset was so impetuous that the Turks could not withstand it, and were 
driven headlong over the crest of the hills toward Nicopolis. After obtain- 
ing possession of the heights commanding the town, at terrible cost, the Rus- 
sians had Nicopolis at their mercy. They entered the town on Monday 
morning. The capture was a most important event for the Russian campaign 
in Bulgaria. A new bridge was built at this point, which left the Russians 
able to go forward from Tirnova, always sure of their base of supplies. It 
secured access to the interior, and made it a greater possibility to pursue the 
march to the Balkans. 

The Turkish navy, which was expected to play an important part in their 
first defense of the Danube was placed in command of Hobart Pasha, an 
Englishman. He did not remain on the Danube, but on the night of the 29th 
of April, ran the blockade of the Russian batteries at Galatz, with his flag- 
ship, the Rethymo, and escaped safely into the Black Sea. His first action 
afterwards was the bombardment of Poti and other towns of the Euxine, 
threatening Odessa itself. 

Early in May the Turkish ironclads were cruising up and down the river, 
bombarding every place from Widin to Galatz. One day, as three of the sup- 
posed indestructible monster ships were passing near Ibrail, a Russian masked 
battery opened upon them, and after a few shots, a well directed ball pene- 
trated the Lutfield, the largest of the ihree, it blew up with a mighty 
explosion. All the crew, of 300 men, with Hassan Bey, sank in the river, 
never to rise again, except one seaman, who was rescued by a Russian boat. 
The other two ironclads beat a hasty retreat. 

A boat expedition had been secretly planned by the Russians to explore the 
river toward Silistria and discover the character of its defenses, both along the 
eastern side of the town and on the water front. The expeditionary force con- 
sisted of three boats, armed with light pieces and torpedoes. They started in 
the night and proceeded without interruption until morning when they came 
upon a Turkish gunboat, which after a short contest they disabled. A second 
monitor came to the rescue and as they could not venture to attack this pow- 
erfully armed vessel they retired, though keeping up such afire that the Turks 
made no attempt at pursuit. The defeat of the Russians at Plevna was a 
source of much chagrin to them. Accordingly they determined to make a 
bold attempt to capture the town at all hazards. At Sistova on Sunday 29th, 
an important engagement took place between the Czarowitz and Ahmed 
Eyaub Pasha, which resulted in a great victory for the Russians. They cap- 
tured thirty guns, ten standards and nearly 8,000 prisoners. The situation of 
the Russians in the Schipka and Slivona Passes was now hourly becoming 
more and more serious. Their effective forces on this line did not exeed 50,- 
000 which were threatened from four sides simultaneously, namely, from 
Adrianople and Jamboli by Suleiman Pasha, from Osman-Bazar by Mehemet 
Ali, while Osman Pasha was advancing in the direction of Selvi, and a reserve 
corps from Sofia stood in readiness to approach from Philliopolis. 






THE WAR IN THE EAST. I189 

The point which threatened the Russians made it incumbent upon them to 
attempt to more thoroughly secure themselves, and on Monday, the 30th, they 
made an attack upon Osman Pasha. A general engagement ensued, which 
lasted ten hours, finally resulting in the defeat of the Russians, who were 
compelled to retreat. 

There was also a hot protracted engagement at Eski-Saghra, in which the 
combined forces of Suleiman Pasha and Raouf Pasha fell upon the Russians 
with such fury that the latter were almost completely routed, suffering great 
loss. The loss to the Turks was nearly as severe. 

It was determined to attack Plevna on the 30th of July ; for several rea- 
sons, however, it was delayed till the following morning. When the march 
began Baron Krudener was on the right, with the whole of the Thirty-first 
division in his fighting line and three regiments of the Fifth division in reserve 
at Karajac-Bugarski. He was to attack in two columns, a brigade in each. 
On the left was Schackoskoy, with a brigade of the Thirty- second division 
and another of the Thirtieth division in his fighting line. Another brigade 
of the Thirtieth division was in reserve at Pelisat. 

The Turkish position was convex — somewhat in the shape of a horseshoe, 
but more pointed. Baron Krudener was to attack the Turkish left flank from 
Grivica, toward the River Vid. Shackoskoy was to assault their right from 
Radisovo, also toward the River Vid. 

On the left flank of the attack stood Skobeloft, with a brigade of Cossacks, 
a battalion of infantry and one battery, to cope with the Turkish troops on 
the line from Plevna to Locva, and hinder them from interfering with 
Schackoskoy's attack on the flank. On the right flank Laskaroff was posted 
with two cavalry regiments to guard Krudener for a counter attack. 

Baron Krudener, on the right, opened the action at half-past nine o'clock, 
bringing a battery into fire on the the Turkish earthworks above the village. 
At first it seemed as if the Turks were surprised. It was some time ere they 
replied, but when they did it was with marked vigor, and giving as good as 
they got from Krudener. 

The fighting was desperate, lasting way into the night. The Russians dis- 
played wonderful courage ; they gained positions, making their way up to the 
very works of the Turks, fighting with them hand to hand, but the Turks 
drove them back, and they at last retreated with no men left. 6,000 or 7,000 
men were there killed or wounded. For some time after this marked battle 
nothing important occurred. The Russians made haste to evacuate Tirnova 
after the defeat. The next strategic move of the Turks was to march from 
Lovatz and occupy Selvi, doing so without much opposition. The work of 
concentration near the Danube, of the Russian army progressed very satisfac- 
torily. On the 7th, eight battalions of Russian infantry and eight squadrons 
of cavalry attacked Lovatz, but calculated without their host. The garrison 
had been reinforced by five battalions of infantry and some cavalry from 
Plevna, and there was sufficient force to successfully rout Ihe Russians. The 
latter were repulsed with 300 killed and 600 wounded. On the 9th, Russian 
reinforcements had arrived at Bulgareni from Sistova, to be added to the line 
of battle there, which brought the force before Plevna, up to 70,000 men, and 
heavy fighting was daily to be expected. In addition to this, the Roumanian 
army, numbering 25,000 men, was marching to Nicopolis, designed as the 
extreme right wing of the Russian force. Two monitors, captured at Nicopo- 
lis, were also made ready for action, and an ominous war cloud was rapidly 
gathering. 

The Russian front was a long line extending from the mouth of the River 
Vid, southward in front of Plevna, curving eastward by Lovatz, Selvi, 
and Tirnova; it then curved toward Osman-Bazar, and northward by 
Rasgrad to the southern side of Rustchuk, Within this space the Russian 
army was encamped. The Turks occupied very strong lines from Plevna to 



1 190 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



Selvi, and from east of Tirnova, to northeast of Rasgrad, and covering Os- 
man-Bazar. The fight at Lovatz was a collision between the strong advance- 
guards. 

After Plevna all eyes were turned to Ghourka's devoted corps which, with 
the Bulgarian allies was confronted by Suleiman Pasha. When the reverse at 
Plevna threatened to check the southerly movement of the Russian main col- 
umn and leave the Eighth corps, south of the Balkans, unsupported, Suleiman 
Pasha pounced upon the forces, seized Kalafer and Kazanlik, and drove the 
dashing Ghourka back to the fastness of Schipka and Deniu-Kapa Passes. 
Here he was just where he was not wanted by the enemy. Suleiman Pasha 
was instructed to drive out Ghourka and join his right with Mehemet Ali, and 
his left with Osman Pasha near Plevna. It was all important that the Rus- 
sians should hold the Pass. Upon its defense, perhaps, hung the fate of the 
campaign. On the 21st of August, the hostile forces again confronted each 
other in the defile of Schipka. The defenders of the Pass were none too strong 
to hold their ground against the overwhelming numbers of the Turks. The 
position of the forces was strong. In the early morning the enemy advanced 
in a double column in a rapid charge, supported by the heavy fire of their 
batteries, which were posted on an adjoining height. They came with a rush, 
and were met by a rain of bullets from the Russians. 

For six days the two armies contended with little rest or nourishment. After 
this a series of engagements, involving an immense loss of life, took place, and 
the Pass was finally given up to the Russians as invulnerable. While the army 
of the Czarowitz confronted Mehemet Ali, on the Jantra, the Grand Duke 
Nicholas began to press harder upon Osman Pasha on the west. Lovatz, a 
strong Turkish position some distance to the south of Plevna, was held by a 
large Ottoman force that constantly menaced the rear of the Grand Duke's 
army, and its capture was determined upon. 

The road from Selvi to Lovatz passes along the eastern end of the ridge 
down into the latter city, which is situated in the river flat, with its southern 
end resting against the precipices of the Osma channel. This isolated piece 
of the central ridge formed the eastern key of the Lovatz position. 

The northwestern end of the ridge west of the city runs out into an emi- 
nence about a hundred feet above the river, and upon this elevation stood a 
strong redoubt commanding the road to Plevna and forming the western and 
principal key to the Turkish position. 

On the morning of the 3rd of September, the Turks held the ridge with the 
exception of two peaks on the right of the road from Selva. General Skobe- 
loff had secured these peaks on the morning of the 2nd. At six o'clock in the 
morning the guns posted on the two peaks opened fire. In half an hour the 
Turks replied. Soon the Turkish positions on the fronts were taken, and the 
Russians were masters of that side of the position. 

General Skobeloff now advanced with ten battalions toward the extreme left 
to take Mount Rous. The Russian artillery opened a tremendous fire upon 
the slope and the Turks ran from their intrenchments ; but at the foot they 
held their ground, and fired rapidly on SkobelofFs advance. At twenty-five 
minutes past twelve a battery was advanced to support the regiments ; and 
ten minutes after SkobelofFs column rushed up the road and took the 
heights of Mount Rous. At one o'clock all the Turkish positions were taken, 
except the redoubt on the Plevna road. By two, the batteries were in their 
new positions and opened a tremendous fire upon the redoubt. The attacking 
force was commanded by Major General Razmindaieff. The Russian artillery 
thundered away rapidly and two batteries were advanced down the road nearly 
to the edge of the city. At four P. M., came the decisive movement. The 
Russians rushed up in open order, keeping up a steady stream of reinforcements 
following the advance. A perfect deluge of shells was poured upon the redoubt 
from the Russian batteries as the men ran up the slope, while the Turkish. 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. II9I 

infantry fire was incessant. But in a short time the firing ceased. The Rus- 
sians were victorious, and the Turks retreated to the westward. 

Now to Plevna again. On the last day of August when it was evident to 
the Ottoman leader that some offensive movement was on foot in the hostile 
camp, he decided upon a reconnoisance in force, to feel the enemy's position. 
This developed a sharp engagement, after which the Russo-Roumanian 
armies began a general advance all along the line. When the news came that 
Lovatz had been captured, the General was encouraged to believe that his 
'troops would enter Plevna on the following day. The allied armies gradually 
closed around the Turkish redoubts until Saturday, September 8th, when the 
investment of the place began in earnest. The Russian siege battery made 
admirable practice at the Grivica redoubt, which was the key to the position. 
Everywhere the infantry was in position waiting for the word. Toward 
noon the Russian infantry pushed forward in skirmishing order, driving back the 
outlying Turks, the artillery following and coming into action at short range. 
The Turkish return fire, chiefly directed at the Russian first line of artillery, was 
very heavy ; but little harm was done. Further on the left, to the crest of 
the range beyond Radisova, which was one array of field batteries, the firing 
was very heavy, the Turkish shells doing great damage among the gunners 
and falling behind among the infantry on the reverse slope and in Radisova. 
At three o'clock the Russians advanced toward the Turkish positions and 
continued to fire somewhat slackly. The day closed without a decisive action. 

The Russians kept up a vigorous cannonade, which was returned with 
spirit. On Tuesday, the 10th, it was decided to make a grand assault upon 
the redoubt at Grivica and Radisova ridge, but it was postponed on account 
of the presence of a heavy fog. After this several heavy engagements took 
place in which the Russians lost 3,000 men, and the siege continued with no 
attempt at assault. 

On the 10th of October Shevket Pasha succeeded in revictualing the garri- 
son. The investment of the place by the Russians was gradually progressing. 
On the 9th of November Skobeloff captured the Green Hills, a mountain 
south of Plevna, and on the west the Russians continued to advance rapidly, 
Pravetz being taken on the 23d of November, and Etiopol on the 24th. Su- 
leiman Pasha did all in his power to aid Osman, but though he was at first 
successful, he was compelled to retreat. 

The operations against Plevna came to an end on December 10, when 
Osman Pasha attempted a sortie to the west, and was forced to surrender after 
a fierce contest. It was an unconditional surrender, in which 10 Pashas, 130 
superior officers, 2,000 subaltern officers, 40,000 soldiers and gunners, and 12,000 
cavalry fell to the Russians, with 77 guns and an immense quantity of muni- 
tions. The enemy lost nearly 6,000 men in the contest, while the Russians 
lost but about 500. 

After the engagements upon the Barika Lom, in August, in which the army 
of the Czarowitz Alexander was forced back upon Bjela? no active operations 
were engaged in between his forces and those of Mehemet Ali, until the 21st 
of September, when the Turks made a demonstration in force, some fifteen 
miles southeast of the Russian headquarters. Mehemet Ali intended to turn 
the Russian right, and force the right centre by pushing over the stream. 
The engagement commenced at 11 o'clock in the morning with a heavy can- 
nonade. The Turks attacked the Russian right with three battalions. The 
hillside was swept by the Russian infantry, and the Turkish soldiers dropped 
like leaves at each volley. At the close of the battle Mehemet Ali had not 
gained a foot of ground to reward the loss of 5,000 men. After this check the 
Turks gave up the advance movement, and retired to Lom, leaving the army 
of the Czarowitz free to act. 



110,2 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

CAMPAIGN IN ASIA MINOR. 

In Armenia the Grand Duke Michael commanded the Russian forces, while 
opposed to him was Ahmed Mukhtar Pasha. 

The Turkish territory was defended by a system of four strong fortress 
towns, forming what is known as the quadrilaterals. These were Batoum, 
Trebizond, Kars and Erzeroum. 

The other outlying forts were Ardahan and Bayazid. 

The Russian plan of campaign contemplated a simultaneous movement 
toward Erzeroum, their headquarters being at Siflis. 

The Turks were placed in opposition to the advance of the Russians, with 
18,000 men stationed at Kars ; 7,000 on the road from Erzeroum to Bayazid ; 
8,000 near Ardahan ; 20,000 at Batoum ; and about the same number around 
Erzeroum. The Russian advance was begun by the three columns simulta- 
neously on the 24th of April ; the center pressing toward Kars, the right or 
northerly against Batoum, and the third southward to Bayazid. 

The middle division of the invaders was also active at this time. Their 
operations merely consisted in a long series of indecisive skirmishes before the 
citadel of Kars. This fortress is a walled town protected by the strongest 
natural and artificial defenses. Its position is an elevated and commanding 
one about no miles from Erzeroum. It is chiefly noted for the long but unsuc- 
cessful siege which it stood against the Russians in 1855. It has a population 
of about 12,000. The operations around Kars were really aimed at Erzeroum, 
one of the principal cities of Asia Minor, some distance to the eastward. The 
advance of the Southern Division of the Russian army, caused the Turkish 
General to withdraw his main army from Kars and fall back to the mountain 
passes defending the road to Erzeroum, leaving the former place garrisoned. 
In the meantime, the Russian right, advancing upon Batoum, met a decided 
reverse. The invaders, had been massing in the vicinity of this town for sev- 
eral days, when about five o'clock in the morning of the nth of May, the Rus- 
sians advanced with field artillery, and made a furious attack upon the heights 
defending Batoum, occupied by Bashi-Bazouks. But they were repulsed, los- 
ing upwards of 4,000 men. This defeat was followed by another at Sukum 
Kaleh, a Turkish town held by the Russians. After the Russians had been 
driven out, the town was burned to the ground. 

To recompense for these reverses the Russians made an important capture 
in the town of Ardahan ; and for a time pushed their successes. Batoum and 
Kars were closely invested. The army of Mukhtar Pasha, which had with- 
drawn to the mountains between Kars and Erzeroum, was surprised and 
defeated. Olti was captured with scarcely a show of resistance, by the north- 
ern wing of the army ; the passes of the Toprak-Kulah were forced, and the 
central and northern divisions of the army joined hands. After the Russian 
defeat at Plevna, attention was again invited to Asia Minor. On the 21st and 
22d of June, General Turgukassoff met the enemy near Delibaba, in a severe 
battle. The Russians fell back on the morning of the 23d with heavy loss. 
The Turks had about four hundred killed and 2,000 wounded. The Russian 
General was also attacked near Dijar by twenty battalions of Turks, with 
twelve guns and 4,500 horse. After ten hours' fighting the Turks were 
repulsed, but the Russian loss was heavy. On Monday, the 25th, 10,000 
Turks commanded by the Fegi Pasha, had an engagement near Zerwin with 
16,000 Russians. The Turks occupied a strongly intrenched position, which 
the Russians assaulted. They were driven back repeatedly, but several times 
renewed the assault, and fought with great bravery. Though superior in 
numbers, the strength of the Turks' position more than counterbalanced this 
advantage. The Russian loss was very heavy. The Turks followed up their 
successes by the recapture of Bayazid. The Russian left wing was now in a 
critical position, being surrounded by Mukhtar Pasha's forces, and was threat- 
ened with destruction. 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. II93 

At the fort of the Tchanigari, an engagement was fought on the 27th. The 
"Turks landed and began to throw up intrenchments, when they were attacked 
•by the Russians. Reinforcements arrived for the Turks from Batoum, and the 
enemy was beaten back with a loss of over 1,000 men, while the Ottoman com- 
mander lost several hundred less, owing to his intrenched position. 

All this time the invaders had maintained the siege of Kars, continually 
mounting new guns and pressing closer up to the redoubts of the fortress. 
Upon the first of July the garrison made a desperate sortie in the early morn- 
ing. The Russian commander thought that an attempt was being made to 
escape, and the alarm was sounded at once. The sortie was met by the most 
determined resistance, and after some severe fighting the Turks were glad to 
retreat to the cover of the walls once more. 

Bayazid, occupied by a small Russian force, was besieged by 13,000 Turks. 
The besieged suffered everything possible in this condition, but were deter- 
mined not to surrender until the last man was gone. General Turgukassoff 
was marching to their relief, though he was much delayed on the way in check- 
ing the atrocities of the Bashi-Bazouks, and at Sourpoganes halted to find 
shelter for the sick, wounded, and Christian fugitives. 

The gallant defenders of Bayazid were still bravely holding out. This was 
on the 8th of July. General Turgakassoff on that day leaving Sourpoganes, 
pushed on to Ingyr, arriving at sundown. From this point, after having made 
careful arrangements for a renewal of supplies, he started once more on the 
direct route to Bayazid. with General Kalbolaikhaus' column as an advanced 
guard. On the following day, the beleaguered garrison, who were now 
fainting from hunger and thirst, espied a Russian flag in the dim distance, 
which they at once welcomed with a vigorous fire on the besiegers from all the 
guns on the works, in order to divert their attention from the approaching 
relieving force. Presently the general advance of the relieving force was made 
apparent by the roar of artillery and the heavy and sustained musketry fire. 
The Turks fought with the stubborn valor begotten of their fanaticism, and 
for some time held the Russians in check. The commanding officers on both 
sides made themselves conspicuous by the gallantry with which they led their 
men during the battle. Generals Turgukassoff and Kalbolaikhaus in particu 
lar exposing themselves constantly to the fire of the enemy, in their determin- 
ation to relieve their besieged countrymen from their perilous situation. The 
Turks were finally driven away and the brave garrison was saved. 

At the same time Mukhtar Pasha relieved Kars with 40,000 men. The 
Russian general, Oklobschio, retired from before Batoum, and the only place 
■of importance held by the invaders was Ardahan. 

There was a slight engagement at Alexandropol, August 9, where a 
number of Bashi-Bazouks and Kurds, supported by six infantry battalions, 
-coming from Yara and Kundschacha, drove in the Russian outposts. There 
was more or less skirmishing during the whole day. Along the line from 
Margarajikh to Yakinlav, the Russians attacked the Turks. The latter lost 
but 165, while the Russians lost 1,200. General Melikoff was soon afterwards 
reinforced and his troops put once more on a war footing. A desperate en- 
gagement was fought near the little village of Kuruk Dora, twenty miles 
northeast of Kars, resulting in a great victory for the Russians. The battle 
occupied the whole day, both Turks and Russians being in full force. The 
latter were commanded by General Loris Melikoff in person. The Turks 
attempted to capture the place with desperate persistency, but gained only the 
heights of Kizziel Tapa. The Turks began to fortify Sukum Kaleh, and the 
Muscovite commanders directed their march toward that point. On the 2Stht 
of August, three columns of Ottoman troops assailed the invaders upojj fron 
and flank. A five hours' engagement ensued, in which the Russians held their 
ground. The losses were not heavy. 

The Russians dismantled the fortifications at Ardahan, General Komoroff 



1 194 FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 

withdrawing most of his troops from the place to join the main body. The 
invaders again seemed to be loth to take the offensive with great activity. 
They began to fortify the camp at Baldirvan, bringing up artillery from 
Alexandropol. On the left General Turgakassoff began 10 strengthen his 
camp, near Igdyr, to defend the road leading to the plain of Erivan. 

The Russians followed up their successes from this time in small engage- 
in ents; but on the 5th of October, were defeated before Kars by Moukhtar 
Pasha, losing 15,000 men. The defeat was counterbalanced by a severe battle 
on the 15th, in which Moukhtar Pasha was defeated, losing thirty-five guns, 
thousands of prisoners, among them seven Pashas, and large quantities of 
supplies. Another great and important victory was the capture of Kars itself, 
on the 1 8th of November. After a long and desperate engagement the outer 
works were carried, and the citadel itself was taken by storm, the Turks 
losing 5,000 in killed and wounded, and 10,000 prisoners. 

Then the whole interest of the war centered around Erzeroum. The Rus- 
sian forces pressed upon the place, and it was almost invested on the 25th of 
December. Ilidja was occupied during the first week in January, and by the 
middle of the month the Russians had concentrated 20,000 men on the plains, 
occupying a space of forty- two miles, and the investment was complete, when 
the signing of the preliminary treaty of peace closed the hostilities. 

THE TREATY OF BERLIN. 

The Queen of the United Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland, the Em- 
peror of Germany, the Emperor of Austria, the President of the French 
Republic, the King of Italy, the Emperor of Russia, and the Emperor of the 
Ottomans, by their appointed Plenipotentiaries, met at Berlin in July, 1878, 
furnished with full powers, and an understanding having been established be- 
tween them, they agreed to a number of stipulations which, taken as a whole,, 
are known as the Treaty of Berlin : 

The first twelve articles refer to the Principality of Bulgaria. They provide 
that the territory shall have a Christian government and a national militia ; that 
the Prince shall be freely elected by the population ; that religious differences 
shall not be regarded in the exercise of civil or political rights ; that the pro- 
visional administration shall be under the direction of an Imperial Russian 
Commissary until the settlement of the Organic Law, the latter being framed by- 
an Assembly of Notables of Bulgaria convoked at Tirnova after the election 
of the Prince ; that the treaties of commerce and navigation, and all other 
arrangements between foreign powers and the Porte and now in force, are 
maintained here ; that no transit dues shall be levied on goods passing through 
the Principality ; that the amount of annual tribute paid to the Suzerain Court 
shall be agreed upon by the Powers signatory of this treaty, and shall be reck- 
oned on the mean revenue of the territory ; that Bulgaria takes the place of the 
Imperial Ottoman Government in its undertakings and obligations toward the 
Rustchuk-Varna Railway Company, and the place of the Sublime Porte in the 
engagements which it has contracted for working the railways of European 
Turkey as well as those of its own territory ; that the Ottoman army shall no 
longer remain in Bulgaria ; and that Mussulman proprietors or others who may 
take up their abode outside the Principality can still hold their property 
within it. 

The next ten articles relate to a new province south of the Balkans, known 
as Eastern Rumelia. They provide that His Majesty the Sultan shall have the 
right of providing for its defenses ; that the Sublime Porte, with the assent of 
the Powers, shall name the Governor General for a term of five years ; that a. 
European Commission shall be formed to elaborate the organization of the ter- 
ritory, and during this time shall administer its finances ; that all treaties and 
arrangements of the Porte with foreign powers shall be applicable here as else- 
where ; that the obligation of the Sublime Porte with regard to railways shalj^ 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. 1195 

be maintained ; that the force of the Russian Corps of Occupation in Bulgaria 
and Eastern Rumelia shall be composed of six divisions of infantry and two 
divisions of cavalry, and shall not exceed 50,000 men, all of which shall leave 
the territory within nine months after the treaty is ratified. 

Art. 23d provides that the Sublime Porte shall apply, in the Island of Crete, 
the organic law of 1868 (Riglement), and that similar laws shall be introduced 
into other parts of the Empire for which no special organization has been pro- 
vided. 

'Art. 24th states that several of the European Powers offer their services to 
facilitate negotiations between the Sublime Porte and Greece. 

Art. 25th provides that the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina shall be 
occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. 

Then follows eight articles relating to Montenegro. They provide that the 
independency of the territory is recognized ; that freedom of religious belief 
shall be secured, and that no distinction shall be made in political rights or 
public employments on the ground of worship ; that Antivari and the sea- 
coast belonging to it are annexed to Montenegro ; that persons in possession of 
property here can retain it, if they live outside the territory, by having it ad- 
ministered by third parties ; that the Principality shall come to a direct under- 
standing with the Ottoman Porte with regard to the establishment of Monte- 
negrin agents at Constantinople and other places where they shall be deemed 
necessary ; that troops shall be withdrawn from the territory in twenty days 
after the ratification of the treaty ; and that Montenegro is to bear her share of 
the public debt, the same to be determined by the representatives of the Powers 
at Constantinople in concert with the Porte. 

The next nine relate to Servia. They create religious liberty, enlarge the 
boundaries of the Principality and make the same provisions regarding transit 
dues, Mussulmen in possession of property residing outside the territory, pub- 
lic debt, and evacuation of troops, as was mentioned in connection with Bul- 
garia. 

Then follow nine articles with reference to Rumania. They provide that 
religious freedom shall be maintained in the territory ; that she shall return to 
Russia that portion of the Bessarabian territory detached from Russia by the 
Treaty of Paris in 1856; that the islands forming the delta of the Danube, 
with the Isle of Serpents, are added to the Principality ; that Rumania shall 
have power to make conventions for the regulation of the privileges and attri- 
butes of Consuls relating to protection within the Principality ; that no transit 
dues shall be levied ; and that Rumania shall be substituted for the Sublime 
Porte in all rights and obligations existing throughout the territory, in regard 
to public works and other enterprises. 

The articles 52 to 57 inclusive relate to the navigation of the Danube. They 
provide that all fortifications on the banks shall be razed and no new ones 
erected ; that no war vessels, except those of light tonnage carrying on the 
service of the river police and customs, shall be allowed below the Iron Gates; 
that a lighthouse shall be maintained on the Isle of Serpents ; that regulations 
respecting navigation, river police and supervision fiom the Iron Gates to 
Galatz shall be elaborated by the European Commission; and that one year 
before the expiration of the term of this Commission the Powers will come to 
an agreement with regard to the prolongation of its powers, or the modifica- 
tions thought necessary to introduce. 

Art. 57th provides that Austria-Hungary be intrusted with the works which 
have for their object the removal of the obstacles which the Iron Gates and the 
Cataracts place in the way of navigation. 

In the 58th, the Sublime Porte cedes to the Russian Empire in Asia the ter- 
ritories of Ardahan, Kars and Batoum, together with the latter port, as well as 
the territory comprised between the ancient Russo-Turkish frontier and a line 



rig6 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



starting at the Black Sea, passing around the mountains in different directions, 
and rejoining the old Turco-Persian frontier south of Lake Gazel Gol. 

In Art. 59, the Emperor of Russia declares his intention to create Batoum 
into a new port essentially commercial. 

Art. 60 provides that the valley of Alashkud and the town of Bayazid be 
restored to Turkey, and that the territory of Khotoor be ceded by the Porte to 
Persia. 

In Art. 61, the Porte undertakes to carry out the reforms demanded by the 
requirements of the provinces inhabited by the Armenians, and to guarantee 
their security against the Circassians and Kurds. 

Art. 62d announces the desire of the Porte to maintain the principle of re- 
ligious liberty. It provides that in no part of the Ottoman Empire shall differ- 
ence of religion be alleged against an individual as a ground for exclusion or 
incapacity as regards the discharge of civil and political rights, admission to 
the public service, functions and honors, or the exercise of the different pro- 
fessions and industries. Liberty and the outward exercise of all forms of wor- 
ship are assured to all, and no hindrance shall be offered to the hierarchial 
organization of the various communions. 

The last two articles state that the Treaty of Paris of March 30, 1856, as 
well as the Treaty of London of March 13, 1871, are maintained in all their 
provisions not touched upon by this treaty, and that this shall be ratified in 
three weeks. 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. 1 197 

ALEXANDER II. 



Alexander II., the Autocrat of Russia, is one of the best known monarchs 
of our age. When he acceded to the throne, Russia had long been one of the 
great powers of the globe ; during his reign, which has now extended over 
more than twenty years, it has considerably grown in extent, increased in 
population, and advanced in civilization. At the present time the power of 
Russia is greater than it has been at any previous period of its history, and 
according to all appearances, it has not yet reached its climax. Alexander 
was born April 29 (old style, 17), 1818. and succeeded his father, the emperor 
Nicholas, March 2, 1855. According to the wish of his father, who had been 
surnamed the Iron Czar, his education, like that of all the Russian princes, 
was to have an essentially military character, but Alexander's disposition was 
found not to be warlike, and under the guidance of gifted teachers, especially 
the poet Shukovski, the development of his mind received a quite different 
direction. Even during the reign of Nicholas he was anxious to keep as much 
as possible aloof from the war department, and to become thoroughly initiated 
into the administrative and diplomatic affairs of the empire. He was repeat- 
edly intrusted, during the absence of Nicholas from Russia, with the responsi- 
ble duties of regent of the empire, and in 1848 he was sent by his father 
on a special mission to Berlin, Vienna and other European capitals. As he 
ascended the throne in the midst of the Crimean war, he could not well change 
at once the policy of his father, but as soon as peace had been concluded, 
March 10, 1856, he hastened to Moscow to proclaim to the country and to the 
world the reformatory ideas which were to characterize his reign, and which 
aimed chiefly at a development of all the material and intellectual resources of 
his country. Rarely has the beginning of a new reign been hailed by a large 
people with greater enthusiasm. The imperial promise that, " by the com- 
bined efforts of the Government and the people," the public administration 
should be improved and that justice and mercy should reign in the courts of 
law, was received as an indication that the Emperor contemplated to substi- 
tute for the autocratic form of government an approach toward the freer and 
more civilized institutions of Central and Western Europe. Many acts in the 
first years of Alexander's reign appeared as a vigorous inauguration of a 
reformatory policy. Several ministers published reports on their departments 
which officially acquainted the entire people with facts which formerly had 
been treated as state secrets. The number of students at the Russian univer- 
sities was no longer restricted ; the difficulty of obtaining passports for 
traveling abroad was removed ; the rigor of the press laws was relaxed ; and 
the numerous newspapers and periodicals which were founded were allowed to 
publish crushing philippics against administrative tyranny, and the habitual 
peculations of the officials. An enthusiastic and even fantastic expectation of 
sweeping reforms and a radical regeneration of the empire and an impetuous 
desire to aid in the introduction of the new era, and to profit by it, spread 
through all classes of the population. When a law was issued for the creation 
of limited liability companies, no less than forty-seven companies of this kind 
were formed in the space of two years, with a combined capital of 358 millions 
of rubles, a fact full of significance, if we consider that from the founding of 
the first joint stock company in 1799 down to 1853, or during the entire half 



1198 



FOOTPRINTS OF THE AGES. 



century previous to the commencement of the present reign only twenty-six 
companies had been formed, and their united capital amounted only to 32 
millions of rubles. The construction of a vast net of railways which were to 
traverse the empire in all directions was planned and begun immediately 
after the accession of Alexander. Preparatory steps were also taken for a 
reorganization of the army, and the introduction of a system of public educa- 
tion comprising all degrees, from the lowest primary school to the university. 
But all these reforms were eclipsed by the abolition of serfage, a glorious act 
which makes Alexander the second founder of Russia's greatness, and will 
assign to his reign a conspicious place in the history of civilization. While 
these and other acts have gained for Alexander the deserved encomiums of the 
civilized world, he has justly been blamed for the barbaric severity with which 
his government suppressed the Polish insurrection in 1863. Two attempts 
against the life of the Emperor which were made in 1866 and 1867, the one in 
St. Petersburg by a member of the Russian sect of the Socialists, the other 
during a visit to Paris by a fanatical Pole, greatly diminished his reformatory 
zeal. The leaders of the anti-reformatory party made Alexander believe that 
the natural tendency of the reforms was the spreading of wild, communistic 
theories and of a spirit of general insubordination and anarchy, and they must 
have made a deep impression upon the Emperor's mind, for it is a fact gener- 
ally conceded by modern writers on Russia that the policy of the Russian 
government from that time has been less progressive. This is especially 
apparent in the determined opposition which the government made to the 
many and urgent demands for the introduction of a constitutional form of 
government. In some departments, however, the work of progress has 
steadily been going on. The army was a second time thoroughly reorganized, 
and improvements highly commendable were made in the department of edu- 
cation, supplying Russia with a national system of schools which is superior 
to that of many older countries of Europe, and promises to elevate the people 
ere long to a level with the best educated nations of the globe. Alexander 
has generally shown himself of a mild, humane disposition, without being sub- 
ject to a weak sentimentalism. Having the good fortune of finding at the 
beginning of his reign a statesman of eminent ability, Prince Gortchakoff, he 
has with unwavering confidence entrusted to his chancellor during his entire 
reign the supreme direction of the Russian foreign policy. There are not 
many traces of the Emperor demanding compliance with favorite views of 
his own. Only in regard to the maintenance of the most intimate relations 
with Germany has he on many occasions given such emphatic utterance to his 
personal feelings that they may be supposed to have guided the foreign policy 
of the empire. 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. I*9V 



SULTAN ABDUL-HAMID. 



Abdul-Hamid II., the present ruler of Turkey, is the second son of the 
late Sultan, Abdul-Medjid, and the thirty-fourth Sultan of the Ottoman 
Empire. He was born Sept. 22, 1842, and succeeded his brother, Murad 
V., August 31, 1876. Little was known of him up to the time when the 
revolutionary movements in Constantinople unexpectedly elevated him to the 
throne. His mother having died young, he was adopted by the second wife 
of his father, herself childless, who is very wealthy, and has made him heir 
to all her property. It is said that his initiation into the depravities of harem 
life was unusually early and complete, but that his vigorous constitution 
withstood the excesses that undermined his brother's health. His education, 
like that of his brother Murad, was partially conducted by Edhem Pasha, 
who, in February, 1877, was appointed by him Grand Vizier. In 1867, he, 
with his brother Murad, accompanied his uncle, Sultan Abdul-Aziz, to the 
Paris Exhibition, and from this journey he derived a great fondness for the 
study of geography, which has ever since constituted his favorite pastime. 
Although he has always shown himself a staunch adherent of the Mohamme- 
dan creed, and was therefore supposed to sympathize as Sultan with the 
"Old Turkish" rather than the "Young Turkish" party, he has introduced 
French customs and demeanor into the daily life of those by whom he is 
intimately surrounded. Before he was called to the throne, he resided with his 
wife and two children, a boy of six years and a girl of three years, in a small 
palace which he had inherited from his father. Abdul-Hamid has been 
placed upon the throne during the greatest crisis through which the Ottoman 
empire has yet passed, Though supposed to sympathize with the Old Turks, 
he followed during the first months of his reign the wise counsels of Turkey's 
greatest statesman, Midhat Pasha, and while intimidated by the urgent de- 
mands of the Constantinople Conference, even gave his assent to Midhat 
Pasha's bold draft of a Turkish constitution. But only a few weeks later 
the sudden discharge, from the most despicable motives, of Midhat Pasha, 
gave the world an unmistakable proof of the utter incapacity and worth- 
lessness of the young Sultan. His conduct throughout the war has confirmed 
the unfavorable opinion which has quite generally been formed of his 
character. While the Russian Czar, his sons, brothers and nephews, are 
taking an active part in the campaign, and on many occasions, have person- 
ally snared the dangers and privations of the war, Abdul-Hamid has not left 
his harem for a single day, and what has become known of his words and 
deeds, has only exerted a chilling influence upon the demoralized Turkish 
army. When, therefore, a report spread in July, 1877, that Abdul-Hamid, 
being tired of the cares of government, intended to resign in favor of his 
cousin, Izzedin Pasha, the eldest son of Abdul-Aziz, it found ready credence. 



LRBD? r J 



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